A guide to modern cookery

by A. Escoffier

Classification of Soups

This includes (1) clear soups, (2) thick soups, (3) special soups of various kinds, (4) classical vegetable soups, including some local preparations.

[237—CLEAR SOUPS]

Clear soups, of whatever nature the base thereof may be, whether butcher’s meat, poultry, game, fish, shell-fish, or turtle, &c., are made according to one method only. They are always clear consommés to which has been added a slight garnish in keeping with the nature of the consommé.

[99]
][238—THICK SOUPS]

These are divided into three leading classes as follows:—(1) The Purées, Cullises, or Bisques. (2) Various Veloutés. (3) Various Creams.

Remarks.—Though the three preparations of the first class are practically the same, and, generally speaking, the Cullises and the Bisques may be considered as purées of fowl, game, or shell-fish, it is advisable to distinguish one from another by giving each a special name of its own.

Thus the word Purée is most suitably applied to any preparation with a vegetable base. The term Cullis is best fitted to preparations having either poultry, game, or fish for base, while bisque, in spite of the fact that in former days it was applied indiscriminately to purées of shell-fish, poultry, pigeons, &c., distinctly denotes a purée of shell-fish (either lobster, crayfish, or shrimp, &c.).

In short, it is imperative to avoid all ambiguities and to give everything its proper name, or, at least, that name which identifies it most correctly.

[239—PURÉES]

Farinaceous vegetables, such as haricot-beans and lentils, and the floury ones, such as the potato, need no additional thickening ingredient, since the flour or fecula which they contain amply suffices for the leason of their purées.

On the other hand, aqueous vegetables like carrots, pumpkins, turnips, celery, and herbs cannot dispense with a thickening ingredient, as their purées of themselves do not cohere in the least.

Cohering or Thickening Elements; their Quantities.—In order to effect the coherence of vegetable purées, either rice, potato, or bread-crumb cut into dice and fried in butter may be used.

The proportion of these per pound of vegetables should be respectively three oz., ten oz., and ten oz. Bread-crumb dice, prepared as described above, were greatly used in old cookery, and they lend a mellowness to a purée which is quite peculiar to them.

The Dilution of Purées.—Generally this is done by means of ordinary white consommé, though in certain cases, as, for instance, if the soup is a Lenten one, milk is used.

The Finishing.—When the purées have been strained and brought to the required consistence they should be boiled and stirred. Then they are placed on the side of the fire to simmer [100] ]for twenty-five or thirty minutes. It is at this stage that they are purified by means of the careful removal of all the scum that forms on their surface.

When dishing up complete them, away from the fire, with three oz. of butter per quart of soup, and pass them once more through a strainer.

Purée Garnishes.—These are usually either small fried crusts, small dice of potato fried in butter, a [chiffonade], some kind of little [brunoise], or, more generally, chervil [pluches].

[240—CULLISES]

Cullises have for their base either poultry, game, or fish.

The thickening ingredients used are:—

For fowl, two or three oz. of rice, or three-quarters pint of poultry velouté per lb. of fowl.

For game, three or four oz. of lentils, or three-quarters pint of game Espagnole per lb. of game.

For fish, a clear panada made up of French bread soaked in boiling salted milk. Use five oz. of bread and one good pint of milk per lb. of fish. Having strained and made up the Cullises, boil them while stirring (except in the case of fish cullises, which must not boil, and must be served as soon as they are made), then place them in a [bain-marie] and butter their surfaces lest a skin should form.

At the last moment complete them with two or three oz. of butter per quart.

The garnish of poultry or game cullises consists of either small dice of game or fowl-fillets, which should be kept aside for the purpose; a fine [julienne] of these fillets, or small quenelles made from the latter, raw.

The garnish of fish cullis is generally fish-fillets poached in butter and cut up into small dice or in [julienne-fashion].

[241—BISQUES]

The invariable base of Bisques is shell-fish cooked in [mirepoix].

Their thickening ingredients are, or may be, rice, fish velouté, or crusts of bread fried in butter, the proportion being three oz. of rice, ten oz. of bread-crusts, or three-quarters pint of fish velouté per lb. of shell-fish cooked in mirepoix (No. [228]).

When the soup is strained, treat it in precisely the same way as the cullises.

The garnish consists of small dice of the meat from the [101] ]shell-fish used. These pieces should have been put aside from the first.

[242—THE VELOUTÉS]

These differ from the purées, cullises, and bisques in that their invariable thickening element is a velouté whose preparation is in harmony with the nature of the ingredients of the soup, these being either vegetables, poultry, game, fish, or shell-fish.

The Preparation of the Velouté.—Allow three and one-half oz. of white roux per quart of the diluent. This diluent should be ordinary consommé for a velouté of vegetables or herbs, chicken consommé for a poultry velouté, or very clear fish [fumet] for a fish or shell-fish velouté. The procedure is exactly the same as that described under No. [25] of the leading sauces.

The Apportionment of the Ingredients.—In general, the quantities of each constituent are in the following proportion:—Velouté, one-half; the purée of the substance which characterises the soup, one-quarter; the consommé used to bring the soup to its proper consistence, one-quarter. In respect of finishing ingredients, use, for thickening, the yolks of three eggs and one-fifth pint of cream per quart of soup.

Thus for four quarts of poultry velouté we arrive at the following quantities:—

Poultry velouté, three pints; purée of fowl obtained from a cleaned and drawn hen weighing about three lbs., one quart; consommé for regulating consistence, one quart; leason, twelve yolks and four-fifths pint of cream.

Rules Relative to the Preparation.—If the velouté is to be of lettuce, chicory, celery, or mixed herbs, these ingredients are scalded for five minutes, drained, gently stewed in butter, and added to the prepared velouté in which their cooking is completed.

If carrots, turnips, onions, &c., are to be treated, finely mince them, stew them in butter without allowing them to acquire any colour, and add them to the velouté.

If fowl be the base, cook it in the velouté. This done, withdraw it, remove the meat, finely pound same, and add it to the velouté, which is then rubbed through tammy.

In the case of fish the procedure is the same as for fowl. For game, roast or [sauté] the selected piece, bone it, finely pound the meat, and combine the latter with the velouté, which should then be rubbed through tammy.

For shell-fish, cook these in a [mirepoix], finely pound them together with the latter, add to the velouté, and pass the whole through tammy.

[102]
]The Completing of Velouté.—Having passed the soup through tammy, bring it to its proper degree of consistence with the necessary quantity of consommé, boil while stirring, and place in a [bain-marie].

At the last moment finish the soup with the leason and two oz. of butter per quart of liquid.

Garnish for Velouté.—In the case of vegetables: [Chiffonade], fine [printaniers], or [brunoise].

For fowl and game: The fillets of one or the other, poached and cut into small dice or in [julienne-fashion]; little quenelles made with the raw fillets, or either fowl or game royales.

For fish: Small dice or fine [julienne] of fish fillets poached in butter.

For shell-fish: Small dice of cooked shell-fish meat put aside for the purpose.

Remarks.—In certain circumstances these garnishes are increased by means of three tablespoonfuls of poached rice per quart of the soup.

[243—THE CREAMS]

Practically speaking, the preparation of the creams is the same as that of the veloutés, but for the following exceptions:—

1. In all circumstances, i.e., whatever be the nature of the soup, velouté is substituted for clear Béchamel.

2. The correct consistence of the soup is got by means of milk instead of consommé.

3. Creams do not require egg-yolk leasons.

4. They are not buttered, but they are finished with one-fifth or two-fifths pint of fresh cream per quart.

Creams allow of the same garnishes as the veloutés.

[244—SPECIAL SOUPS AND THICKENED CONSOMMÉS]

These are of different kinds, though their preparation remains the same, and they do not lend themselves to the requirements of veloutés or creams. I should quote as types of this class the Ambassador, à l’Américaine, Darblay, Faubonne, &c.

The same holds good with thickened consommés, such as “Germiny,” “Coquelin,” &c.

