Crystals

by A. E. H. Tutton

INDEX

• Airy’s spirals, [197]
• Alpine snow-field, [49]
• Alum, ammonium iron, [43];
  • cæsium, [42];
  • potash, [5], [16], [17], [77];
  • vicinal faces of potash, [248], [251]
• Amethyst quartz, [222]–229;
  • as example of pseudo-racemism, [231], [232]
• Ammonium chloride labile crystallisation, [248];
  • iron alum, [43];
  • NH₄ group, and its isomorphism with alkalies, [82], [83], [131];
  • oleate, liquid crystals of, [259]–263;
  • oleate, twins of, [262]
• Ampère’s researches on ammonia, [83]
• Anatase, crystal of, [37]
• Antimony oxide, dimorphism of, [87], [88]
• Apatite, crystal of, [37]
• Aragonite, biaxial interference figure of, [189], [190]
• Armstrong and Pope on sobrerol, [153]
• Arsenic oxide, crystals of, [5], [88]
• Astatic systems of molecular magnets of Lehmann, [271], [272]
• Asymmetric carbon atom, [144], [145]
• Axes and axial planes of crystals, [51], [55], [56]
• Axial ratios, [129]
• Babinet’s double-wedge quartz plate, [219]
• Bacteria, destruction of one enantiomorphous form by, [149]
• Barium nitrate, [152]
• Barker, researches on perchlorates, [123]
• Barlow, discovery of remainder of 230 point-systems, [118], [119], [140];
  • and Pope’s theory, [285]–292
• Bartolinus, Erasmus, [17]
• Benzoic acid, screen experiment on crystallisation of, [229]–231
• Bergmann and Gahn’s laws of cleavage, [18]
• Berzelius and Mitscherlich, atomic weights and isomorphism, [80], [82], [83], [85]
• Beudant’s researches on the vitriols, [75], [76]
• Biaxial crystals, [60]°-prisms and refractive indices of, [162], [163], [184];
  • optic axes of, [185];
  • optic axial angle of, [191]
• Biot’s researches on tartaric and racemic acids, [143]
• Biquartze, natural and artificial, [181], [211], [214], [216], [217]
• Black band of quartz twins, [216]–218
• Boisbaudran, Lecoq de, [238]
• Boyle, Robert, [17]
• Brauns, [254]
• Bravais, [114];
  • space-lattices, [114]
• Brookite, [91]
• Cæsalpinus, [15]
• Cæsium alum, [42]
• Calcite, crystals of, [10]–13, [38];
  • amount of double refraction of, [174];
  • in rock sections, [177], [178];
  • uniaxial interference figure of, [189], [190];
  • plate perpendicular to axis of, [209];
  • refractive indices of, [174];
  • 60°-prism of, [165], [168]
• Calcium carbonate, three habits of crystals of, [11]
• Calcium dextro-glycerate, optical activity and crystal form of, [155]–160
• Carangeot’s contact goniometer, [18]–20
• Carbonate, calcium, [11], [87];
  • potassium sodium, [44]
• Carbonates of alkaline earths, [74]
• Carbon, dimorphism of, [137]
• Carbon dioxide, liquid in quartz cavities, [46]
• Cavendish, [23]
• Chemical significance of crystallography, [73], [283], [284];
  • valency and crystalline form, [285]–291
• Cholesteryl benzoate, liquid crystals of, [258];
  • acetate, spherical liquid crystals of, [281], [282]
• Chromate, potassium, [84]
• Chromates and manganates, isomorphism with sulphates, [84]
• Classes, the 32 crystal, [6], [33]
• Cleavage, [17];
  • and glide-planes, [275], [276]
• Cobalt sulphate, [78]
• Conditions for growth of crystals, [240], [244], [245]
• Constancy of crystal angles, [6], [13], [14], [17], [23], [132]
• Convergent light experiments, [186], [188]
• Copper sulphate, [40], [76], [78]
• Coppet, de, [238]
• Crookes, Sir William, [138], [208]
• Crossed-axial-plane dispersion of optic axes, [89], [94], [95];
  • of ethyl triphenyl pyrrholone, [106], [107], [108];
  • of gypsum, [89]
• Crystal, definition of, [4];
  • germs and their influence on crystallisation, [236], [237]
• Crystals, modes of formation of, [4], [5]
