LETTER POST IN FRANCE
The Roman posts in France disappeared in the confusion which followed the incursions of the barbarians. Charlemagne repaired the roads to Germany, to Italy, and to Spain, in the early part of the ninth century, and established on them a system of relays; but with the passing of the Carlovingian Empire these arrangements fell into decay. The feudal system which arose after the break-up of the Empire was little adapted for the encouragement of posts. Its tendencies were rather towards disintegration and isolation. Although some of the services survived, there was for centuries no general system of posts in France.[178] During this period the chief means of communication were provided by the monasteries, which maintained regular intercourse between their various establishments scattered throughout France, Spain, Germany, and other countries; by travelling merchants, and by journeymen.
When a regular service of posts was again established in France, it was provided, not by the State, but by the University of Paris, which in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries increased in importance and renown, and attracted large numbers of students from all parts of France, and from foreign countries. In order to provide a means of communication between the students and their homes, the University obtained from the King authority to employ for the purpose messengers, to whom were accorded certain special privileges. Thus, in 1296, the messengers of the University were exempted from payment of tolls, or of fees for entry into towns. At first they travelled on foot, but at a later date on horseback or by carriage. The system developed regularity
and rapidity, and in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was employed, although without authority, by the public generally.[179]
This service continued until 1720, when the privileges of the University were suppressed, monetary compensation (120,000 fr.) being paid from the revenue of the posts.[180]
An ordinary postal service was re-established by Louis XI in 1464.[181] Relay stations were set up on the main routes, four leagues apart. At each station four or five horses were provided by the postmasters, who were required to convey the royal despatches without special remuneration. For conducting the royal couriers from stage to stage, however, payment was made at the rate of 10 sous for each stage for every horse.
In 1527 the postmasters were given the exclusive right of furnishing horses for the use of couriers. In order to provide accommodation for travellers, a system of relays was established in 1597, in addition to the ordinary posts.[182] The stages were fixed at distances varying from twelve to fifteen leagues, and the charge for a horse was 20 sous for each stage. This system was amalgamated with the posts in 1602, and the functions for which the relays had been established were exercised by the posts until after the Revolution. They were definitely abandoned to private enterprise in 1797.
The transmission of ordinary letters for private individuals was not at first contemplated,[183] but it became common for the royal messengers to carry letters for the public. The conveyance of private letters was first definitely provided for by the State in 1576. In that year a special system of messengers was established, whose function was to convey legal documents between the Parliament and the inferior courts, and was
limited to the period during which Parliament was sitting. These messengers were required to carry letters for private individuals at the following rates:—
| For a single letter | 10 | deniers |
| For a packet of three or four letters | 15 | " |
| For packets of letters weighing an ounce or more | 20 | " |
irrespective of distance.[184]
Under Richelieu the ordinary posts were given a regular organization. Fixed days of departure and arrival were appointed; offices were established in the towns; and in 1627 the first general table of rates was issued.[185] Previously the rate was fixed mutually between the couriers and the senders or receivers of letters.[186]
For single letters the tariff of 1627 prescribed rates of 2 sous for transmission between Paris and Dijon, and 3 sous for transmission between Paris and Lyons, Paris and Bordeaux, Paris and Toulouse. For letters composed of more than one sheet, but less than ½ ounce in weight, the rate varied from 3 to 5 sous; and for larger packets the rate was from 5 to 8 sous per ounce. In 1637 the posts were given the monopoly of the carriage of letters.[187]
In the first years the posts had been a charge on the State, but at about this time they were let at farm, and proved a fruitful and growing source of revenue to the State. By 1672 the annual rent of the farm had risen to 1,700,000 livres, and in 1791, the last year of the farm, the net revenue was about 12,000,000 fr.
A new tariff was established in 1676, as follows:—
| Distance. | Letters | Packets. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single. | With Envelope. | Double. | Per ounce. | |||||
| Less than 25 leagues | 2 | sous | 3 | sous | 4 | sous | 6 | sous |
| From 25 to 60 | 3 | " | 4 | " | 5 | " | 9 | " |
| From 60 to 80 | 4 | " | 5 | " | 6 | " | 12 | " |
| Above 80 leagues | 5 | " | 6 | " | 9 | " | 15 | " |
The progression for distance was in decreasing proportion.
In 1703 the rates were raised mainly in order to provide funds to meet the expenses of the wars of Louis XIV. Two reasons were assigned: the necessity for increased revenue, and the necessity for remedying certain defects in the existing rates, in regard to the distances and the progression of weight—the charges should be proportionate to the actual distance traversed by the couriers; and the existing rate of charge for ounce letters was therefore unjust, because it required at least six single letters to make up a weight of 1 ounce.[188]
As a matter of fact, the new rates fixed in 1703 did not vary exactly with distance. The number of zones was doubled, and the distances were reckoned according to the number of stages, and the routes actually followed by the couriers. The charge for a single letter varied from 3 to 10 sous.
These rates remained in force until 1759, when a variety of causes led to a further increase of rates. The Seven Years' War had made an increase of taxation necessary; there had been a depreciation of money, and an increase in the cost of all commodities, which had resulted in an increase of the expenses of conducting the posts. Under the tariff of 1759 the eight zones of 1703 were maintained, and the rate for single letters varied from 4 to 14 sous, with an additional rate of 1 sou for all letters enclosed in an envelope. The principle of charge according to weight was introduced for letters weighing less than 1 ounce, which up to this time had been charged only according to the number of sheets. Double letters weighing more than ¼ ounce and less than ½ ounce, were rated at 7 sous for the first zone, and for the other zones a "rate 2 sous less than the ordinary rate for double letters." Packets were charged by the ounce, and the rate per ounce was four times that for a single letter. As with the tariff of 1703, distances were calculated according to the route actually followed by the couriers.