[245—VEGETABLE SOUPS]

These soups, of which the “Paysanne” is the radical type, do not demand very great precision in the apportionment of [103] ]the vegetables of which they are composed; but they need great care and attention, notwithstanding.

The vegetables, in the majority of cases, must undergo a long stewing in butter, an operation the object of which is to expel their vegetable moisture and to saturate them with butter.

In respect of others which have a local character, the vegetables should be cooked with the diluent, without a preparatory stewing.

[246—FOREIGN SOUPS]

In the course of Part II. of this work I shall allude to certain soups which have a foreign origin, and whose use, although it may not be general, is yet sufficiently common. If only for the sake of novelty or variety, it is occasionally permissible to poach upon the preserves of foreign nations; but apart from this there exist among the recipes of foreigners many which can but enrich their adopter, besides being generally appreciated.

[104]
]2. Braising, Poaching, Sautés, and Poëling.

Except for the roasts, grills, and fryings, which will be discussed later, all culinary operations dealing with meat are related to one of the four following methods: Braising, [poëling], poaching, and [sautés].

These four methods of cooking belong, however, to the sauces, and this explains how it is that the latter hold such a pre-eminent position in French cookery.

Before devoting any attention to particular formulæ, which will be given in the second part of this work, it seemed desirable to me to recapitulate in a general way the theory of each of these cooking methods. These theories are of paramount importance, since it is only with a complete knowledge of them that good results may be obtained by the culinary operator.

[247—ORDINARY BRAISINGS]

Of all the various culinary operations, braisings are the most expensive and the most difficult. Long and assiduous practice alone can teach the many difficulties that this mode of procedure entails, for it is one which demands extraordinary care and the most constant attention. Over and above the question of care and that of the quality of meat used, which latter consideration is neither more nor less important here than in any other cooking operation, there are also these conditions to be fulfilled in order that a good braising may be obtained, namely, that excellent stock should be used in moistening, and that the braising base be well prepared.

Meats that are Braised.—Mutton and beef are braised in the ordinary way, but veal, lamb, and poultry are braised in a manner which I shall treat of later.

Meat intended for braising need not, as in the case of roasts, be that of young beasts. The best for the purpose is that derived from an animal of three to six years of age in the case of beef, and one to two years in the case of mutton. Good meat is rarely procured from animals more advanced than these in years, and, even so, should it be used, it would not only be necessary to protract the time of cooking inordinately, but the resulting food would probably be fibrous and dry.

Properly speaking, meat derived from old or ill-nourished beasts only answers two purposes in cookery, viz., the preparation of consommés and that of various kinds of stock.

[105]
]The Larding of Meats for Braising.—When the meat to be braised is ribs or fillet of beef, it is always interlarded, and consequently never dry if of decent quality. But this is not the case with the meat of the rumps, or with leg of mutton. These meats are not sufficiently fat of themselves to allow of prolonged cooking without their becoming dry. For this reason they are larded with square strips of bacon fat, which should be as long as the meat under treatment, and about half an inch thick. These strips of fat are first seasoned with pepper, nutmeg, and spices, besprinkled with chopped parsley, and then [marinaded] for two hours in a little brandy. They should be inserted into the meat equidistantly by means of special larding needles. The proportion of fat to the meat should be about three oz. per lb.

To [Marinade] Braisings.—Larded or not, the meats intended for braising gain considerably from being [marinaded] for a few hours in the wines which are to supply their moistening and the aromatics constituting the base of their liquor. Before doing this season them with salt, pepper, and spices, rolling them over and over in these in order that they may absorb the seasoning thoroughly. Then place them in a receptacle just large enough to contain them, between two litters of aromatics, which will be detailed hereafter; cover them with the wine which forms part of their braising-liquor, and which is generally a white or red “vin ordinaire,” in the proportion of one-quarter pint per lb. of meat, and leave them to [marinade] for about six hours, taking care to turn them over three or four times during that period.

The Aromatics or Base of the Braising.—These are thickly sliced and fried carrots and onions, in the proportion of one oz. per lb. of meat, one faggot, including one garlic clove and one and one-half oz. of fresh, [blanched] bacon-rind.

To Fry, Prepare, and Cook Braised Meat.—Having sufficiently [marinaded] the meat, drain it on a sieve for half an hour, and wipe it dry with a clean piece of linen. Heat some clarified fat of white consommé in a thick saucepan of convenient size, or a braising-pan, and when it is sufficiently hot put the meat in the saucepan and let it acquire colour on all sides. The object of this operation is to cause a contraction of the pores of the meat, thereby surrounding the latter with a species of cuirass, which prevents the inner juices from escaping too soon and converting the braising into a boiling process. The frying should, therefore, be a short or lengthy process according as to whether the amount of meat to be braised be small or large.

[106]
]Having properly fried the meat, withdraw it from the braising-pan, cover it with slices of larding-bacon if it be lean, and string it. In the case of fillets and ribs of beef, this treatment may be dispensed with, as they are sufficiently well supplied with their own fat.

Now pour the [marinade] prepared for the meat into the braising-pan, and place the meat on a litter composed of the vegetables the [marinade] contained. Cover the pan and rapidly reduce the wine therein. When this has assumed the consistency of syrup add sufficient brown stock to cover the meat (it being understood that the latter only just conveniently fills the pan), cover the braising-pan, set to boil, and then put it in a moderate oven. Let the meat cook until it may be deeply pricked with a braiding needle without any blood being drawn. At this stage the first phase of braising, whereof the theory shall be given hereafter, comes to an end, and the meat is transferred to another clean utensil just large enough to hold it.

With respect to the cooking liquor, either of the two following modes of procedure may now be adopted:—

1. If the liquor is required to be clear it need only be strained, over the meat, through muslin, while the braising-pan should be placed in the oven, where the cooking may go on until completed, interrupting it only from time to time in order to baste the meat. This done, thicken the liquor with arrow-root, after the manner of an ordinary thickened gravy (No. [41]).

2. If, on the contrary, a sauce be required, the liquor should be reduced to half before being put back on the meat, and it is restored to its former volume by means of two-thirds of its quantity of Espagnole sauce and one-third of tomato purée, or an equivalent quantity of fresh tomatoes.

The cooking of the meat is completed in this sauce, and the basting should be carried on as before. When it is cooked—that is to say, when the point of a knife may easily be thrust into it without meeting with any resistance whatsoever—it should be carefully withdrawn from the sauce; the latter should be again strained through muslin and then left to rest, with a view to letting the grease settle on the surface.

Carefully remove this grease, and rectify the sauce with a little excellent stock if it is too thick, or by reduction if it is too thin.

The Glazing of Braised Meat.—Braised meat is glazed in order to make it more sightly, but this operation is by no means essential, and it is quite useless when the meat is cut up previous to being served.

[107]
]To glaze meat place it as soon as cooked in the front of the oven, sprinkle it slightly with its cooking liquor (gravy or sauce), and push it into the oven so that this liquor may dry. Being very gelatinous, the latter adheres to the meat, while its superfluous water evaporates, and thus coats the solid with a thin film of meat-glaze. This operation is renewed eight or ten times, whereupon the meat is withdrawn from the oven, placed on a dish, and covered until it is served.

Various Remarks relative to Braising.—When a braised meat is to be accompanied by vegetables, as in the case of beef à la mode, these vegetables may either be cooked with the meat during the second braising phase, after they have been duly coloured in butter with a little salt and sugar, or they may be cooked separately with a portion of the braising-liquor. The first procedure is the better, but it lends itself less to a correct final dressing. It is, therefore, the operator’s business to decide according to circumstances which is the more suitable of the two.

I pointed out above that the cooking of braised meat consists of two phases, and I shall now proceed to discuss each of these, so that the reader may thoroughly understand their processes.

It has been seen that meat, to be braised, must in the first place be fried all over, and this more particularly when it is very thick. The object of this operation is to hold in the meat’s juices, which would otherwise escape from the cut surfaces. Now, this frying produces a kind of cuirass around the flesh, which gradually thickens during the cooking process until it reaches the centre. Under the influence of the heat of the surrounding liquor the meat fibres contract, and steadily drive the contained juices towards the centre. Soon the heat reaches the centre, where, after having effected a decomposition of the juices therein collected, the latter release the superfluous water they contain. This water quickly vaporises, and by so doing distends and separates the tissues surrounding it. Thus, during this first phase, a concentration of juices takes place in the centre of the meat. It will now be seen that they undergo an absolutely different process in the second.