• Cube and its perfection of symmetry, [38];
  • axes of, [52]
• Cubic system, [37]
• Cyanide, potassium cadmium, crystals of, [42]
• Dalton, [25]
• Dark field of polariscope, [188], [202]
• Davy, Sir Humphry, researches on ammonia, [82], [83]
• Delafosse and morphotropy, [101]
• Deville and Troost’s researches on tantalum chloride, [84], [85]
• Diamond, [8], [137], [138], [207], [208]
• Dibenzal benzidine, liquid crystals of, [264]
• Digonal axis of symmetry, [36]
• Dimensions of structural parallelepipeda, [129]
• Dimorphism, [79], [87];
  • of antimony oxide, [87], [88];
  • of carbonate of lime, [79], [87];
  • of mercuric iodide, [97];
  • of sodium dihydrogen phosphate, [80], [81];
  • of sulphur, [86];
  • of vitriols, [79]
• Directive molecular force in crystallisation, [139], [269], [274]–277
• Dog-tooth spar, [10]–12
• Double refraction, interference colours due to, [176], [177];
  • measure of, [169], [170];
  • of biaxial crystals, [184];
  • of uniaxial crystals, [183]
• Double sulphates and selenates, [35], [79], [121], [127], [128], [132]
• Dulong and Petit’s law, [84]
• Electronic corpuscles, constituents of atoms, [113], [124]
• Elements of a crystal, [68], [69]
• Enantiomorphism and optical activity, [140];
  • 11 classes showing, [150]
• Epsom salts, [76], [78]
• Ethyl triphenyl pyrrholone, [105], [106]
• Eutropic series, definition of, [132]
• External molecular compensation, [134], [234]
• Extinction directions, [204], [205]
• Fedorow, von, discovery of remainder of 230 point-systems, [118], [119], [140];
  • theory of, [291], [292]
• Ferricyanide, potassium, [44]
• Ferrocyanide, potassium, [43]
• Ferrous sulphate, [76], [78]
• Fletcher, indicatrix of, [184]
• Fluorspar, single refraction of, [206]
• Form, definition of a, [11], [60], [61]
• Frankenheim on morphotropy, [101];
  • discovery of space-lattices, [114]
• Frankland and Frew, [155]
• Fuchs, von, researches on sulphates of barium, strontium, and lead, [75], [77]
• Fuess reflecting goniometer, [64]–66
• Fundamentalbereich of Schönflies, [112], [113]
• Gattermann, [258]
• Gay-Lussac on alums, [77];
  • on ammonia, [83];
  • on racemic acid, [142]
• Gernez, [238]
• Gessner, [14]
• Gmelin, researches on racemic acid, [142]
• Goniometer, contact, [19], [20];
  • reflecting, [64]–66
• Graphite, [137]
• Groth, von, morphotropic researches, [98], [102]–104
• Growth of a crystal, [1];
  • from solution, [237]–254
• Guglielmini, researches on crystal structure, [17]
• Gypsum (selenite), cleavage of, [203];
  • crystals of, [14];
  • extinction directions of, [204];
  • 60°-prism, experiment with, [163], [168];
  • twins of in polarised light, [205], [206]
• Habit of crystals, [12], [13]
• Hardness of crystals, [255], [274]
• Hatchett’s discovery of columbium, [85]
• Haüy, [22];
  • and Mitscherlich, [70], [75], [77], [88], [132];
  • fundamental forms, [22], [23];
  • law of constancy of form, [23];
  • lattices, [29];
  • law of rational indices, [24], [29], [30];
  • modernisation of theories of, [30]–32;
  • molécules intégrantes, soustractives, and élémentaires, [25]–28;
  • structural units, [24]
• Hemihedral classes of crystals, [34]
• Hexagonal axes of symmetry, [36];
  • prism, [11];
  • system, [36], [53]
• Hexakis octahedron, [39];
  • indices of, [61]
• Hjortdahl and morphotropy, [101]
• Holohedral classes of crystals, [34]
• Homogeneity, [6], [16];
  • definition of, [114]
• Homogeneous structures, the 230 types of, [6], [111]
• Hooke, Robert, [16]
• Huyghens, [17];
  • discovery of laws of double refraction, [17];
  • investigation of calcite, [17]