No further modification of the rates was made until after the Revolution. The lease of the posts was due to expire
on the 31st December 1791, and it was decided that the Legislature should rectify the tariff before the date at which the posts would revert to the State.[189] A rectification was accordingly announced by the decrees of the 17th-22nd August 1791. This revision slightly increased the rates of 1759. The initial rate of 4 sous for single letters circulating within the same département was retained; the rate for letters circulating in the same arrondissement was fixed at 3 sous; between départements the rate was increased, and varied from 5 to 15 sous, according to distance of transmission; and the number of zones was increased to eleven.[190]
Distances were no longer to be reckoned according to the length of the route actually traversed, but from point to point as the crow flies. The points were not, however, the actual points of posting and of delivery. In each department a point was fixed upon, and the rate for all letters posted or delivered in the département was calculated as from that point; so that for a given weight the same rate was payable on all letters exchanged between the same two départements. This system, though comprising a very large number of rates, was much simpler than the earlier systems. Any one town or village now had only 82 rates for each step in the scale of rates, whereas under the previous system a special rate must be calculated for every other town or village in France. To assist the application of this tariff, a map showing the central point fixed upon for each of the 82 départements, and the distances from each central point to all others, was prepared and supplied to every post office in France.
The tariff of 1791 also abolished the method of charge according to the number of sheets, and substituted the simpler method of charge according to weight alone. The maximum weight for a single letter was fixed at ¼ ounce, and for heavier letters the rates were—
| From | ¼ | oz. to | ½ | oz. | 1½ times | the rate for a single letter |
| " | ½ | " | ¾ | " | twice | " |
| " | ¾ | " | 1 | " | 3 times | " |
| " | 1 | " | 1¼ | " | 4 times | " |
and so on, the increase being one single rate for each
¼ ounce increase of weight. The rate for letters circulating within the same town remained 2 sous an ounce.
This tariff continued in operation only for a short period. In these troubled times the public services fell into complete disorder, and the control of the posts by the Government did not prove a success. When in farm the rent had been comparatively large; but under State management, even with the increased rates of 1791, the finances were altogether unsatisfactory. In 1791 there had been a profit of 12 millions. Soon there was a deficit: in 1793 it was found necessary to allow 4 millions in aid. Further increases in the rates followed. In 1795[191] they were made 2 livres 10 sous, 5 livres, 7 livres 10 sous, or 10 livres, according to distance, but, like most other very high postage rates, failed of their purpose. Instead of increasing revenue, they almost destroyed correspondence. Transmission by private means became widespread.[192] Other circumstances—the general insecurity of the times, and the violation of the secrecy of letters by officers of the Government—contributed to this development. At the end of six months the rates were lowered to 3, 5, 7, and 9 decimes, according to distance, but these rates were still high. The posts were reconstituted under the Consulate and the Empire, and further minor changes introduced, the object held in view in all these changes being chiefly to secure a revenue sufficient to meet the expenditures of the service.
The last tariff under the old system of charge according to distance was introduced in 1827.[193] The number of zones, which in 1810 had been increased to fourteen, in order to provide for the extended territory resulting from the French conquests, was reduced to eleven. The rates ranged from 20 centimes to 1 fr. 20 for single letters, and the weight limit for a single letter was fixed at 7 grammes. Distances were reckoned as the crow flies. In 1829 a postal service was established in the rural communes, and an additional rate of 1 decime imposed on all letters received or delivered in the communes.[194] This surcharge was abolished in 1846. As in
England, the charges imposed on letters sent for considerable distances were exceedingly heavy. The charge on a letter from Paris to Marseilles, weighing 15 grammes, was no less than 2 fr. 20.
Attention was soon directed to Sir Rowland Hill's proposals for the reform of the English system. Before the reform had been introduced in England, the French Government were urged to improve the French service on the lines proposed by Sir Rowland Hill. In July 1839 M. Lherbette, member of the Chamber of Deputies, suggested the introduction of a Government measure, and in this he met with considerable support. The Government, however, contented themselves with remarking that it would be better to await the result of the projected reform in England.
In the following years the question was frequently raised in the French Parliament, on the Budget, or on reports and petitions, and there was considerable public feeling in favour of the reform. In 1843, 65 conseils généraux presented petitions in favour of reduced postage. In 1844 M. de St. Priest made a proposal to reduce the number of zones to two, and to fix the rate of postage at 20 centimes for distances up to 40 kilometres, and 30 centimes for greater distances. A parliamentary Commission, appointed to examine this proposal, made an estimate of the actual cost to the Post Office of the transmission of letters, and found that while the cost of a letter going 40 kilometres (postage 20 centimes) was 9·75 centimes, the cost of a letter going 900 kilometres (postage 1 fr. 20) was 14·75 centimes. The Commission reported in favour of a uniform rate of 20 centimes, but the proposal was not adopted. Other proposals for the introduction of a reformed system were made in February 1846 and January 1848.
It was left to the Republican Government of 1848 to introduce the reform.[195] The National Assembly had under
consideration at the same time two propositions for effecting the reform—that of M. de St. Priest, and that of the Government itself, both proposing a uniform rate of 25 centimes for single letters. These propositions were referred to a parliamentary Commission, of which M. de St. Priest was a member, and the report of the Commission, which recommended the reform, was adopted by the Assembly.
The Government Bill to give effect to the recommendation of the Commission was opposed in the National Assembly, mainly on the ground that the benefit of the reduction of rate would accrue almost entirely to the business and commercial interests and not to the general public; and on the ground that a letter was a parcel, and should be charged like any other parcel, according to its weight and according to the distance transmitted. The Government's justification for the proposal rested chiefly on the moral and social benefits which would result,[196] and they contended that if, as the opposers of the reduction had argued, commercial letters comprised seven-eighths of the total number of letters passing by post, such an extraordinary fact itself did not show that advantage from reduced rates would accrue only to business interests. It showed the injustice of the existing rates, and would never have existed if the postage on letters had not been higher in France than in any other country in the world. The Commission had, moreover, made a calculation of the actual cost of conveying and delivering letters, which showed that the average cost per letter was from 10 to 12 centimes.