As shown, the disaggregation of the muscular tissue begins in the centre of the meat as soon as the temperature which reaches there is sufficiently intense to vaporise the collected juices. The tension of the vapour given off by the latter perforce increases by dint of finding no issue; it therefore exerts considerable pressure upon the tissues, though now its direction [108] ]is the reverse of what it was in the first place, i.e., from the centre to the periphery.

Gradually the tissues relax under the pressure and the effects of cooking, and, the work of disaggregation having gradually reached the fried surface, the latter also relaxes in its turn and allows the constrained juices to escape and to mix with the sauce. At the same time, however, the latter begins to filter through the meat, and this it does in accordance with a well-known physical law, namely, capillarity. This stage of the braising demands the most attentive care. The braising-liquor is found to be considerably reduced and no longer covers the meat, for the operation is nearing its end. The bared meat would, therefore, dry very quickly, if care were not taken to baste it constantly and to turn it over and over, so that the whole of the muscular tissue is moistened and thoroughly saturated with the sauce. By this means the meat acquires that mellowness which is typical of braisings and distinguishes them from other preparations.

I should be loth to dismiss this subject before pointing out two practices in the cooking of braisings which are as common as they are absolutely wrong. The first of these is the “pinçage” of the braising base. Instead of laying the fried meat on a litter of aromatics, likewise fried beforehand, many operators place the meat, which they often omit to fry, on raw aromatics at the bottom of the braising-pan. The whole is sprinkled with a little melted fat, and the aromatics are left to fry, on one side only, until they begin to burn on the bottom of the receptacle.

If this operation were properly conducted it might be tolerated, even though aromatics which are only fried on one side cannot exude the same savour as those which are fried all over. But nine times out of ten the frying is too lengthy a process; from neglect or absent-mindedness the aromatics are left to burn on the bottom of the pan, and there results a bitterness which pervades and spoils the whole sauce.

As a matter of fact, this process of “pinçage” is an absurd caricature of a method of preparing braisings which was very common in old cookery, the custom of which was not to prepare the braising-liquor in advance, but to cook it and its ingredients simultaneously with the meat to be braised. This method, though excellent, was very expensive, the meats forming the base of the braising-liquor consisting of thick slices of raw ham or veal. The observance of economy, therefore, long ago compelled cooks to abandon this procedure. But routine has [109] ]perpetuated the form of the latter without insisting upon the use of its constituents, which were undoubtedly its essential part. Routine has even, in certain cases, aggravated the first error by instituting a habit consisting of substituting bones for the meats formerly employed—an obviously ridiculous practice.

In the production of ordinary consommé ([No. 1]) we saw that bones, even when taken from veal, as is customary in the case of braising-liquor, require, at the very least, ten to twelve hours of cooking before they can yield all their soluble properties. As a proof of this it is interesting to note that, if bones undergo only five or six hours of cooking, and are moistened afresh and cooked for a further six hours, the liquor of the second cooking yields more meat-glaze than that of the first; though it must be admitted that, while the latter is more gelatinous, it has less savour. But this gelatinous property of bones is no less useful to braisings than is their savour, since it is the former that supplies the mellowness, which nothing can replace and without which the sauce can have no quality.

Since, therefore, the longest time that a braising can cook is from four to five hours, it follows that, if bones be added thereto, their properties will scarcely have begun disaggregating when the meat is cooked. They will, in fact, have yielded but an infinitesimal portion of these properties; wherefore their addition to the braising is, to say the least, quite useless.

It now remains to be proved that the above method is bad from another point of view.

I suppose I need not fear contradiction when I assert that, in order that a braising may be good, its sauce should be short and correspondingly substantial; also that the sauce obtained from a piece of meat moistened with a quart of liquid cannot be so good as that resulting from the moistening of a pint only.

It is more particularly on this account that I advise a braising utensil which can only just hold the meat, for since, in the first stage, the meat is only moistened with the braising-liquor, the smaller the receptacle may be the less liquor will it require, and the latter will in consequence be the tastier. Hence, if bones be added to the braising, the utensil must necessarily be larger, and a greater quantity of braising-liquor must be used. But this liquor will not be nearly so savoury as that obtained from the process I recommend; in fact, it will be but a rather strong broth, quite unfit for the impregnation of the meat, and the final result will be a tasteless lump of fibre instead of a succulent braising.

I must apologise to the reader for my insistence with regard [110] ]to these questions, but their importance is such that success is beyond reach in the matter of brown sauces and braisings unless the above details have been thoroughly grasped. Moreover, the explanations given will afford considerable help in the understanding of operations which I shall give later; therefore it is to be hoped that the examination of the theories involved, however long this has been, will prove of use and assistance.

[248—BRAISING OF WHITE MEATS]

The braising of white meats as it is now effected in modern cookery is, strictly speaking, not braising at all, inasmuch as the cooking is stopped at the close of the first of the two phases which I mentioned when discussing brown braisings. True, old cookery did not understand braising in the way that the modern school does, and under the ancient régime large pieces, especially of veal, were frequently cooked until they could almost be scooped with a spoon. This practice has been generally, though mistakenly, eschewed, but its name survives.

White braisings are made with the neck, the saddle, the loin, the fillets, the fricandeaus, and the sweet-bread of veal, young turkeys and fat pullets, and sometimes, though less frequently, relevés of lamb, hindquarters or saddle. The procedure is the same for all these meats; the time of cooking alone varies in accordance with their size. The aromatics are the same as those of the brown braisings, but the frying of them is optional.

The moistening liquor is brown veal stock ([No. 9]).

Mode of Procedure.—Except for the veal sweet-bread, which is always [blanched] before being braised, the meats or poultry to be treated may always be slightly stiffened and browned in butter, on all sides. This is not essential in all cases, but I think that when they do undergo something of the kind they dry less quickly. Now place them in a utensil just large enough to hold them and deep enough to keep the lid from touching them. Place the aromatics under them and moisten with a little veal stock; set to boil on a moderate fire, and reduce the veal stock with the lid on. When this stock has assumed the consistence of a glaze, add a further similar quantity of fresh stock, and reduce as before. The third time moisten the veal until it is half covered, and push the pan into a moderate oven.

The meat needs constant basting while it cooks, in order to avoid its drying; and, as the stock is very gelatinous, it forms a coating on the surface which resists the evaporation of the contained juices; for these, being insufficiently constrained by the slight frying the meat has undergone, tend to vaporise under the influence of the heat.

[111]
]It is for this reason that the stock must be reduced to a glaze before finally moistening. If the moistening were all done at once, the liquor would not be sufficiently dense to form the coating mentioned above, and the meat would consequently dry on being set to cook.

Braised white meat is known to be cooked when, after having deeply pricked it with a braiding needle, it exudes an absolutely colourless liquid. This liquid denotes that the piece is cooked to the centre, and as a result thereof the blood has decomposed.

There lies the great difference between brown braisings and white-meat braisings. The latter are practically roasts, and they should not be made with any but young poultry or meats, very fat and tender, for they cannot go beyond their correct time of cooking, which equals that of roasts, without immediately losing all their quality. A quarter of an hour too much in the cooking of a kernel of veal weighing about six lbs. is enough to make the meat dry and unpalatable, and to thoroughly spoil it, whereas a brown braising cannot be over-cooked, provided it do not burn.

White braised meats are generally glazed, and this process is especially recommended for larded pieces, which, though less common nowadays than formerly, can still claim many votaries.

