Introduction to the scientific study of education
CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION AND DIRECTOR OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
GINN AND COMPANY BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY CHARLES HUBBARD JUDD ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 219.9
The Athenæum Press GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS · BOSTON · U.S.A.
This book is the result of eight years of experimentation. In 1909 the Department of Education of The University of Chicago abandoned the practice of requiring courses in the History of Education and Psychology as introductory courses for students preparing to become teachers. For these courses it substituted one in Introduction to Education and one in Methods of Teaching. This move was due to the conviction that students need to be introduced to the problems of the school in a direct, concrete way, and that the first courses should constantly keep in mind the lack of perspective which characterizes the teacher-in-training.
In the years that have elapsed since 1909 the conviction has gained almost universal acceptance in normal schools and colleges of education that the History of Education is not a suitable introductory course. Psychology has grown in the direction of a scientific discussion of methodology, and the demand for a general introductory discussion of educational problems from a scientific point of view has often been expressed by teachers in normal schools and colleges. In this period the writer has had frequent opportunity to try out various methods of presenting such an introductory course. The results of this experience are presented in this volume, which is designed as a textbook for students in normal schools and colleges in the first stages of their professional study.
The teacher who uses this book can expand the course to double the length here outlined by introducing schoolroom observation and supplementary reading. The questions and references offered at the end of each chapter and the references in the footnotes are intended to facilitate such further work. A set of questions is given in the Appendix as a guide to classroom observation.
Charles Hubbard Judd
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CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST OF TABLES
The Pupil’s View Limited
Conservatism in the Community as a Natural Consequence
Demand for a Broad Scientific Study
Beginnings of the Science of Education
Effectiveness of Studies of Retardation
A Study of High-School Courses
An Experimental Analysis of a Fundamental Subject
A Study of the Relation of Education to General Social Life
The Scientific Study of Educational Problems
The Comparative and Historical Methods
The American Textbook Method of Teaching
Independence of Thought based on Reading
European Schools Caste Schools, American Schools Truly Public
Influence of European Schools on the Educational System of This Country
Adoption of the German Model
Results of the Adoption of the German Example.
The Reorganization of American Schools
Origin of the High School
Education of Girls
Higher Education Free
American Public Schools Secular
The School System and its Domination of the Teacher
The Primitive Attitude One of Neglect
Compulsory Education
Compulsion of Communities
Later Stages of Compulsory Legislation
American Education to 1850
Compulsory Attendance
Obstacles to Enforcement of Compulsory Attendance
Newer Legislation recognizing Complexity of Problems of Attendance
Supervision a Necessary Corollary to Compulsion
Higher Education and Public Control
Public Control Adequate only when directed by Science
Fiscal Problem Typical
The Cost of Educating an Individual
Total School Expenditures in the United States
Cost a Determining Consideration in School Organization
Relation of School Expenditures to Other Public Expenses
Urgent Demands for Economy and Efficiency
Expenditures in Relation to Wealth
Costs of Different Levels of Education
Costs of Different Subjects of Instruction
Costs of Classes of Different Sizes
Salaries
Books and Supplies
The Meaning of Financial Organization and Educational Accounting
Class Instruction given over to the Teacher
Supervision
Sketch of Development of a School System
The Community Slow to delegate School Control
Limits of Authority and Responsibility not Clear
Statement by a Public Education Association
Report of Committee of Superintendents
Organization under Scientific Principles
Control of School Work through Tests
A Study of the Building Needs of a City
The Errors of Democracy
Contrasts in Plans of Rural Schools
Contrasts in Urban Elementary Schools
A High-School Building of the Early Type
The Hygiene of Lighting
The Hygiene of Ventilation and Heating
Hygienic Equipment
Relation of Equipment to the Course of Study
Modern School Construction and Costs
The Gary Plan for distributing Pupils and enlarging the Scope of School Work
Requirements to be met when the Gary Plan is adopted
The Construction of Consolidated Schools
Transition to Problems of Internal Organization
Economy a First Motive for Grouping
Social Influence an Important Motive
Grouping in the One-Room School
Courses of Instruction in Relation to the Problem of Grouping
New Problems of Grouping in Large Schools
Fundamentally Different Views on the Curriculum
The Ungraded Class in Graded Schools
Cases where Failures show the Urgency of the Grading Problem
Efforts to adjust Instruction to Pupils
Readjustments of the Curriculum
Problems of Grouping in High School
Illegitimate Reasons for promoting Pupils
Experiments and Studies which aim to supply both Individual Instruction and Class Instruction
Arrangement of the Materials of Instruction
Importance of a Study of the Curriculum
The Specialized Curriculum of Higher Schools
Problems of Generalizing a Specialized Curriculum
Traditional Character of Mathematics Courses in High Schools
Suggestions of New Subjects
Present-Day Social Demands
Traditional Neglect of Industrial Education on the Part of the Public
The Demand for Revision of the Curriculum
Present-Day Wavering between Specialized and General Training
The Theory of Separate Schools for Different Classes of People
Public Demand for a New Curriculum