The Government estimated that the number of letters would double in the first year (i.e. would increase from
55 millions[197] to 110 millions), and the result would therefore be a diminution of 3,125,000 fr., or 6 per cent. of the total receipts. This would represent the total loss, since the Minister of Finance assured the Assembly that, after the most minute and persistent inquiries, he had received from the postal administration definite statements that no increase in expenses would be caused by the increase in the number of letters—a result explained by the fact that the increase of traffic would be appreciable only in certain large towns; in other places the result would simply be that the postmen would each have a few more letters to carry. Moreover, under the new system the manipulation of correspondence would be much simplified and facilitated.[198]
Frédéric Bastiat proposed to the Assembly, as an amendment, a postage of 5 centimes on letters up to 10 grammes, and 1 fr. for packets from 10 to 100 grammes. He said that the transmission of thought, of communications between men, was the very essence of society, from which arose wealth, business, civilization, and taxes themselves. Consequently, to him it appeared an anomaly to place a tax on such communication.[199]
On the economic aspect of the question he contended that a rate of 5 centimes would provide sufficient revenue to meet the expenses of the service.[200]
The Government were not convinced, and maintained their original proposal, which was carried. The new rates were—
| Letters not exceeding 7½ grammes | 20 centimes |
| From 7½ grammes to 15 grammes | 40 centimes |
| From 15 grammes to 100 grammes | 1 fr. |
| Over 100 grammes | 1 fr. for each 100 grammes, or fraction of 100 grammes |
The special rates for local letters were continued, viz.—
Letters "de Paris pour Paris" not exceeding 15 grammes, 15 centimes; Letters circulating in the limits of the same post office not exceeding 15 grammes, 10 centimes.
The reform, which took effect on the 1st January 1849, was much less sweeping than the reform of 1840 in England—the initial rate was 20 centimes, corresponding to a twopenny rate—and the results were naturally less striking in France. They were nevertheless quite considerable. The total number of letters posted increased from 113,500,000 in 1848 to 148,600,000 in 1849, an increase of 31 per cent., compared with increase of 122 per cent. in the first year in England. The gross revenue from letters and other packets fell from 48,816,861 fr. in 1848 to 36,582,009 fr. in 1849, a decrease of 11,234,852 fr. The net revenue fell from 16,960,773 to 6,862,920 fr. Thus there remained a substantial surplus.
Both the gross and net revenue recovered in much less time than in England, as might have been expected, since the falling off had not been nearly so great. Moreover, in
1850, on account of financial stress,[201] the initial uniform rate was raised to 25 centimes, and the rate for letters of from 7½ grammes to 15 grammes, to 50 centimes. The result of this was a set-back to the total numbers, which were only 148,500,000 in 1850, but an improvement in the gross and net revenue. By 1853 the net revenue had reached 17,176,229 fr., and by 1854 the gross revenue had reached 50,019,801 fr.
In 1854 the initial rate for single letters was again reduced to 20 centimes, and the change was immediately reflected in the total number of letters. In 1852 the number was 167,100,000, and in 1853, 170,400,000, an increase of 2 per cent. In 1854 the number was 195,900,000, an increase of 15 per cent. over the number for 1853.
Minor modifications were made in 1861 and 1862. The next important change followed the war of 1870. It was necessary to increase existing taxes wherever possible, and to impose fresh taxes, in order to meet the heavy charges on the national exchequer resulting from the war. The possibility of obtaining an increased revenue from increased rates of postage was not overlooked. In 1871 the Government presented a Bill for the purpose, solely as a fiscal measure.[202]
New rates as follows were established:—
| Letters not exceeding 10 grammes | 25 | centimes | |
| From 10 to 20 grammes | 40 | " | |
| From 20 to 50 grammes | 70 | " | |
| Over 50 grammes | 50 | " | for each 50 grammes, or fraction of 50 grammes |
For local letters not exceeding 15 grammes the rate of 15 centimes was continued.
The results of this increase of rates are somewhat difficult to determine with any degree of precision. Other circumstances affected the number of letters, such as the loss of Alsace-Lorraine (an industrial province), the establishment of postcards in 1873, and the reduced means of the people by reason of increased taxation. The number of letters, which in 1869 was 313,360,723, was in 1872 only 292,466,678, and
the figures for 1869 were not regained until 1877. If the numbers are adjusted by reckoning the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to have resulted in a decrease in numbers proportionate to the numbers of its population, that is, one twenty-third of the total population of France, and adding the normal increase of 9 millions a year, the number in 1872 would have been 325 millions, whereas it was in point of fact 292 millions. The reduction was even greater in the following years. In 1873 the total number fell to 285,350,341.
The financial result was no more satisfactory. The revenue in 1869 was 60,989,454 fr. In 1872 it had risen to 72,615,276 fr., an increase of 20 per cent. only, while the rates had been raised 25 per cent. for letters from office to office and 50 per cent. for local letters. In 1873 the yield was less. It was, indeed, little more than would have resulted from the old rates if the normal increase of numbers under those rates had continued, although it may be doubted whether this would have been the case in view of the heavy financial strain imposed by the war of 1870. In any case, the financial result of the increase of rates, which pressed heavily on commercial and social intercourse, was extremely small.[203]
But if the rates were higher in France than in other countries, there were yet some aspects in which the French service was in advance.[204] Compared with England, for example, the uniform rate covered a much greater extent of territory, and a daily delivery of letters was afforded to every hamlet, and even to every isolated house, throughout that greater territory.[205] This service was provided by a body of 19,010 rural postmen, the number of rural postmen in England at this time being only 6,000. Facilities for the posting of letters were also more extended in France: the number of posting-boxes was 45,000, as compared with some 22,000 in the United Kingdom.[206]
It was always desired to withdraw the increase of 1872 as soon as the financial situation would allow. This course was hastened by the establishment in 1874 of the Universal Postal Union, of which France became a member. The international rate for ordinary letters adopted by the Union was 25 centimes. As a result the internal rates of France were much higher than the rates for letters posted in France for places in other countries of the Union. Such a situation could not continue, and in August 1875 the internal rates were reduced. The new rates were:—
| Letters not exceeding 15 grammes | 25 | centimes | |
| From 15 to 30 grammes | 50 | " | |
| From 30 to 50 grammes | 75 | " | |
| Over 50 grammes | 50 | " | for each 50 grammes, or fraction of 50 grammes |
The special local rates were retained.