[249—POACHINGS]

However nonsensical it may sound, the best possible definition of a poaching is a boiling that does not boil. The term poach is extended to all slow processes of cooking which involve the use of a liquor, however small. Thus the term poach applies to the cooking in court-bouillon of large pieces of turbot and salmon, as well as to fillets of sole cooked with a little fish [fumet], to hot [mousselines] and [mousses], cooked in moulds, to quenelles which are cooked in salted water, to eggs announced as “poached,” to creams, various royales, &c. It will readily be seen that among so many different products, the time allowed for the cooking in each case must differ sometimes widely from the rest. The treatment of them all, however, is subject to this unalterable principle, namely, that the poaching liquor must not boil, though it should reach a degree of heat as approximate as possible to boiling-point. Another principle is that large pieces of fish or poultry be set to boil in cold liquor, after which the latter is brought to the required temperature as rapidly as possible. The case may be the same with fillets of sole, or poultry, which are poached almost [112] ]dry; but all other preparations whose mode of cooking is poaching gain by being immersed in liquor which has reached the required temperature beforehand.

Having regard to the multitudinous forms and kinds of products that are poached, it would be somewhat difficult to state here the details and peculiarities proper to each in the matter of poaching; I think, therefore, I should do better to leave these details to the respective recipes of each product, though it will now be necessary to disclose the way of poaching poultry, if only with a view to thoroughly acquainting the reader with the theory propounded above.

Properly prepare the piece of poultry to be poached, and truss it with its legs folded back alongside of the breast.

If it is to be stuffed, this should be done before trussing.

If it is to be larded or studded, either with truffles, ham, or tongue, rub it when trussed on the fillets and legs with half a lemon, and dip the same portions of its body (namely, those to be larded or studded) for a few moments in boiling white stock. The object of this operation is to slightly stiffen the skin, thus facilitating the larding or studding.

The Cooking of the Piece of Poultry.—Having stuffed, larded, or studded it, if necessary, and having, in any case, trussed it, place it in a receptacle just large enough to hold it, and moisten with some excellent white stock previously prepared.

Set to boil, skim, put the lid on, and continue the cooking at a low simmer. It is useless to work too quickly, as the operation would not be shortened a second by so doing. The only results would be:—

1. Too violent evaporation, which would reduce the liquor and disturb its limpidness.

2. The running of a considerable risk of bursting the piece of poultry, especially when the latter is stuffed.

The fowl, or whatever it may be, is known to be cooked when, after pricking the thick of the leg close to the “drumstick,” the issuing liquid is white.

Remarks.—(a) The need of poaching poultry in a receptacle just large enough to hold the piece is accounted for as follows: (1) The piece must be wholly immersed in the stock during the cooking process. (2) As the liquor used is afterwards served as an accompanying sauce to the dish, the less there is of it the more saturated does it become with the juices of the meat, and, consequently, the better it is.

(b) (1) The white stock used in poaching should be prepared beforehand, and be very clear.

[113]
](2) If the piece of poultry were set to cook with the products constituting the stock, even if these were more than liberally apportioned, the result would be bad, for inasmuch as a fowl, for example, can only take one and one-half hours, at the most, to cook, and the time required for extracting the nutritious and aromatic principles from the constituents of the stock would be at least six hours, it follows that the fowl would be cooking in little more than hot water, and the resulting sauce would be quite devoid of savour.

[250—POËLINGS]

Poëlings are, practically speaking, roasts, for the cooking periods of each are the same, except that the former are cooked entirely or almost entirely with butter. They represent a simplified process of old cookery, which consisted in enveloping the object to be treated, after frying it, in a thick coating of Matignon. It was then wrapped with thin slices of pork fat, covered with buttered paper, placed in the oven or on a spit, and basted with melted butter while it cooked. This done, its grease was drained away, and the vegetables of the matignon were inserted in the braising-pan wherein the piece had cooked, or in a saucepan, and were moistened with excellent Madeira or highly seasoned stock. Then, when the liquor had thoroughly absorbed the aroma of the vegetables, it was strained, and its grease was removed just before dishing up. This excellent method is worthy of continued use in the case of large pieces of poultry.

Preparation of Poëled Meats.—Place in the bottom of a deep and thick receptacle, just large enough to hold the piece to be poëled, a layer of raw matignon (No. [227]). The meat or piece of poultry is placed on the vegetables after it has been well seasoned, and is copiously sprinkled with melted butter; cover the utensil, and push it into an oven whose heat is not too fierce. Set it to cook gently in this way, after the manner of a stew, and frequently sprinkle with melted butter.

When the meats or the pieces of poultry are cooked, the utensil is uncovered so that the former may acquire a fine colour; then they are transferred to a dish which should be kept covered until taken to the table. Now add to the vegetables (which must not be burned) a sufficient quantity of brown veal stock ([No. 9]), transparent and highly seasoned; set the whole to boil gently for ten minutes, strain through a serviette, carefully remove all grease from the poëling stock and send it to the table in a sauceboat at the same time as the meat or poultry, which, by the bye, is generally garnished.

[114]
]Remarks on Poëlings.—It is of paramount importance that these be not moistened during the process of cooking, for in that case their savour would be the same as that of braised white meats.

Nevertheless, an exception may be made in the case of such feathered game as pheasants, partridges, and quails, to which is added, when nearly cooked, a small quantity of burnt brandy.

It is also very important that the vegetables should not have their grease removed before their moistening stock is added to them. The butter used in the cooking absorbs a large proportion of the savour of both the vegetables and the meat under treatment, and, to make good this loss, it is essential that the moistening stock remain at least ten minutes in contact with the butter. At the end of this time it may be removed without in the least impairing the aroma of the stock.

Special Poëlings known as “En Casserole,” or “En Cocotte.”—The preparations of butcher’s meats, of poultry, or game, known as “[en casserole]” or “[en cocotte],” are actual poëlings cooked in special earthenware utensils and served in the same. Generally, preparations known as “[en casserole]” are simply cooked in butter, without the addition of vegetables.

When the cooking is done, the piece under treatment is withdrawn for a moment, and some excellent brown veal stock ([No. 9]) is poured into the utensil. This is left to simmer for a few minutes; the superfluous butter is then removed; the piece is returned to the earthenware utensil, and it is kept hot, without being allowed to boil, until it is dished up.

For preparations termed “[en cocotte],” the procedure is the same, except that the piece is garnished with such vegetables as mushrooms, the bottoms of artichokes, small onions, carrots, turnips, &c., which are either turned or regularly pared, and half cooked in butter before being used.

One should endeavour to use only fresh vegetables, and these should be added to the piece constituting the dish in such wise as to complete their cooking with it.

The earthenware utensils used for this purpose improve with use, provided they be cleaned with clean, fresh water, without any soda or soap. If new utensils have to be used, these should be filled with water, which is set to boil, and they should then undergo at least twelve hours’ soaking. For the prescribed time this water should be kept gently boiling, and then the utensil should be well wiped and soaked anew, in fresh water, before being used.

[115]
][251—THE SAUTÉS]

What characterises the process we call “sauté” is that the object treated is cooked dry—that is to say, solely by means of a fatty substance such as butter, oil, or grease.

Sautés are made with cut-up fowl or game, or with butcher’s meat suitably divided up for the purpose.

All products treated in this way must be frizzled—that is to say, they must be put into the fat when it is very hot in order that a hardened coating may form around them which will keep their juices within. This is more particularly desirable for red meats such as beef and mutton.

The cooking of fowl sautés must, after the meats have been frizzled, be completed on the stove or, with lid off, in the oven, where they should be basted with butter after the manner of a roast.

The pieces are withdrawn from the utensil with a view to swilling the latter, after which, if they be put back into the sauce or accompanying garnish, they should only remain therein a few moments or just sufficiently long to become properly warm.

The procedure is the same for game sautés.

Sautés of butcher’s meats (red meats), such as tournedos, kernels, cutlets, fillets, and noisettes, are always effected on the stove; the meats are frizzled and cooked with a small quantity of clarified butter.

The thinner and smaller they are, the more rapidly should the frizzling process be effected.

When blood appears on the surface of their raw side, they should be turned over; when drops of blood begin to bedew their other side, they are known to be cooked.