• Ice, crystalline form of, [47]
• Iceland spar, discovery of, [17];
  • rhombohedron of, [10]–12
• Inactive tartaric acid, [144]
• Inactivity, true optical, [235]
• Indicatrix of Fletcher, [184]
• Indices of crystal faces, [11]
• Intercepts on crystal axes, [58]
• Interference colours due to double refraction, [177];
  • figures of biaxial and uniaxial crystals, [189]–191
• Internal structure of crystals, [15], [111]–120
• Iodide of mercury, dimorphism of, [97]
• Isomerism, chemical and physical, [142], [143]
• Isomorphism, Mitscherlich’s conferment of the term, [81];
  • doctrine of, [81], [82];
  • limitations of, [85];
  • recent clearer definition of, [121]–132
• Isotropic crystals, [206]
• John of Berlin’s discovery of racemic acid, [142]
• Kipping and Pope, definition of racemism and pseudo-racemism, [153], [154]
• Kopp, [100]
• Kundt’s powder, [149]
• Labile solutions, [241]
• Laurent and Nickle’s organic researches, [99]
• Lavoisier, [23]
• Law of rational indices, [24], [50], [57], [59]
• Le Bel and van t’Hoff’s explanation of optical activity, [151]
• Le Blanc, researches on alums, [77]
• Lehmann, researches on liquid crystals, [256]–282
• Liquid crystals, [255]–282;
  • and polymorphism, [138], [139];
  • list of substances forming, [280], [281]
• Magnesium sulphate, [76], [78]
• Mallard and Le Chatelier on silver iodide, [256]
• Manganate, potassium, [96]
• Manganates, [84], [96]
• Manganese sulphate, [78]
• Marignac and isomorphism of tantalum and niobium compounds, [84];
  • and morphotropy, [101]
• Mercury iodide, dimorphism of, [97]
• Metastable solutions, [240]
• Methyl triphenyl pyrrholone, [105], [106]
• Mica-sectors plate for testing sign of optical rotation, [212], [213]
• Microscope, Lehmann’s crystallisation, [256], [257], [276]–280
• Miers, H. A., researches on crystallisation, [238]–243;
  • on red silver ores, [109];
  • on vicinal faces, [248]–254
• Millerian indices, [57]
• Mirror-image symmetry, [118], [119], [134], [135];
  • illustrated by quartz, [231]
• Mitscherlich, experiment with gypsum, [90]–94;
  • work of, [70]–97
• Mixed crystals, [77], [86]
• Molecular compound, racemic acid a, [150]
• Molecular volume and distance ratios, [129], [130]
• Molecule, individuality and directive force of, [139], [269]
• Monochromatic illuminator, [192], [193]
• Monoclinic system, [39];
  • axes and axial planes of, [53], [54]
• Morphotropy, [98]–104
• Muthmann, researches on permanganates, [123]
• Naphthalene tetrachloride, [99]
• Newton’s seven orders of spectra, [177]
• Nickel sulphate, [76], [78]
• Nicol prism, [174], [175], [187]
• Nitrobenzenes, von Groth’s researches on, [104]
• Noble, Sir Andrew, experiments on liquefaction of carbon, [138]
• Optical activity and mirror-image symmetry, [141];
  • antipodes, characters of, [152];
  • characters of crystals, [7]
• Optically active classes of crystals, [150], [151]
• Optic axes of biaxial crystals, [185];
  • axis of uniaxial crystals, [165];
  • axial angle, [191];
  • axial angle of ethyl triphenyl pyrrholone for different wave-lengths, [107], [191];
  • axial angle of gypsum at different temperatures, [90]–94, [191]
• Ostwald’s predictions of crystallisation phenomena, [238], [240]
• Oxides of arsenic and antimony, isodimorphism of, [88]
• Para-azoxy-anisol, liquid crystals of, [259], [265];
  • -benzoic acid, [263];
  • -cinnamic acid, [263];
  • -phenetol, [258], [259]
• Parametral form, [56]
• Pasteur’s law, [155];
  • research on morphotropy of tartrates, [100];
  • research on tartaric and racemic acids, [142]–150
• Penfield’s diagram of spherical projection, [61], [62]