The letter rate still remained comparatively high, and in the following year numerous proposals were put forward in Parliament for a reduction. In November 1876 the Government proposed the reduction of postage on ordinary letters to 20 centimes, and on postcards to 10 centimes, the special rates for local letters being continued. These proposals were referred to the Budget Commission, who expressed the opinion that the time had arrived for the introduction of complete uniformity of rate,[207] and recommended a uniform initial rate for letters of 15 centimes for 15 grammes, and a uniform rate of 10 centimes for postcards.
Further consideration of the proposals was interrupted by the dissolution of the Chamber. In the next session, M. Caillaux, Minister of Finance, adopted the report of the Commission, and in April 1878 the rate for letters was reduced to 15 centimes for each 15 grammes, or fraction of
15 grammes. The general rate was thus brought to the level of the local rate, which now disappeared.
The results of this reform were eminently satisfactory. The total number of letters, which had during the years 1872 to 1877 increased by only 4,365,412, or some one and one-third per cent. per annum, increased from 318,659,158 in 1877 to 403,853,626 in 1879, or 26 per cent. in two years, and from 1879 to 1889 the rate of increase was 6.6 per cent. per annum. The Government had estimated that the reduction would involve a loss to the revenue of some 15 millions for the first year. The actual loss was 15,323,571 fr.
These figures are figures of gross revenue. The figures for net revenue are less satisfactory, both in character and in the amounts indicated. Their character is unsatisfactory because the expenses of the postal and telegraph departments were not separate; and the figures for net revenue therefore represent the net revenue on the whole service, both postal and telegraph, and not merely for the postal traffic alone. At this time, however, the telegraph business was small comparatively, and the figures indicate generally the result of the reform. In 1877 the net revenue was 47,706,293 fr. In 1878 it fell to 29,343,953 fr., and in 1879 to 21,084,699 fr., from which date there was a gradual, but steady, recovery. In 1888 it had reached 48,811,146 fr. 25, an amount higher than that of 1877, and in 1889 the net revenue passed 53 millions, a sum never before reached in France.[208]
The rate fixed in 1878, although marking a considerable reduction of the previous rate, was felt to be unsatisfactory. One of the principal reasons invoked as justifying the suggestion for a further reduction of the rate, was that the number of letters actually posted in France was much less than the number posted in other countries. This circumstance was attributed partly to the high initial rate, and partly to the fact that the progression of charge was directly proportionate to the increase of weight. The initial rate was in point of fact much higher than the corresponding rate in other countries. The Press often called attention to the unfavourable position in France in this respect, and developed
public opinion strongly in favour of a reduction. Representations from business houses, chambers of commerce, and conseils généraux were constantly received by Parliament. The question was frequently advanced in the Legislature, and numerous suggestions for legislation were put forward by members. Thus, in 1897 M. Chassaing proposed, among other reforms, the reduction of the letter rate to 10 centimes for each 15 grammes. Although admitting the desirability of granting the boon, the Budget Commission were unable to recommend that course on account of the serious effect on the net revenue which must be anticipated.[209]
In 1900 M. Millerand, Minister for Commerce, Industry, Posts, and Telegraphs, in a report to the President,[210] recommended a reduction of the rate on the grounds that it would give satisfaction to the public, and, at the same time, increase appreciably the number of letters transmitted by post. He suggested the following scale:—
| Letters not exceeding 15 grammes | 10 | centimes | |
| From 15 to 50 grammes | 15 | " | |
| Over 50 grammes | 5 | " | for each 50 grammes, or fraction of 50 grammes |
Such a reduction would bring the rate of letter postage down to the level of the existing rate for postcards; and M. Millerand regarded the reduction of the latter rate to 5 centimes as an inevitable corollary, and a reform which might safely be made.[211] Assuming this further reduction, and applying the proposed reduced rates to the statistics of existing traffic—ignoring both the probable increase of traffic and the increase of expenses which would result from the increase of traffic—it was estimated that the loss to revenue would be—
| fr. | |
|---|---|
| On single letters | 34,071,584 |
| On heavy letters | 4,707,836 |
| On charged letters | 404,787 |
| On postcards | 2,569,787 |
| Total | 41,753,994 |
The reduction of revenue would be 35.6 per cent. of the total yield.
The reform of 1878 had entailed an increase of working expenses of about 37 millions (5½ millions of capital cost, and 31½ millions of annual expenses). The increase of traffic from the proposed reform would, however, be 17 per cent. less than the increase after 1878 (because the reduction was five-fifteenths of the rate instead of six-fifteenths as in 1878), and the increase of cost would therefore be proportionately less. Calculated on this basis, the increase was estimated at 31,037,829 fr. (4,920,000 fr. capital expenses and 26,117,829 fr. annual).
In all, therefore, the reduction would involve a loss of revenue of 41,753,994 fr., and an increase of expense of 31,037,829 fr.—a total loss of 72,791,823 fr.[212]
In order as far as possible to replace this loss, M. Millerand proposed to abolish the special tariff for papiers d'affaires and subject them to letter postage, and also to increase the rates on small packets of printed matter, other than newspapers
and periodicals.[213] The deficit to be looked for in the first year would then be 16,233,833 fr., and might be estimated to disappear in the eighth year. The gross revenue would recover in the third year. The Government was not, however, prepared to sacrifice the revenue, and the proposal was deferred.
The question still continued to receive attention in the country and in Parliament.[214] At length, in view of the persistent agitation,[215] the Government in 1906, on the recommendation of the Budget Commission, resolved to face the inevitable loss of revenue and make the reduction. The result was in many ways satisfactory. The number of packets sent at the letter rate of postage increased very considerably. A large quantity of traffic was diverted from the cheaper open post to the letter post, in order to obtain the advantage of secrecy, some large business houses sending at the letter rate millions of communications which would, under the old rates, have been sent by the open post. In 1905, before the reduction, the number of packets passing by post was 2,371,000,000. In 1907 the number had increased to 2,720,000,000, and in 1908 to 2,802,000,000. The loss of net revenue was nevertheless very great. The gross revenue was diminished by some 12 millions, and the expenses increased by 21½ millions. The net revenue fell from 91,750,000 fr. in 1905 to 59,750,000 fr. in 1906.