The swilling of the utensil obtains in all sautés. After having withdrawn the treated product from the saucepan, remove the grease and pour the condimentary liquid (a wine), that forms part of the accompanying sauce, into the saucepan.

Set to boil, so that the solidified gravy lying on the bottom may dissolve, and add the sauce; or simply add the swilling liquid to the prepared sauce or accompanying garnish of the sauté. The utensil used must always be just large enough to hold the objects to be treated. If it be too large, the parts left uncovered by the treated meats burn, and swilling is then impossible, whence there results a loss of the solidified gravy which is an important constituent in the sauce.

Sautés of white, butcher’s meats, such as veal and lamb, must also be frizzled in hot fat, but their cooking must be completed gently on the side of the fire, and in many cases with lid on.

[116]
]Preparations of a mixed nature, which partly resemble sautés and partly braisings, are also called sautés. Stews, however, is their most suitable name.

These dishes are made from beef, veal, lamb, game, &c., and they are to be found in Part II. under the headings Estouffade; Goulash

; Sautés: Chasseur, Marengo, Bourgeoise; Navarin; Civet; &c.

In the first stage of their preparation, the meats are cut up small and fried like those of the sautés; in the second, slow cooking with sauce or garnish makes them akin to braised meats.

3. Roasts, Grills, Fryings.

Roasts.

Of the two usual methods of roasting, the spit will always be used in preference to the oven, if only on account of the conditions under which the operation is effected, and whatever be the kind of fuel used—wood, coal, or gas.

The reason of this preference is clear if it be remembered that, in spite of every possible precaution during the progress of an oven roast, it is impossible to avoid an accumulation of vapour around the cooking object in a closed oven. And this steam is more particularly objectionable inasmuch as it is excessive in the case of delicately flavoured meats, which latter are almost if not entirely impaired thereby.

The spitted roast, on the contrary, cooks in the open in a dry atmosphere, and by this means retains its own peculiar flavour. Hence the unquestionable superiority of spitted roasts over the oven kind, especially in respect of small feathered game.

In certain circumstances and places there is no choice of means, and, nolens volens, the oven has to be used; but, in this case at least, all possible precautions should be observed in order to counteract the effects of the steam above mentioned.

[252—LARDING BACON FOR ROASTS]

Poultry and game to be roasted ought generally to be partly covered with a large thin slice of larding bacon, except those pieces of game which in special cases are larded.

The object and use of these slices are not only to shield the fillets of fowl and game from the severe heat of the fires but also to prevent these from drying while the legs, which the heat takes much longer to penetrate than the other parts, are cooking. The slices of bacon should therefore completely cover the [117] ]breasts of fowl and game, and they should be tied on to the latter by means of string.

In some cases roasts of butcher’s meat are covered with layers of veal- or beef-fat, the object of which is similar to that of the bacon prescribed above.

[253—SPITTED ROASTS]

The whole theory of roasts on the spit might be condensed as follows:—

In the case of butcher’s meat, calculate the intensity of the heat used according to the piece to be roasted, the latter’s size and quality, and the time it has hung. Experience, however, is the best guide, for any theory, whatever be its exactness, can only give the leading principles and general rules, and cannot pretend to supply the place of the practised eye and the accuracy which are the result of experience alone.

Nevertheless, I do not say with Brillat Savarin that a roaster is born and not made; I merely state that one may become a good roaster with application, observation, care, and a little aptitude.

The three following rules will be found to cover all the necessary directions for spitted roasts:—

1. All red meats containing a large quantity of juice should be properly set, and then, according to their size, made to undergo the action of a fire capable of radiating a very penetrating heat with little or no flame.

2. In the case of white meats, whose cooking should be thorough, the fire ought to be so regulated as to allow the roast to cook and colour simultaneously.

3. With small game the fuel should be wood, but whatever fuel be used the fire ought to be made up in suchwise as to produce more flame than glowing embers.

[254—OVEN ROASTS]

The degree of heat used for each roast must be regulated according to the nature and size of the latter after the manner of spitted roasts.

An oven roast, in the first place, should always be placed on a meatstand, and this should be of such a height that at no given moment during the cooking process the meat may come in contact with the juices and fat which have drained from it into the utensil beneath. Failing a proper stand, a spit resting upon the edges of the utensil may be used.

No liquid of any kind, gravy or water, need be put in the baking-pan. The addition of any liquid is rather prejudicial [118] ]than otherwise, since by producing vapour which hangs over the roast it transforms the latter into a stew.

Remarks.—Whether spitted or in the oven, a roast must always be frequently basted with a fatty substance, but never with any other liquid.

[255—THE GRAVY OF ROASTS]

The real and most natural gravy for roasts is made from the swilling of the baking- or dripping-pan, even if water be used as the diluent, since the contents of these utensils represent a portion of the essential principles of the roast fallen from it in the process of cooking. But to obtain this result neither the utensils nor the gravy ought to have burned; the latter should merely have solidified, and for this reason a roast cooked in a very fierce oven ought to be laid on a pan only just large enough to hold it, so that the fat may not burn.

The swilling can in any case only produce a very small quantity of gravy, consequently, when it happens that a greater quantity is required, the need is met beforehand by preparing a stock made from bones and trimmings of a similar nature to the roast for which the gravy is required. The procedure for this is as follows:—

Place the bones and trimmings in a pan with a little fat and literally roast them. Then transfer them to a saucepan, moisten so as to cover with tepid, slightly-salted water, and add thereto the swillings of the pan wherein they were roasted. Boil, skim, and set to cook gently for three or four hours, according to the nature of the products used. This done, almost entirely remove the grease, strain through muslin, and put aside for the purpose of swilling the dripping- or baking-pan of the roast.

Swilling.—Having removed the roast from the spit or oven, take off a portion of the grease from the baking- or dripping-pan, and pour into it the required quantity of prepared gravy. Reduce the whole by half, strain through muslin, and almost entirely remove grease.

It is a mistake to remove all the grease from, and to clarify, the gravy of roasts. Treated thus they are certainly clearer and more sightly, but a large proportion of their savour is lost, and it should be borne in mind that the gravy of a roast is not a consommé.

In the matter of roast feathered game, the accompanying gravy is supplied by the swilling of the utensil, either with water or a small quantity of brandy. This is a certain means of obtaining a gravy whose savour is precisely that of the game; but occasionally veal gravy is used, as its flavour is neutral, [119] ]and it therefore cannot impair the particular flavour of the reduced game gravy lying on the bottom of the utensil. The use of stock prepared from the bones and trimmings of game similar to that constituting the dish is also common.

[256—THE DRESSING AND ACCOMPANIMENTS OF ROASTS]

As a rule, a roast ought not to wait. It ought only to leave the spit or oven in order to be served. All roasts should be placed on very hot dishes, slightly besprinkled with fresh butter, and surrounded by bunches of watercress (this is optional). The gravy is invariably served separately.

Roasts of butcher’s meat and poultry are dished up as simply as possible.

Small roasted game may be dished up on fried slices of bread-crumb masked with gratin stuffing (No. [202]).

When lemons accompany a roast, they should be served separately. Pieces of lemon that have once served to garnish a dish must not be used, for they have mostly been tainted by grease.

The mediæval custom of dishing game with the plumage has been abandoned.

Roast feathered game à l’anglaise is dished up with or without potato chips, and the three adjuncts are gravy, bread-crumbs, and bread-sauce.

In northern countries game roasts are always accompanied either by slightly sugared stewed apples, or by cherry or apricot jam.

[257—GRILLS]

Those culinary preparations effected by means of grilling belong to the order called cooking by concentration. And, indeed, in almost all cases, the great object of these operations, I might even say the greatest object, is the concentration, in the centre, of the juices and essences which represent, most essentially, the nutritive principles of the products cooked.

A grill, which is, in short, but a roast on an open fire, stands, in my opinion, as the remote starting-point, the very genesis of our art.

It was the primæval notion of our forefathers’ infantile brains; it was progress born of an instinctive desire to eat with greater pleasure; and it was the first culinary method ever employed.