• Penicillium glaucum, destruction of dextro component of racemic acid, [148]
• Perchlorates and permanganates, isomorphism of, [84], [96]
• Pfaff, [254]
• Phases, different solid, [137]
• Phenol and resorcinol, von Groth’s researches on, [103]
• Phosphate, ammonium magnesium, [43];
  • sodium dihydrogen, dimorphism of, [80], [81]
• Phosphates and arsenates, isomorphism of, [73], [74]
• Phosphorus, dimorphism of, [138]
• Photomicrographs of growing crystals, mode of obtaining, [41]
• Pistor’s goniometer, [89]
• Planeness of crystal faces, [6], [7]
• Polarisation colours due to optical activity, [179]
• Polarisation, rectangular, of spectra from doubly refractive prisms, [164]
• Polariscope, the, [187], [188]
• Polymorphism, [133]–137
• Pope and Barlow, theory of, [285]–291
• Positive and negative uniaxial and biaxial crystals, [166]
• Potassium bichromate, metastable and labile crystallisation of, [246], [247];
  • manganate, [96];
  • nickel sulphate, [35];
  • selenate, [96];
  • sulphate, [13]
• Priestley, [23]
• Primitive form of Romé de l’Isle, [20], [27]
• Projection polariscope, for convergent light, [92], [186], [188], [189];
  • for parallel light, [201], [202]
• Progressive change of crystal angles in isomorphous series, [125];
  • of double refraction, [126];
  • of molecular distance ratios, [130], [131];
  • of position of optical ellipsoid, [128]
• Propyl triphenyl pyrrholone, [106], [108]
• Proustite, [109], [110]
• Pseudo-racemism, [153], [154]
• Pyrargyrite, [109], [110]
• Pyroelectrical properties of crystals, [149]
• Quartz, [170];
  • crystalline form of, [171], [172];
  • crystals in rock sections, polarisation colours of, [175]–178;
  • crystals, liquid cavities in, [45];
  • crystals on sand grains, [2], [3];
  • double refraction of, [174];
  • interference figure in convergent polarised light, [194]–196;
  • optical activity of, [173], [179]–181, [210];
  • plates, preparation of for polariscope, [181];
  • polarisation colours of due to optical activity, [209], [210];
  • refractive indices of, [174];
  • screw point-systems of, [151];
  • 60°-prism experiment with, [165], [168];
  • Steno’s research on, [16];
  • twinning of, [215], [216], [219]–221, [225];
  • two varieties of as examples of mirror-image symmetry, [171]
• Racemate, sodium ammonium, Pasteur’s researches on, [147], [148]
• Racemic acid, [142]–146, [233], [234]
• Racemic forms and racemism, [150], [153], [233]
• Rammelsberg and morphotropy, [101]
• Rational indices, [24], [50], [59], [116]
• Reflection of light by crystal faces, [8]
• Refractive index, meaning of, [167]
• Reinitzer, [258]
• Reusch’s artificial quartzes, [198], [199]
• Rhombic system, [39];
  • axes and axial planes of, [52], [54]
• Rhombohedron and its axes, [10], [11], [54], [55], [172]
• Rings and brushes, optic axial, [190], [191]
• Rock-salt, cube of in quartz cavity, [45];
  • 60°-prism experiment with, [162], [168]
• Romé de l’Isle, [18]–20;
  • researches on alums, [77]
• Roozeboom, [238]
• Rotation of plane of polarisation by quartz of two varieties and different thickness, [180], [210], [211]
• Royal Institution experiment with diamonds, [8]
• Sal-ammoniac, [82], [83]
• Salol and betol, Miers’ researches on, [242], [243]
• Sand grains with quartz crystals, [3]
• Scalenohedron of calcite, [11]
• Scheele’s discovery of tartaric acid, [142]
• Schlippe’s salt, [45]
• Schönflies, discovery of remainder of 230 point-systems, [118], [119], [140]
• Seebeck, researches on ammonia, [82], [83]
• Selenates, isomorphous with sulphates, [96];
  • of alkalies, [121]