The reduction of 1906 placed France in a position of equality with most other nations as regards the initial rate for
letters. Indeed, the French rate was slightly lower than that in several other countries. Thus, the equivalent of the German and Austrian initial rates was 12·2 centimes, of the Swedish 13·8 centimes, and of the English 10·5 centimes. But as regards the weight allowed for the initial rate, and also as regards the rates for heavier letters, the position was still unsatisfactory. The maximum weight allowed to pass at the initial rate was 15 grammes, and the rate for a letter of 250 grammes was 1 fr. 70.[216] In Germany the rate for a letter of that weight was 24·4 centimes, in England 26·2 centimes, and in Switzerland 10 centimes. Attention was therefore now directed to a modification of the scale of rates for the heavier letters. The Budget Commissions of 1908 recommended the reform.[217] In their view the unfavourable comparison with other countries in this respect could be justified neither by logic nor by regard to the interests of the Treasury. Logically, a rate of postage ought to be proportionate to the cost of the service performed, and this was far from varying in accordance with the weight of postal packets.[218]
The number of heavy letters was, moreover, small proportionately, and the effect on the Treasury of a reduction of rate for such letters would be slight. Indeed, it was thought an increase of revenue might be anticipated, since, in addition to the natural increase resulting from the reduction, there would, as in 1906, be a tendency for many packets sent by the open post to be sent under the advantage of the closed post. It was urged that the reduction should be accompanied
by certain modifications in the minor rates, which would lead to a desirable simplification of rates: the special rate for commercial papers should be abolished, and the general rate for postcards should be made 5 centimes; the whole of the reforms being carried out at the same time, in order that the increases might be seen in their proper relation to the compensating reductions. Otherwise the public might forget the benefits, and resent the increases. The net loss of revenue was estimated at 4 million francs.[219]
The law of the 8th April 1910 increased the unit of weight for letters to 20 grammes. For the heavier letters the rates were: from 20 to 50 grammes, 15 centimes; from 50 to 100 grammes, 20 centimes; and so on, adding 5 centimes for each 50 grammes or fraction of 50 grammes up to the maximum weight allowed, viz. I kilogramme. The special rate for commercial papers over 20 grammes in weight was abolished. The privileged rate was retained for packets weighing not more than 20 grammes, Parliament refusing to agree to its total abolition.
Note.—On the 1st January 1917, as a war measure, the general letter rate was raised from 10 centimes to 15 centimes.
LETTER POST IN GERMANY[220]
A system of messengers (Boten-Anstalten) existed in Brandenburg as early as the first half of the sixteenth century, and in 1604 a master of the messengers (Botenmeister) was appointed, whose duty was to control the sending and receiving of all despatches.[221] The incorporation of Prussia and Cleve in the Mark of Brandenburg rendered necessary the improvement and extension of the messenger service, and in 1614 the Elector John Sigismund appointed twenty-four messengers, who were paid at a fixed rate, according to the length of the route traversed. Thus, for the Strasburg, Cologne, and Düsseldorf routes the payment was 10 thalers, and for the Cracow, Königsberg, and Mainz routes, 8 thalers. Once a year they were supplied with an outfit of clothing. When not travelling, they were required to report themselves every hour to the Botenmeister, and to hold themselves in readiness at all times to set out if necessary without delay. The journeys were made according to set times, and the messengers, who carried both letters and parcels, were provided with a way-bill, on which the times of arrival at and departure from the various points were entered. The Boten-Anstalten really comprised two kinds of undertakings—the so-called Post-boten and the Landkutschen. The former were the ordinary messengers; the latter a kind of stage-coach system, which carried both passengers and merchandise.[222] The rates of charge were based on the actual length of the journey, and also upon any accidental circumstance which
might have a relation to the question, such as high general prices.[223]
In 1634 a riding post between Cöln a. d. Spree and Crossen was established, and shortly afterwards a similar post to Glogau, in order to provide a means of communication between the Government and the Swedish Army. For the same purpose in 1635 a daily messenger service (Botenpost) was established from Tangermünde to Berlin, and in 1646 a military post (Dragonerpost) was established between Berlin and Osnabruck, in connection with the conference preceding the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia.
All these services were for the conveyance of the Court and Administrative correspondence only. The Botenmeister nevertheless frequently undertook the conveyance of private letters, for which special charges were made, and often the messengers themselves clandestinely carried private letters.
In 1618 the Botenmeister of Berlin established a special messenger route for the conveyance of private letters (Ordinari-Boten-Cours) from Berlin to Leipzig and Hamburg, and at about the same time the Botenmeister of Königsberg established a similar route to Danzig. In other large towns messenger services for the conveyance of ordinary letters were established by private individuals, but these services were often inefficiently conducted. The messengers followed no fixed route, and the services were irregular and unsafe. They were at best only makeshifts.