A little later, and following naturally, as it were, upon this first attempt, the spit was born of the grill; gradually, intelligence supplanted rude instinct; reason began to deduce effects from supposed causes; and thus cooking was launched forth [120] ]upon that highroad along which it has not yet ceased steadily to advance.

Fuel for Grills.—That mostly used, and certainly the best for the purpose, is live coal or small pieces of charcoal. Whatever fuel be used, however, it is essential that it produce no smoke, even though the grill fire be ventilated by powerful blowers which draw the smoke off. More especially is this necessary, though I admit the contingency is rare, when artificial ventilation has to be effected owing to the fire’s burning in the open without the usual help of systematic draughts; for if smoke occasioned by foreign substances or by the falling of the fat itself on to the glowing embers were not immediately carried away, either artificially or by a convenient draught, the grills would most surely acquire a very disagreeable taste therefrom.

The Bed of Charcoal.—The arrangement of the bed of charcoal under the grill is of some importance, and it must not only be regulated according to the size and kind of the products to be grilled, but also in such wise as to allow of the production of more or less heat under given circumstances.

The bed should therefore be set in equal layers in the centre, but varying in thickness according as to whether the fire has to be more or less fierce; it should also be slightly raised on those sides which are in contact with the air, in order that the whole burning surface may radiate equal degrees of heat.

The grill must always be placed over the glowing fuel in advance, and it should be very hot when the objects to be grilled are placed upon it, otherwise they would stick to the bars, and would probably be spoiled when turned.

Grills Classified.

Grills may be divided into four classes, of which each demands particular care. They are: (1) Red-meat grills (beef and mutton); (2) White-meat grills (veal, lamb, poultry); (3) Fish; (4) Grills coated with butter and bread-crumbs.

[258—RED MEAT GRILLS]

I submit as a principle that the golden rule in grills is to strictly observe the correct degree of heat which is proper to each treated object, never forgetting that the larger and richer in nutrition the piece of meat, the quicker and more thorough must be its initial setting.

I have already explained, under braisings, the part played by, and the use of, [rissoling] or setting; but it is necessary to revert to this question and its bearing upon grills.

If large pieces of meat (beef or mutton) are in question, the [121] ]better their quality and the richer they are in juices, the more resisting must be the [rissoled] coating they receive. The pressure of the contained juices upon the [rissoled] coating of this meat will be proportionately great or small according to whether the latter be rich or poor, and this pressure will gradually increase with the waxing heat.

If the grill fire be so regulated as to ensure the progressive penetration of heat into the cooking object, this is what happens:—

The heat, striking that surface of the meat which is in direct communication with the fire, penetrates the tissues, and spreads stratiformly through the body, driving the latter’s juices in front of it. When these reach the opposite, [rissoled], or set side of the meat, they are checked, and thereupon, absorbing the incoming heat, effect the cooking of the inner parts.

Of course, if the piece of meat under treatment is very thick, the fierceness of the fire should be proportionately abated the moment the initial process of [rissoling] or setting of the meat’s surface has been effected, the object being to allow the heat to penetrate the cooking body more regularly. If the fierceness of the fire were maintained, the [rissoled] coating on the meat would probably char, and the resulting thickness of carbon would so successfully resist the passage of any heat into the interior that, in the end, while the meat would probably be found to be completely burnt on the outside, the inside would be quite raw.

If somewhat thinner pieces are in question, a quick [rissoling] of their surfaces over a fierce fire, and a few minutes of subsequent cooking, will be all they need. No alteration in the intensity of the fire need be sought in this case.

Examples.—A rumpsteak or Châteaubriand, in order to be properly cooked, should first have its outsides [rissoled] on a very fierce fire with a view to preserving its juices, after which cooking may proceed over a moderate fire so as to allow of the gradual penetration of the heat into the centre of the body.

Small pieces such as tournedos, small fillets, noisettes, chops, may, after the preliminary process of outside [rissoling], be cooked over the same degree of heat as effected the latter, because the thickness of meat to be penetrated is less.

The Care of Grills while Cooking.—Before placing the meats on the grill, baste them slightly with clarified butter, and repeat this operation frequently during the cooking process, so as to avoid the possible drying of the [rissoled] surfaces.

Grilled red meat should always be turned by means of special tongs, and great care should be observed that its surface [122] ]be not torn or pierced, lest the object of the preliminary precautions be defeated, and the contained juices escape.

Time of Cooking.—This, in the case of red meats, is arrived at by the following test: if, on touching the meat with one’s finger, the former resist any pressure, it is sufficiently cooked: if it give, it is clear that in the centre, at least, the reverse is the case. The most certain sign, however, that cooking has been completed is the appearance of little beads of blood upon the [rissoled] surface of the meat.

[259—WHITE-MEAT GRILLS]

That superficial [rissoling] which is so necessary in the case of red meats is not at all so in the case of white, for in the latter there can be no question of the concentration of juices, since these are only present in the form of albumen—that is to say, in the form of juices “in the making,” so to speak, which is peculiar to veal and lamb.

For this kind of grills keep a moderate fire, so that the cooking and colouring of the meat may take place simultaneously.

White-meat grills should be fairly often basted by means of a brush, with clarified butter, while cooking, lest their outsides dry.

They are known to be cooked when the juice issuing from them is quite white.

[260—FISH GRILLS]

Use a moderate fire with these, and only grill after having copiously sprinkled them with clarified butter or oil. Sprinkle them similarly while cooking.

A grilled fish is cooked when the bones are easily separated from the meat. Except for the fatty kind, such as mackerel, red mullet, or herrings, always roll fish to be grilled in flour before sprinkling them with melted butter. The object of so doing is to give them a golden external crust, which, besides making them more sightly, keeps them from drying.

[261—THE GRILLING OF PRODUCTS COATED WITH BUTTER AND BREAD-CRUMBS]

These grills generally consist of only small objects; they must be effected on a very moderate fire, with the view of enabling them to cook and acquire colour simultaneously. They should also be frequently besprinkled with clarified butter, and turned with care, so as not to break their coating, the object of which is to withhold their contained juices.

[123]
][262—FRYINGS]

Frying is one of the principal cooking processes, for the number of preparations that are accomplished by its means is very considerable. Its procedure is governed by stringent laws and rules which it is best not to break, lest the double danger of failure and impairment of material be incurred.

The former is easily averted if one is familiar with the process, and pays proper attention to it, while the latter is obviated by precautions which have every raison d’être, and the neglect of which only leads to trouble.

The question of the kind of utensil to employ is not so immaterial as some would think, for very often accidents result from the mere disregard of the importance of this matter.

Very often imprudence and bluster on the part of the operator may be the cause of imperfections, the greatest care being needed in the handling of utensils containing overheated fat.

Utensils used in frying should be made of copper, or other resisting metal; they should be in one piece, oval or round in shape, and sufficiently large and deep to allow, while only half-filled with fat, of the objects being properly affected by the latter. The necessity of this condition is obvious, seeing that if the utensil contain too much fat the slightest jerking of it on the stove would spill some of the liquid, and the operator would probably be badly burnt.

Finally, utensils with vertical sides are preferable to those with the slanting kind; more especially is this so in large kitchens where, the work involving much frying, capacious receptacles are required.

[263—FRYING FAT—ITS PREPARATION]

Any animal or vegetable grease is suitable for frying, provided it be quite pure and possess a resisting force allowing it to reach a very high temperature without burning. But for frying on a large scale, the use of cooked and clarified fats, such as the fat of “pot-au-feu” and roasts, should be avoided.

A frying medium is only perfect when it is able to meet the demands of a protracted operation, and consists of fresh or raw fats, chosen with care and thoroughly purified by cooking.

Under no circumstances may butter be used for frying on a large scale, seeing that, even when thoroughly purified, it can only reach a comparatively low degree of heat. It may be used only for small, occasional fryings.

The fat of kidney of beef generally forms the base of the grease intended for frying on a large scale. It is preferable [124] ]to all others on account of its cheapness and the great length of time it can be worked, provided it receives the proper care.

Veal-fat yields a finer frying medium, but its resistance is small, and it must, moreover, always be strengthened with the fat of beef.

