Plate V
EARLY ENGLISH, 1189-1272
IN the Early English period knowledge of the true principles of architectural design and construction advanced considerably—mouldings and carving attained the highest refinement, and the work of the Early English period is admitted to be the purest of the Gothic style.
Improved scientific construction is most evident in the walls. The development of stone-vaulted roofs (a protection against fire) carried by arched ribs brought down the incumbent load on to the walls, producing thrusts upon them which had to be provided against. The old manner of making the wall of great thickness was wasteful and unsatisfactory. The happy idea of the Gothic buttress fulfilled all the requirements, and produced one of the most beautiful features of the Gothic style. It was built in diminishing stages, its outline enclosing the graceful parabolic curve of nature—the path of the combined thrusts and their opposing reactions. This structure was carried to perfection when combined with the flying-buttress ([Plate VII.], Fig. 10), which conducted the thrust from the lofty wall of the nave over the external roof of the aisle by an arch on the wall-buttress, which was strengthened to do its work by the addition of a heavy pinnacle. [Plate V]., Fig. 9, from Lichfield Cathedral, shows two buttresses of the Lancet period built to meet the thrust of the ribs carrying the vaulting of the Chapter-house and Library over. In one of these the approximate direction of the thrusts is indicated by the arrows a, b, which, if unopposed, would cause a collapse; the ultimate deflection of their path by the weight of the superincumbent masonry is indicated by dotted lines within the buttress, thereby producing equilibrium through the opposing resistance from the foundations along the same path.
In [Plate V.], Figs. 10 and 11, the piers had columns surrounding them whose shafts in the Lancet period were detached, but connected at their extremities by moulded stone bands (A, B), and at the bases and capitals. These piers were sometimes carried to a great height, as those in Westminster Abbey, which have three of these stone bands in their height. In the Geometrical period the shafts formed part of the main pier, were not detached, and resembled mouldings ([Plate V.], Fig. 11). Such shafts were described as engaged.
[Plate V.], Fig. 7, shows a tower with a broach-spire belonging to the Early English period. In the figure the four broaches are the small pyramids covering the squinch arches or squinch corbels, which carried four of the eight sides of the octagonal spire across the angles of the tower.
[Plate V.], Fig. 4, shows three Lancet windows under a single arch or dripstone. This grouping of the windows soon suggested the design of tracery windows, in which the lights are separated by mullions, the simplest form being as represented in the Lichfield Chapter-house in [Plate V.], Fig. 9. Geometrical arrangements were invented from the simple one ([Plate V.], Fig. 5) to the elaborate windows and arcades of Westminster Abbey. Cusps (spear points) were formed in the tracery, the Soffit-cusp (s.c.) projecting from the underside of the mullion, indicating early work and uncommon. All other cusps were worked on the chamfer (c.c), their points being variously shaped.
In [Plate V.], Fig. 8, the capitals were either moulded, or carved with stiff-leaf foliage, being conventional—i.e., designed on natural principles, but not in imitation of nature, and sometimes of great beauty, but never so delicate as to suggest its unsuitability to the material in which it was wrought. Hollows in the arch and other mouldings were enriched with the tooth ornament ([Plate V.], Fig. 12), which occurs in the Lancet period only.
[Plate V.], Fig. 2, shows the decoration of gables with crockets and finial.
[Plate V.], Fig. 3, shows diaper ornaments used in wall decoration.
[Plate V.], Fig. 6, shows a string course and dripstone. All mouldings consist of large rounds and deep hollows, separated by fillets (a, b), and are frequently arranged in extensive groups, as in doorways, arcading, etc.
The Cathedral of Salisbury is the only one which is throughout belonging to the Early English period.
PLATE VI
DECORATED, 1272-1377
GEOMETRICAL, 1245-1315
CURVILINEAR, 1315-1360
PLATE VI
PLATE VII
DECORATED, 1272-1377
PLATE VII
Plates VI and VII
DECORATED, 1272-1377; GEOMETRICAL, 1245-1315; CURVILINEAR, 1315-1360
THE term “decorated” is applied to the work of this period because of the superfluity of its ornaments. Almost every feature was enriched with carved ornament. The predominating form is the curvilinear line, the ogee or ogival ([Plate VI.], Fig. 2), Hogarth’s “line of beauty and grace,” which occurs in the lines of tracery, the shape of arches, sections of mouldings, and of foliated ornament.
The Geometrical period, 1245-1315, is the overlapping of Early English and Decorated. The term Geometrical is applied on account of the window tracery, which is made up of circles and triangles more or less elaborate. The change from Geometrical to Curvilinear or flowing tracery is demonstrated in [Plate VII.], Figs. 1, 2; [Plate VII.], Fig. 2, being a slight alteration of [Plate VII.], Fig. 1.