As the result of a variety of circumstances, the establishment of regular posts became a necessity in the time of the Great Elector. The extension of the Brandenburg territory, and the political developments, rendered it desirable to adopt all possible means for binding together the entire territory. Regular posts would also contribute to the national welfare and assist industry and commerce, although there was little prospect that at the outset they would prove profitable.[224] In 1646 a riding post between Königsberg and Danzig was established; shortly afterwards a post between Berlin and Königsberg, and thereafter others. In 1649 the control of all the posts was definitely assumed by the Electoral administration.[225]
In general the posts went twice weekly; stages were erected for the exchange of horses and postilions. At first, postilions were changed every twelve (German) miles,[226] and horses every four (German) miles. Later, the stages for the changing of horses were reduced to three miles. The usual speed of the posts, travelling day and night, was one mile an hour, and punctuality was insisted on.[227] The journey from Berlin to Königsberg occupied four days, and that from Königsberg to Cleve ten days.[228] There was at first no delivery service, and all letters must be obtained at the post office, where the people were consequently in the habit of congregating to await the arrival of the post.[229] The postage was retained by the Postmaster as the remuneration for his services. For the actual management and conduct of the service he drew on the State funds to the extent of some 6,000 thalers annually, and all official despatches were consequently conveyed free. This charge diminished, however, with the years, and in course of time the service came to yield a profit to the State. In the Postmaster's patent granted in 1661 it was provided that a portion of the proceeds of postage should be accounted for to the State treasury.[230]
The rates of postage were at first fixed according to ancient custom, but they were on several occasions reduced. The postage on a letter not exceeding half an ounce in weight sent from Berlin to Wutzkow, from Breslau to Wutzkow, or
from Berlin to Frankfort, was 2 groschen, and from Berlin to Magdeburg, 1½ groschen.[231]
With the growth of commerce and the establishment of the travelling post and parcel post, the service became more and more successful financially. In 1695 the expenses represented some 50 per cent. of the gross revenue. By 1712 they had fallen to some 41 per cent. The gross revenue was at the same time rapidly increasing. The net revenue, which was, of course, increasing still more rapidly, was in 1695 about 62,000 thalers, and by 1712 had risen to some 137,000 thalers.
The rates of postage were modified in 1699, and again in 1712; but as the old rates were retained as the basis of both revisions, the charges remained for fifty years substantially unchanged. A letter from Berlin to Hamburg now cost 2½ groschen, to Bremen 3 groschen, to Dresden 2 groschen, to Frankfort-on-Main 3 groschen, and so on.
During the next fifty years prices were gradually, but steadily, rising in Prussia. The Seven Years' War produced a sudden and very considerable rise in the prices of all agricultural products. And not only did the purchasing power of money fall owing to the scarcity and high price of provisions, but its value also decreased through depreciation.[232] The cost of conducting the postal service rose correspondingly, and the financial difficulties were increased owing to the falling off of traffic consequent on the war. At the end of 1761 the King was asked to agree to a contribution in aid, but assistance was not forthcoming. Something had to be done; and on the 27th January 1762, in common with the general increase of taxation, the rates for parcels and for value letters were increased 100 per cent.; the travelling post rates, which varied from 3 to 4 groschen per mile, were increased by 1 groschen per mile; and the fees for guides, which were about 6 groschen per station, by about 2 groschen per station. The letter rate remained unchanged.[233]
In the early part of 1766 a new tariff was introduced. The rates for parcels fixed in 1762 were maintained, and new and higher rates for letters were introduced. The increase in the general rates varied from about 15 per cent. to about 50 per cent. The minimum, which for letters passing between many neighbouring places had formerly been only 6 pfennigs, was increased to 1 groschen.
The raising of the rate led to a large amount of fraud, and caused much public inconvenience. The revenue did, indeed, increase in the first year quite appreciably; but in the second and third years, instead of the normal yearly increase, there was a notable decrease. Complaints against the new rates were widespread, and it was alleged that the increased charges embarrassed commerce. In 1770 the rates for heavy letters, printed matter, and documents were reduced again to those of 1712. The rates had previously been based on a variety of considerations,[234] but this miscellaneous basis was now put aside and a uniform system established, the same letter rate being applied throughout the State.
The coinage edict of 1821, by which the thaler was divided into 30 silver groschen instead of 24 groschen as previously, made necessary an alteration of the postage charges, and amended rates were established on the 1st January 1822. No account was taken of a less amount than a half-groschen, and odd amounts were reckoned at the next half-groschen above, with the result that in certain cases the rate became higher than formerly.
A reduction of the rates of postage was in contemplation, but while the discussions on the proposals were in progress, the State finances became somewhat straitened. It became necessary to look about for fresh revenue, and a Commission appointed to consider the question recommended
that more revenue should be obtained from the Post Office. The Postmaster-General pledged himself to bring up the surplus from 700,000 or 800,000 thalers, where it then stood, to a million, and, if possible, to 1,200,000 thalers. Accordingly, in 1824 the rates of postage were revised, and, in general, increased. In many cases the increase was as much as 20 per cent., and the tariff as a whole was the highest ever fixed in Prussia. The chief characteristics of this important change were that letter and parcel rates were reckoned according to the direct distance (Luftlinie) between the post offices, and not according to the distance by way of the post routes, or the time occupied on the journey, or any of the other considerations which had previously entered into the reckoning. All special rates for individual routes and places were abolished.
The new rates were, for a single letter not exceeding ¾ loth (⅜ ounce) in weight—
| Up to | 2 | miles | 1 | silver groschen | ||
| From | 2 | miles to | 4 | miles | 1½ | " |
| " | 4 | " | 7 | " | 2 | " |
| " | 7 | " | 10 | " | 2½ | " |
| " | 10 | " | 15 | " | 3 | " |
| " | 15 | " | 20 | " | 4 | " |
| " | 20 | " | 30 | " | 5 | " |
and for each 10 miles further, 1 silver groschen more.
A map of distances was prepared, and every post office was furnished with a table compiled from this map, showing the distances between that office and all other post offices in Prussia, together with the corresponding rates of postage.[235] Formerly, direct rates of postage existed only between a limited number of post offices, and letters for any other places were charged an additional rate (Binnenporto) in respect of the distance not covered by the ordinary rate. This charge was now abolished. Each post office could calculate the rate to any other post office by means of its table of rates. There was, however, an additional charge (Landporto) in the case of places at which there was no post office, but which were
situated on the post routes. It was arranged that letters might be despatched to or from such places so long as the post-messenger was not thereby delayed on his journey, and for the forwarding of any such letters to or from the nearest post office the lowest rate of postage was charged, reckoned as from the nearest post office. Letters up to 1 ounce in weight were sent by riding post. Letters exceeding 1 ounce in weight were sent by parcel post (Fahrpost), and were charged the corresponding rate, unless the sender expressly requested transmission by riding post.