Mutton-fat should be deliberately discarded, for, if it happen to be that of an old beast, it smells of tallow, and, if it be that of a young one, it causes the hot grease to foam and to overflow down the sides of the utensil, this leading to serious accidents.

Pork-fat is also used for frying, either alone, or combined with some other kind.

In brief, the fat of kidney of beef is that which is best suited to fryings on a large scale. Ordinary household frying, which does not demand a very resisting grease, may well be effected by means of the above, combined with an equal quantity of veal-fat, or a mixture composed of the fat of kidney of beef, veal, and pork in the proportions of one-half, one-quarter, and one-quarter respectively.

The grease used for frying ought not only to be melted down, but also thoroughly cooked, so that it may be quite pure. If insufficiently cooked, it foams on first being used, and so demands all kinds of extra precautions, which only cease to be necessary when constant heating at last rectifies it. Moreover, if it be not quite pure, it easily penetrates immersed solids and makes them indigestible.

All grease used in frying should first be cut into pieces and then put into the saucepan with one pint of water per every ten lbs.

The object of the water is to assist in the melting, and this it does by filtering into the grease, vaporising, and thereby causing the latter to swell. So long as the water has not completely evaporated, the grease only undergoes the action of liquefaction, i.e., the dissolution of its molecules; but its thorough cooking process, ending with its purification, only begins when all the water is gone.

The grease is cooked when (1) the membranes which enveloped it alone remain intact and are converted into greaves; (2) it gives off smoke which has a distinct smell.

At this stage it has reached such a high temperature that it is best to remove it from the fire for about ten minutes, so that it may cool; then it must be strained through a sieve, or a coarse towel, which must be tightly twisted.

[264—THE VARIOUS DEGREES OF HEAT REACHED BY THE FRYING MEDIUM, AND THEIR APPLICATION]

The temperature reached by a frying medium depends upon [125] ]the latter’s constituents and its purity. The various degrees may be classified as moderately hot, hot, very hot.

The expression “boiling hot” is unsuitable, seeing that fat never boils. Butter (an occasional frying medium) cannot overreach 248° F. without burning, whereas if it be thoroughly purified it can attain from 269° to 275° F.—a temperature which is clearly below what would be needed for work on a large scale.

Animal greases used in ordinary frying reach from 275° to 284° F. when moderately hot, 320° F. when hot, and 356° F. when very hot; in the last case they smoke slightly.

Pork-fat (lard), when used alone, reaches 392° F. without burning. Very pure goose dripping withstands 428° F.; and, finally, vegetable fats may reach, without burning, 482° F. in the case of cocoa-nut butter, 518° F. with ordinary oils, and 554° in the case of olive oil.

The temperature of ordinary frying fat may be tested thus: it is moderately hot when, after throwing a sprig of parsley or a crust of bread into it, it begins to bubble immediately; it is hot if it crackles when a slightly moist object is thrust into it; it is very hot when it gives off a thin white smoke perceptible to the smell.

The first temperature, “moderately hot,” is used (1) for all products containing vegetable water the complete evaporation of which is necessary; (2) for fish whose volume exacts a cooking process by means of penetration, previous to that with concentration.

In the first degree of heat with which it is used the frying fat therefore only effects a kind of preparatory operation.

The second temperature, “hot,” is used for all products which have previously undergone an initial cooking process in the first temperature, either for evaporation or penetration, and its object is either to finish them or to cover them with a crimped coating.

It is also applicable to those products upon which the frying fat must act immediately by concentration—that is to say, by forming a set coating around them which prevents the escape of the contained substances.

Objects treated with this temperature are: all those [panés à l’anglaise] or covered with batter, such as various croquettes, cromesquis, cutlets, and collops à la Villeroy, fritters of all kinds, fried creams, &c.

In this case the frying medium acts by setting, which in certain cases is exceedingly necessary.

1. If the objects in question are [panés à l’anglaise], i.e., [126] ]dipped in beaten eggs and rolled in bread-crumbs, the sudden contact of the hot grease converts this coating of egg and bread-crumbs into a resisting crust, which prevents the escape of the substances and the liquefied sauce contained within.

If these objects were plunged in a fat that was not sufficiently hot, the coating of egg and bread-crumbs would not only imbibe the frying medium, but it would run the risk of breaking, thereby allowing the escape of the very substances it was intended to withhold.

2. The same holds with objects treated with batter. Hence the absolute necessity of ensuring that setting which means that the covering of batter solidifies immediately. As the substances constituting these various dishes are cooked in advance, it follows that their second heating and the colouring of the coating (egg and bread-crumbs or batter) take place at the same time and in a few minutes.

The third temperature, “very hot,” is used (1) for all objects that need a sharp and firm setting; (2) for all small objects the setting of which is of supreme importance, and whose cooking is effected in a few minutes, as in the case of whitebait.

[265—FRYING MEDIUM FOR FISH]

Every frying medium, used for work on a large scale, which has acquired a too decided colouring through repeated use, may serve in the preparation of fish even until its whole strength is exhausted.

Oil is best suited to the frying of fish, especially the very small kind, owing to the tremendous heat it can withstand without burning, for this heat guarantees that setting which is so indispensable.

Except in this case, however, the temperature of the frying medium should be regulated strictly in accordance with the size of the fish to be fried, in order that its cooking and colouring may be effected simultaneously.

Except Nonats and whitebait, which are simply rolled in flour, fish to be fried are previously steeped in slightly salted milk and then rolled in flour. From this combination of milk and flour there results a crisp coating which withholds those particular principles that the fish exude while cooking.

When finished, fried fish are drained, dried, slightly salted, and dished on a serviette or on paper, with a garnish of fried parsley-sprays and sections of channelled lemon.

[266—THE QUANTITY OF THE FRYING MEDIUM]

This should always be in proportion to the quantity or size [127] ]of the objects to be fried, bearing in mind that these must always be entirely submerged.

Without necessarily exaggerating, the quantity should invariably be rather in excess of the requirements, and for this reason, viz., the greater the amount of fat, the higher will be the temperature reached, and the less need one fear a sudden cooling of the fat when the objects to be treated are immersed. This sudden cooling is often the cause of great trouble, unless one be working over a fire of such fierceness that the fat can return in a few seconds to the temperature it was at before the objects were immersed.

[267—THE CARE OF THE FRYING MEDIUM]

Every time a frying fat is used it should, after having been melted, be strained through a towel, for the majority of objects which it has served to cook must have left some particles behind them which might prove prejudicial to the objects that are to follow.

Objects that are “panés” always leave some raspings, for instance, which in time assume the form of black powder, while those that have been treated with flour likewise drop some of their coating, which, in accumulating, produces a muddy precipitate on the bottom of the utensil.

Not only do these foreign substances disturb the clearness of the fat and render it liable to burn, but they are exceedingly detrimental to the objects that are treated later.

Therefore, always strain the fat whenever it is used—in the first place because the proper treatment of the objects demands it, and, secondly, because its very existence as a serviceable medium depends upon this measure.

[268—GRATINS]

This culinary operation plays a sufficiently important part in the work to warrant my detailing at least its leading points.

The various kinds of the order “Gratins” are (1) the Complete Gratin; (2) the Rapid Gratin; (3) the Light Gratin; (4) Glazing, which is a form of Rapid Gratin.

[269—COMPLETE GRATIN]

This is the first example of the series; it is that whose preparation is longest and most tiresome; for its principal constituent, whatever this is, must be completely cooked. Its cooking must moreover be coincident with the reduction of the sauce, which is the base of the gratin, and with the formation of the gratin proper, i.e., the crimped crust which forms on the surface and is the result of the combination of the sauce [128] ]with the raspings and the butter, under the direct influence of the heat.

In the preparation of complete gratin, two things must be taken into account:—(1) The nature and size of the object to be treated, and (2) the degree of heat which must be used in order that the cooking of the object, the reduction of the sauce, and the formation of the gratin may be effected simultaneously.

The base of complete gratin is almost invariably ordinary or Lenten duxelle sauce (No. [223]), in accordance with the requirements.