• Selenic acid, [95]
• Selenite, polarisation colours of films of, [203]
• Selenium, discovery by Berzelius, [96]
• Sella’s warning against hasty generalisation, [102]
• Senarmontite, [88]
• Silver iodide, [256], [292]
• Single refraction of cubic crystals, [162], [183]
• Snow crystals, [49]
• Sobrerol, [153]
• Sodium chlorate, [151];
  • sulphantimoniate, [45]
• Sohncke, regular point-systems, [117];
  • mirror-image molecular arrangement, [141];
  • two point-systems of quartz, [151]
• Sollas, crystal structure, theory of, [292]
• Solubility and supersolubility, [238]–241;
  • curves of, [240]
• Solutions, optical activity of, [151];
  • metastable and labile, [240], [241]
• Space-lattices, [50], [114]–116;
  • triclinic illustration of, [115]
• Specific gravity, importance of determinations of, [129]
• Spheres of influence of atoms, [113]
• Steno, [16]
• Stereographic projection, [34], [62], [67];
  • of topaz, [68];
  • of double sulphates, [35]
• Stereometric arrangement of atoms in molecule, [124], [136]
• Story Maskelyne, [34]
• Strain, polarisation colours of glass and diamond due to, [207], [208]
• Structural units of crystals, [24], [111]–113
• Sulphantimoniate of sodium, [45]
• Sulphate, ammonium magnesium, [44]
• Sulphates of alkalies, [121];
  • of barium, strontium and lead, [74]
• Sulphur, dimorphism of, [86], [87], [137];
  • monoclinic form of, [4], [86]
• Symbol of a face or form, [57]
• Symmetry, axes and planes of, [34], [36], [41], [55];
  • elements of, [34]
• Systems, the crystal, [6], [7], [33]
• Tartaric acid, [142]–148;
  • dextro, [143], [146]–148;
  • lævo, [144], [146]–148;
  • pyro-electrical properties of, [149]
• Tartrate, hydrogen potassium, [43]
• Tetartohedral classes of crystals, [34]
• Tetragonal system, [37];
  • axes and planes of, [36], [52]
• Thallium, relation of to alkali metals, [131]
• Thénard and Gay-Lussac, research on ammonia, [83]
• Thomson, J. M., [238]
• Thomson, Sir J. J., discovery of composition of atoms, [112]
• Topaz, crystal of, [40];
  • stereographic projection of, [68]
• Transition tint, [180]
• Triclinic bipyramid, [56];
  • system, [40];
  • axes and planes of, [53], [54]
• Trigonal system, [37];
  • axes and planes of, [37], [53], [55]
• Triphenyl pyrrholone derivatives, [105]–108
• Triple tartrate of sodium, potassium, and ammonium, [91]
• Tutton, fixed positions of atoms in crystals, [122]–124;
  • law of progression of crystal properties in isomorphous series, [121]–123, [129];
  • nature of structural units, [134], [135];
  • research on calcium dextro-glycerate, [157], [160];
  • researches on simple and double sulphates and selenates, [121];
  • researches on triphenyl pyrrholones, [105]–108
• Uniaxial crystals, optic axis of, [165];
  • 60°-prisms of, [164];
  • two refractive indices of, [166], [183]
• Valentinite, [88]
• Vanadium family group of elements, [85]
• Vauquelin, researches on alums, [77]
• Vicinal faces, [248]–254
• Vitriols, the, [15], [76], [78]
• Von Lang, [23], [34]
• Vorländer, [263];
  • nature of molecules forming liquid crystals, [273]
• Water, exceptional thermal dilatation of, [47]
• Water flowers in ice, [47]
• Water of crystallisation, [76], [78], [79]
• Wave-length of most luminous part of spectrum, [179]
• Werner’s fundamental form, [20]
• Westfeld, [18]
• Weyberg, [250]
• White of higher orders, [178]
• Wollaston’s reflecting goniometer, [63], [81];
  • work on carbonates and sulphates of barium, strontium and lead, [74], [75]
• Wulff, [250], [252], [253]
• Zinc sulphate, [76], [78]
• Zone of crystal faces, [63];
  • circle, [63]