For the longer distances the rates were higher than previously. The rate for the greatest distance within the Prussian postal territory, which under the old rates was 18 silver groschen for a single letter—that is, for a letter up to ⅜ ounce in weight—was now 19 silver groschen. The reduction was greatest for letters going only short distances. The rate for the shortest distances was reduced from 1½ silver groschen to 1 silver groschen. But the higher rates applied to letters passing between the great centres, and these formed the greater part of the whole number. In addition, the progression of the scale of weights was made very rapid. From the earliest days of the Post Office in Prussia the progression of weight had been by the half-ounce, and this had not been changed even in 1766. The scale was now made—
| From | ⅜ oz. | to | ½ | oz. | 1½ | times the rate |
| " | ½ | " | ¾ | " | twice the rate | |
| " | ¾ | " | 1 | " | 2½ | times the rate |
| " | 1 | " | 1¼ | " | 3 | " |
| " | 1¼ | " | 1½ | " | 3½ | " |
| " | 1½ | " | 1¾ | " | 4 | " |
and so on for each quarter-ounce a half rate more.[236]
The year 1824 was also noteworthy for the experimental establishment in the district of the Frankfort-on-Oder post office of a rural delivery system. This was the first step towards the general extension of the rural delivery throughout Prussia. The experiment was successful, and the system was extended in the following year. For delivery by the rural
letter-carriers an additional charge was made for each letter, according to the following scale:—
| For distances not exceeding | 1½ | miles | 1 | silver groschen |
| " | 2 | " | 2 | " |
| " | 3 | " | 2½ | " |
For the longer distances the rates of 1824 were found to be oppressive for ordinary letters, and burdensome to commerce and literature. Financially also the increase was not a success. For 1824, the last year of the old rates, the surplus was 823,229 thalers, an increase of 100,325 thalers over the surplus of 1823. The surplus for 1825, the first year of the new rates, was 1,121,616 thalers, an increase of 298,387 thalers over the surplus of 1824. Apparently, therefore, the new rates had produced an immediate increase of net revenue. This was, however, not the case. While the actual proceeds of postage in 1824 were 73,152 thalers greater than in 1823, the proceeds of postage in 1825 were only 80,890 thalers greater than in 1824.[237] The increased yield of postage was therefore quite small. And even this small increase disappeared in 1826. For that year the yield of postage was only 40,547 thalers greater than in 1825, and in 1827 there was an actual falling off of 41,942 thalers. The increase of net revenue was therefore attributable to other causes. Thus, for example, in 1825, by some means or other, a reduction of no less than 136,160 thalers was effected in the expenses of the service.
The rates were soon found to need amendment. Changes were made in the subsidiary rates, the rates for commercial papers, for magazines, etc., but the letter rate remained unchanged until 1844, when a considerable reduction was made. The following rates for a single letter (not exceeding ⅜ ounce in weight), were established:—
| Not exceeding 5 miles | 1 | silver groschen | ||||
| From | 5 | miles to | 10 | miles | 1½ | " |
| " | 10 | " | 15 | " | 2 | " |
| " | 15 | " | 20 | " | 2½ | " |
| " | 20 | " | 30 | " | 3 | " |
| " | 30 | " | 50 | " | 4 | " |
| " | 50 | " | 100 | " | 5 | " |
| For each further 100 miles within the Prussian administration | 6 | " | ||||
These rates were applied to letters, printed matter sent under band, and letters containing samples of merchandise. It was estimated that this change would reduce the gross receipts from postage by 700,000 thalers, and the net revenue for 1845 was estimated at 700,000 thalers instead of 1,400,000 thalers. The actual decrease in 1845 in the gross receipts from postage was, however, only 302,563 thalers, and the actual falling off in net revenue only 346,208 thalers. The gross revenue soon recovered, and in 1847 exceeded that of 1844.[238]
The Prussian administration, while not prepared to introduce complete uniformity of rate irrespective of distance, were yet desirous of simplifying the rates, and of removing from them any trace of the fiscal tradition, so far as this course could be followed without involving serious sacrifice of net revenue.[239]
In September 1848 the distinction between the letter rate and the rate for printed matter and documents was abolished, and on the 1st October 1848 the following scale of weights for all letters, publications, etc., was introduced, viz.:—
| Not exceeding | ⅜ | oz. | 1 | rate (i.e. 1 sgr.) | ||
| From | ⅜ | oz. to | ½ | oz. | 1½ | " |
| " | ½ | " | ¾ | " | 2 | rates |
| " | ¾ | " | 1 | " | 2½ | " |
| " | 1 | " | 4 | " | 3 | " |
| " | 4 | " | 8 | " | 4 | " |
and over 8 ounces 4 rates, until the charge was less than double parcel rate.
The rates were still based on the old theory of distance. The Prussian administration feared that a complete reform
of the rates on the English model would have a disastrous effect on the postal revenue, and so upset the equilibrium of the State finance. They had, of course, the experience of England to guide them, and they had not failed to note the large reduction of net revenue which the adoption of the reform of 1840 had entailed. In the following year, however, a great step was taken in the direction of the new system. By the law of the 21st December 1849 the following simplified rates of postage, to take effect from the 1st January 1850, were established:—
For a single letter not exceeding ½ oz. (1 zollloth)—
| Up to 10 miles | 1 | silver groschen |
| 10 miles to 20 miles | 2 | " |
| All other distances | 3 | " |
For a letter weighing—
| From | ½ | oz. to 1 | oz. | 2 | rates | |
| " | 1 | " | 1½ | " | 3 | " |
| " | 1½ | " | 2 | " | 4 | " |
| " | 2 | " | 4 | " | 5 | " |
| " | 4 | " | 8 | " | 6 | " |
and so on, until the rate became less than the parcel rate (1 zollloth = 1⅛ loth).
The reductions in Prussia were in all cases made with careful regard to the possible financial results. The desire to remove all trace of the fiscal tradition did not extend to a desire to relieve the Post Office of its revenue-producing function, and the actual loss of net revenue which resulted in Prussia from the introduction of cheap postage was much less than the loss in England.[240] The set-back to the revenue consequent on the reduction of 1844 was recovered in 1847; the set-back consequent on the reduction of the rates of value letters and parcels in 1848 (on the average some 66⅔ per cent.) was recovered in 1852; and that occasioned by the reform of the 1st January 1850 was recovered in 1853. But the reform of 1850, which retained the three distance charges, was far from being a complete reform of the character of that in England.