Commercial Courses in High Schools
Agricultural High Schools
Part-Time Courses
Various Types of Trade Schools
Practical Applications as Parts of Academic Courses
Studies of Social Activities
A General Social Movement
Credit for Home Activities
Relation of Home Work to Traditional School Work
After-School Classes and Vacation Classes
Continuation Classes for Adults
Demonstrations as Means of Economic and Social Improvement
Entertainment as Part of the Educational Program
Associations aimed directly at the Improvement of Schools
Correspondence Schools
Principles required to systematize Educational Activities
Necessity of Practical Decisions in Spite of Confusion
The Doctrine of Discipline
The Doctrine of Natural Education in the Form of the Doctrine of Freedom
Concentration and Interest
Popular Attitude toward Discipline
Examples of Discipline and Freedom
Natural Education and Recognition of Individual Differences
Natural Education as Training for Life
Training in the Methods of Knowledge and General Training
Examples of Views on Formal Training
Formal Discipline and Transfer of Training
Relation of Subjects to Maturity of Pupils
Adaptation of Curriculum to Individual Pupils
Low Grades of Intelligence
Differentiated Courses
Tests of General Intelligence
Exceptionally Bright Pupils
Sex Differences
Differences in Industrial Opportunity for the Sexes and Corresponding Demands for Training
Household Arts as Extras
Demand for New Courses for Girls
Individual Differences which appear during Training
Democratic Recognition of Individual Differences
Recognition of Periodicity in Present Organization
The Meaning of Infancy
The Period before entering School
The Primary Period One of Social Imitation
The Period of Individualism
Early Adolescence as a Period of Social Consciousness
The New School adapted to Adolescence
Later Adolescence a Period of Specialization
The Reorganized School System
The Curriculum based on Authority versus the Living Curriculum
Older Subjects Products of Long Selection
Social Needs and the Curriculum
Systematic Studies as Devices for facilitating Evolution of the Curriculum
A Study of Representative Adults
A Study of Current References
A Study of the Mistakes of Pupils
Prerequisites for Higher Courses
Administrative Studies
Need of Broad, Coöperative Studies
Tests and Measurements of Products
Earlier Standards based on Opinion
Objective and Exact Standards
Beginnings of the Movement
Handwriting Scales
Speed as a Correlate of Quality
Standards, Personal and Impersonal
Social Standards versus Imposed Standards
Comparison through Exact Measurement
Records as a Basis of Standardization
Studies of Oral Reading
Studies dealing with Other Subjects
Mechanical Aspects the First to be Standardized
Standardization and the Science of Education
Meaning of the Term “Method”
Meaning of the Term “Device”
Personal Methods and Devices
Supposed Conflict between Methods and Subject-Matter
Two Examples of Modern Methods
Object Teaching
Laboratory Method in Physics
Spread of the Laboratory Idea
Reaction against the Question and Answer Method
Inefficient Methods of Study
Organizing a School for Supervised Study
Organizing Subject-Matter for Supervised Study
Experiments in Method
Method as a Subject of Scientific Tests
Intellectual Progress and Social Conditions
Social Training General
Types of Social Organization
Social Control through Anticipation
Organization of Routine
Punishments and Rewards
Larger Social Organization
Attempts to classify Unruly Members of the Social Group
Impersonal Discipline
Programs and Marks
The Total School Day
The Class Period
Physiological Fatigue
Conditions like Fatigue
Practical Precepts based on Study of Fatigue
Administrative Considerations controlling Length of the Class Period
Adjustment of Work within the Period
Adjustment of Credits
The Problem of Grading
Experiments with Grading Systems
The Study of Marks as an Introduction to a Study of the School System
Motives for Cultivation of Physical Powers
Earlier Attitude toward Play
Play as Natural Behavior
Periods in the Development of Play
Play as Natural Education
Social Necessity of Recreation
Play as Physical Education
The School and Play
Surveys of Children’s Play in Cities
Systematizing Instruction in Play
Survey of Recreational Facilities
Play as Part of the Regular School Program
Slow Spread of Modern Attitude toward Play
The Relation of Health to School Work
Treatment of Pathological Cases
School Luncheons
Control of Home Feeding
Public Attention to Nutrition of Children
Control of Contagion
The School Health Department
Difficulties of introducing Health Instruction
Health as a Subject of Instruction and as a Mode of Life
Evolution of the Demand for Supervision
The Principal
Other Supervisory Officers
Lack of Public Appreciation of Central Problems
Managerial Training in Relation to Democracy
The Purpose of the Present Discussion
Studies of the Community
Selection and Management of Teachers
Standardization by Measurement of Results
An Example of Public Recognition of the Need of Efficiency Measurements
Scientific Studies and Central Supervision
Scientific Supervision
Scientific Methods of studying Schools
Definition through Enumeration of Methods
The History of Educational Theory and Practice
Courses in Psychology
Educational Psychology
Statistical Studies
The Experimental Method
Extension of Use of Psychological Methods
Studies of Retardation
School Experiments and Laboratory Studies
Examples throughout Earlier Chapters
Studies of Administrative Problems
Method of Comparison
Records Necessary to Scientific Study
Subdivisions of the Science of Education
Rapid Expansion of the Science of Education
Definition of the Science of Education
Increasing Demand for Professional Training
American Normal Schools
American Demands on Secondary-School Teachers
German Training of Secondary-School Teachers
New Courses in Colleges and Universities for Secondary-School Teachers
The Requirements of a Standardizing Association
The California Requirements the Most Advanced in the United States
Continuation Training of School Officers
Specialized Training for Administration
Contributions to the Science of Education
INDEX
GOOD BOOKS FOR TEACHERS
BOOKS FOR TEACHERS
FOOTNOTES:
Transcriber’s Notes