The object to be treated with the gratin is laid on a buttered dish, surrounded with slices of raw mushrooms and chopped shallots, and covered with duxelle sauce. The surface is then sprinkled with raspings, and copiously moistened with melted butter. Should the piece be large, the amount of sauce used will be proportionately greater, and the reverse, of course, applies to medium or smaller sizes.

Take note of the following remarks in the making of complete gratins:—

1. If too much sauce were used in proportion to the size of the object, the latter would cook and the gratin form before the sauce could reach the correct degree of consistence by means of reduction. Hence it would be necessary to reduce the sauce still further on the stove, and thereby give rise to steam which would soften the coating of the gratin.

2. If the sauce used were insufficient, it would be reduced before the cooking of the object had been effected, and, more sauce having to be added, the resulting gratin would be uneven.

3. The larger the piece, and consequently the longer it takes to cook, the more moderate should be the heat used. Conversely, the smaller it is, the fiercer should the fire be.

When withdrawing the gratin from the oven squeeze a few drops of lemon-juice over it, and besprinkle it with chopped parsley.

[270—RAPID GRATIN]

Proceed as above, with duxelle sauce, but the products treated with it, viz., meats, fish, or vegetables, are always cooked and warmed in advance. All that is required, therefore, is to effect the formation of the gratin as quickly as possible.

To do this, cover the object under treatment with the necessary quantity of salt, besprinkle with raspings and butter, and set the gratin to form in a fierce oven.

[129]
][271—LIGHT GRATIN]

This is proper to farinaceous products, such as macaroni, lazagnes, noodles, gnocchi, &c., and consists of a combination of grated cheese, raspings, and butter. In this case, again, the only end in view is the formation of the gratin coating, which must be evenly coloured, and is the result of the cheese melting. A moderate heat is all that is wanted for this kind of gratin.

Also considered as light gratins are those which serve as the complement of stuffed vegetables such as tomatoes, mushrooms, egg-plant, and cucumber. With these the gratin is composed of raspings sprinkled with butter or oil, and it is placed in a more or less fierce heat according to whether the vegetables have already been cooked or partially cooked, or are quite raw.

[272—GLAZINGS]

These are of two kinds—they either consist of a heavily buttered sauce, or they form from a sprinkling of cheese upon the sauce with which the object to be glazed is covered.

In the first case, after having poured sauce over the object to be treated, place the dish on another dish containing a little water. This is to prevent the sauce decomposing and boiling. The greater the quantity of butter used, the more intense will be the heat required, in order that a slight golden film may form almost instantaneously.

In the second case, the sauce used is always a Mornay (No. [91]). Cover the object under treatment with the sauce, besprinkle with grated cheese and melted butter, and place in fairly intense heat, so that a slight golden crust may form almost immediately, this crust being the result of the combined cheese and butter.

[273—BLANCHINGS]

The essentially unsuitable term blanchings is applied in the culinary technology of France to three classes of operations which entirely differ one from the other in the end they have in view.

1. The blanching of meats.

2. The blanching, or, better, the parboiling of certain vegetables.

3. The blanching of certain other vegetables, which in reality amounts to a process of cooking.

The blanching of meats obtains mostly in the case of calf’s head and foot and the sweet-bread of veal, sheep’s and lambs’ [130] ]trotters, and lamb’s sweet-bread. These meats are first set to soak in cold, running water until they have quite got rid of the blood with which they are naturally saturated. They are then placed on the fire in a saucepan containing enough cold water to abundantly cover them, and the water is gradually brought to the boil.

For calf’s head or feet, boiling may last for fifteen or twenty minutes; veal sweet-bread must not boil for more than ten or twelve minutes; while lamb sweet-bread is withdrawn the moment the boil is reached.

As soon as blanched, the meats are cooled in plenty of fresh water before undergoing their final treatment.

The blanching of cocks’ combs is exceptional in this, namely, that after the combs have been cleansed of blood—that is to say, soaked in cold water, they are placed on the fire in cold water, the temperature of which must be carefully kept below 113° F. When this degree is approached, take the saucepan off the fire and rub each comb with a cloth, dusted with table-salt, in order to remove the skins; then cool the combs with fresh water before cooking them.

Many people use the blanching process with meats intended for “blanquette” or “fricassée.” I regard this procedure as quite erroneous, as also the preliminary soaking in cold water.

If the meats or pieces of poultry intended for the above-mentioned preparations be of a good quality (and no others should be used), they need only be set to cook in cold water, or cold stock, and gradually brought to the boil, being stirred repeatedly the while. The scum formed should be carefully removed, and, in this way, perfectly white meats and stock, with all their savour, are obtained.

As to meats or pieces of poultry of an inferior quality, no soaking and no blanching can make good their defects. Whichever way they are treated they remain dry, gray, and savourless. It is therefore simpler and better to use only the finest quality goods.

An excellent proof of the futility of soaking and blanching meats intended for “fricassées” and “blanquettes” lies in the fact that these very meats, if of good quality, are always perfectly white when they are braised, [poëled], or roasted, notwithstanding the fact that these three operations are less calculated to preserve their whiteness than the kind of treatment they are subjected to in the case of “blanquettes” and “fricassées.”

Mere routine alone can account for this practice of soaking [131] ]and blanching meats—a practice that is absolutely condemned by common sense.

The term “blanching” is wrongly applied to the cooking of green vegetables, such as French beans, green peas, Brussels sprouts, spinach, &c. The cooking of these, which is effected by means of boiling salted water, ought really to be termed “[à l’anglaise].” All the details of the procedure, however, will be given when I deal with the vegetables to which the latter apply.

Lastly, under the name of “blanching,” there exists another operation which consists in partly cooking certain vegetables in plenty of water, in order to rid them of any bitter or pungent flavour they may possess. The time allowed for this blanching varies according to the age of the vegetables, but when the latter are young and in season, it amounts to little more than a mere scalding.

Blanching is chiefly resorted to for lettuce, chicory, endives, celery, artichokes, cabbages, and the green vegetables; carrots, turnips, and small onions when they are out of season. In respect of vegetable-marrows, cucumbers, and chow-chow, blanching is often left to the definite cooking process, which should then come under the head of the “[à l’anglaise]” cooking.

After the process of blanching, the vegetables I have just enumerated are always cooled—that is to say, steeped in cold water until they are barely lukewarm. They are then left to drain on a sieve, previous to undergoing the final cooking process to which they are best suited, this generally being braising.

[132]
]6. Vegetables and Garnishes

Various Preparations.

[274—THE TREATMENT OF DRY VEGETABLES]

It is wrong to soak dry vegetables. If they are of good quality, and the produce of the year, they need only be put into a saucepan with enough cold water to completely cover them, and with one oz. of salt per five quarts of water.

Set to boil gently, skim, add the aromatic garnish, quartered carrots, onions, with or without garlic cloves, and a faggot, and set to cook gently with lid on.

Remarks.—If the vegetables used are old or inferior in quality, they might be put to soak in soft water; but this only long enough to swell them slightly, i.e., about one and one-half hours.

A prolonged soaking of dry vegetables may give rise to incipient germination, and this, by impairing the principles of the vegetables, depreciates the value of the food, and may even cause some harm to the consumer.

[275—BRAISED VEGETABLES]

Vegetables to be braised must be first [blanched], cooled, pared, and strung.

Garnish the bottom of a saucepan with [blanched] pork-rind, sliced carrots and onions, and a faggot, and cover the sides of the utensil with thin slices of bacon. Lay the vegetables upon the prepared litter, and leave them to sweat in the oven for about ten minutes with lid on. The object of this oven-sweating is to expel the water. Now moisten enough to cover with white stock, and set to cook gently.

This done, drain, remove string, and cut to the shape required. Lay them in a sautépan, and, if they are to be served soon, cover them with their reduced stock from which the grease has been removed.

If they are prepared in advance, simply put them aside in suitable basins, cover them with their cooking-liquor, which should be strained over them, boiling, and without its grease removed, and cover with buttered paper.