No change of importance was made in the ordinary letter rate between 1850 and 1860. In the latter year the maximum weight for packets passing by letter post was fixed at half a pound (15 loth).[241] A further step towards simplicity and reduction of the letter rate was taken in 1861,[242] when the weight scale was revised and the three steps established in 1849 abolished, two only being substituted. Letters up to half an ounce in weight were to pass at the single rate, and letters exceeding that weight at double rate. The three distance zones were maintained.
The special fee for delivery which was collected from the addressee by the post office of destination was still in force. It was, of course, in effect, an increase of the normal rate of postage, and as such it lay as a heavy burden on the letter traffic. In the case of packets of printed matter not exceeding half an ounce in weight it amounted to 100 per cent. on the normal rate. It was, moreover, disproportionate to the cost of the service of delivery.[243] Since 1850 the Prussian administration had incessantly urged the abolition of the charge. Special charges for delivery had already been abolished in England, in France, and in other of the larger States. The efforts of the administration were, however, frustrated by the Minister for Finance, who was unable, from regard to the needs of the national exchequer, to abandon the revenue obtained from this source. These financial considerations delayed the abolition of the charge by at least a decade.[244] The existence of the charge was found to be especially unfortunate in regard to foreign letters, since its collection was regarded by foreign administrations as an addition to the ordinary postage and consequently an evasion of the terms of agreements under which foreign rates had been fixed. The charge was ultimately abolished in 1862.[245] In order to avoid inconvenient reduction of revenue, it was arranged that the abolition should be effected gradually: for certain classes of traffic as from the date of the coming into force of the Act, for other classes as from the 1st July 1863, and for the remainder as from the 1st July 1864.
The political events of the years 1864 and 1866 occasioned far-reaching modifications of the postal service in Germany. After the expulsion of Austria from the German league, Prussia took over the administration of the postal service in the duchies of the Elbe. Prussia had also absorbed the kingdom of Hanover. The territory of the Prussian postal administration was thus largely extended; and in addition the Prince of Thurn and Taxis relinquished in favour of the Crown of Prussia the control which he had exercised over the postal service in eighteen States.[246]
The North-German Union was established in 1867, and the postal arrangements for the whole territory of the Union were unified. Up to this time ten independent postal administrations had existed in this territory,[247] and the rates of these administrations differed in various particulars. The Prussian rates were applied temporarily to all postal traffic passing between the old and new Prussian territories, and the rates of the Union service were applied to traffic passing between the territories forming the North-German Union.
The continuance of these conditions was not consistent with a unified administration of the postal affairs of the whole North-German Union, and a reform of the rates became necessary. Germany was in 1867 almost the only one of the great States of the world which still maintained a scale of rates of postage for letters graduated according to distance. Prussia had already repeatedly endeavoured to introduce the principle of uniformity of rate irrespective of distance which had been adopted by all others, or at least to secure further simplification; but advance in this direction had always been hindered by financial considerations.[248] The political developments now opened the way for a thorough reorganization of the rates, and this was achieved by the law of the 4th November 1867. This law, which took effect from the 1st January 1868, established uniform rates for letters, irrespective of distance, of the following
amounts—1 sgr. (= 10 pf.) for letters not exceeding half an ounce in weight, and 2 sgr. for all letters of greater weight.
After the refounding of the German Empire in 1870, there was fresh legislation in regard to the Post Office.[249] Among other changes, the limit of weight for the single letter was fixed at 15 grammes, and the limit of maximum weight at half a pound. This law also abolished the charge for rural delivery, a long-desired reform which had been frequently urged upon the Reichstag. In order to assist further the interests of residents in the country, it was arranged that on payment of a monthly fee of 5 sgr. letters might be handed to and delivered by the post messenger, in a closed pouch, at places on his route.
The rates established under this law have remained in operation substantially unchanged up to the present time. The most important modification was made in 1900, when the maximum limit of weight of the single letter was raised from 15 to 20 grammes. Under these rates the letter post has developed continuously. In 1872 the total number of letters passing by post within the territory of the Imperial Post Office was 422 millions, and in 1910 the number had increased to 2,026 millions. As in other countries, the letter rate has proved extremely profitable. The net revenue of the Imperial Post Office in 1872 amounted to 4·7 million Marks, and in 1910 to 88 million Marks. In Germany, however, the railways are State-owned, and the Imperial Post Office is not required to pay to the railways a full equivalent for the services performed. The value of the service performed by the railways on behalf of the Post Office for which no charge is made against the Post Office is not definitely known.[250] The newspaper traffic, the parcel post, and the Imperial Telegraph Service are carried on at heavy loss. The Post Office also performs numerous services, such as those in connection with the National Insurance schemes, for which it receives no monetary credit; and there is no doubt that taken by itself the letter traffic
is largely profitable at the existing rates, even when full allowance has been made for all legitimate charges against the service.
Note on Rural Delivery
Until the eighteen-thirties there was no State provision for the letter traffic in country districts. Residents in the country must deliver all their letters at, or fetch them from, the nearest post office, which was done on market-day or by messengers. In 1824 a beginning was made in Prussia by the introduction experimentally of a delivery service at certain post offices. In the following years the number of rural deliverers and the number of posting-boxes in the villages were increased, and a uniform delivery fee (Landbestellgeld) of 1 silver groschen instituted. The delivery fee was abolished on the 1st January 1872 (law of 28th October, 1871). This meant the abandonment of a yearly revenue of 1½ million Marks.
In spite of the increase in the number of post offices there were still in 1880 as many as 19 million people, the greater half of the whole nation, and 17,000 localities, outside the limits of the postal service.[251]
In 1880 a great step forward was taken. The number of rural deliverers was largely increased, and also the number of postal stations in the country (Posthülfstellen).[252] A daily delivery was extended to the greater number of places, the rural routes in most cases being so arranged that the deliverer returned by the same route, thereby enabling an answer to be sent the same day to letters received on the outward journey.[253]