PRINTED BY

TURNBULL AND SPEARS,

EDINBURGH

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[1]. See page [57] for explanation of indices.

[2]. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1908, A, 81, 40.

[3]. Comptes Rendus, 1842, 15, 350, and 1845, 20, 357.

[4]. Comptes Rendus, 1848, 27, 611, and 1849, 29, 339.

[5]. Jahresbericht, 1849, 19.

[6]. Comptes Rendus, 1848, 26, 535.

[7]. Journ. für Prakt. Chemie., 1865, 94, 286.

[8]. Mem. R. Accad. di Torino, 2A, 17, 337, and 20, 355.

[9]. Pogg. Ann., 141, 31.

[10]. Mineralogical Magazine, 1888, 8, 37.

[11]. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, 507.

[12]. Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 1848, 24, 28 and 38; also 1850, 28, 56; Comptes Rendus, 1848, 26, 535; also 1849, 29, 297; also 1850, 31, 480; also 1853, 37, 162, and 1858, 46, 615.

[13]. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, 315.

[14]. Ibid., 1897, 989.

[15]. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1891, 59, 233.

[16]. Ibid., 1891, 59, 96.

[17]. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1895, A, 185, 913.

[18]. Mineralogical Magazine, 1892, 10, 123.

[19]. Journ. Chem. Soc., 1906, 89, 413; Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 1907, 79, 322.

[20]. “Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Chemice,” vol. 2, part 2, p. 780.

[21]. Phil. Trans., 1903, A, 202, 459.

[22]. Phil. Trans., 1903, A, 202, 519.

[23]. Zeitschr. für Kryst., 1901, 34, 449.

[24]. Loc. cit., p. 531.

[25]. Sitzungsber. d. Physik. Med. Soc., Erlangen, 1878, 10, 59.

[26]. Neues Jahrbuch, 1887, 138.

[27]. Ber. der deutsch. Chem. Ges., 1907, 40, 1970.

[28]. Zeitschr. f. Phys. Chemie., 1907, 57, 357.

[29]. This apparent contradiction in terms the author takes to mean that, whatever compression is produced by pressure on one part of the sphere, is counterbalanced by a corresponding protuberance produced in the part not confined under pressure, the total volume being incompressible.

[30]. Proc. Roy. Soc., 1898, 63, 270, 286, and 296; 1901, 67, 493.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected obvious typographical errors and variations in spelling.
2. Retained archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings as printed.
3. Re-indexed footnotes using numbers and collected together at the end of the last chapter.