[Plate VII.], Fig. 5, reticulated—net-like—is a common example produced in the same manner as [Plate VII.], Fig. 2, and is adaptable to all shapes of windows. Many elaborate and beautiful designs were produced on these principles by extension of such elements as in [Plate VII]., Fig. 3.
[Plate VII.], Fig. 4, is a common type of window; an extension of the simple two-light window ([Plate V.], Fig. 9), frequently enriched with cusps and ball-flower ([Plate VI.], Fig. 3) in the hollows of the mullions.
In [Plate VII.], Fig. 10, the buttresses are decorated with niches for statuary. A flying-buttress is shown (F.B.), carrying the thrust of the stone-vaulted roof of the nave over the external roof of the aisle into the main buttress, whose weight and consequent stability are increased by the heavy pinnacle. The smaller buttress (C.) resists the thrust of the window arches. Norwich Cathedral displays an interesting array of flying-buttresses.
[Plate VI.], Fig. 6, shows a tower and spire at the crossing of nave and transepts. The base of the spire and its broaches ([Plate V.], Fig. 7) are concealed by a parapet wall, with battlements protecting a footway round the spire, which could be used as a place of observation. Mouldings in the Geometrical period attained the greatest refinement. Many can be favourably compared with those of the best Greek periods.
Arches continued to be built in square orders ([Plate III.], Figs. 6 and 8), and consisted of round mouldings, generally separated by deep hollows and fillets ([Plate VII.], Fig. 7).
In mouldings of the Curvilinear period ([Plate VII.], Fig. 8) the ogee superseded the round, and the hollows were shallower. Towards the end of the period the square orders ceased, and the planes of the orders were at about 45° with the vertical ([Plate VII.], Fig. 9; compare with [Plate VIII.], Fig. 12).
The wave-moulding ([Plate VII.], Fig. 9) and the scroll-moulding ([Plate VII.], Figs. 9, 12, and 13), supposed to resemble a parchment scroll, are conspicuous in the Curvilinear. The general character of the ornament is indicated on [Plate VII.], in most of which the ogee line is apparent.
The ball-flower ([Plate VI.], Fig. 3) is a distinctive feature of the Decorated period superseding the tooth ornament of the Lancet ([Plate V.], Fig. 12). It was applied to hollow mouldings of arches and tracery of windows, vaulting, and spires.
Capitals were moulded as in the section ([Plate VII.], Fig. 13), or carved, as [Plate VI.], Fig. 4, generally in imitation of natural foliage, varying from a bold conventionalism ([Plate VI.], Fig. 5) to a close imitation of nature, as [Plate VI.], Fig. 1 (a.a.). Animal forms and small human figures were occasionally introduced. Figure sculpture reached its highest degree of excellence in this period.
Construction was further advanced, but in design the climax had been attained in the Geometrical period, and a very gradual decline set in, as shown in excessive ornamentation and literal imitation of natural forms in stonework, which is unsuitable for such delicate treatment on account of its fragility.
The increasing wealth of the nation during this period is indicated by the grandeur of the buildings and the redundancy of ornament.
PLATE VIII
PERPENDICULAR, 1377-1547
RECTILINEAR, 1360-1550
PLATE VIII
PLATE IX
PERPENDICULAR
Plates VIII and IX
PERPENDICULAR, 1377-1547
RECTILINEAR, 1360-1550
THE term “perpendicular” was applied to the work of this period, the last of English Gothic, on account of the predominance of vertical lines in the whole architectural design, and especially in window tracery.
A comparison of [Plate VII.], Fig. 5, net tracery, with [Plate IX.], Fig. 5, rectilinear, will explain how the latter was developed from the former by extending the sides of the meshes of the net by straight lines into the summit of the window. But as the term perpendicular is only a relative one, not necessarily meaning vertical, the term rectilinear was substituted, being descriptive of the general character of the whole design in mass and detail. In this work, however, the term “perpendicular” is preferred as the one most generally known. Windows became so large, chiefly for the display of stained glass, as to reduce the wall spaces between them to little more than piers, and transoms (horizontal mullions) had to be introduced to strengthen the vertical mullions. [See [Plate IX.], Figs, 1 and 2 (a.b.), belfry windows in these examples.]
Loftiness is a special trait of the Perpendicular period. Walls were carried to a greater height than previously. The external roof was frequently covered with lead, and inclined at an angle easy to walk upon. The roof-timbers were supported by ornamental principals exposed to view from the interior, or there was a stone-vaulted internal roof of rich design, the increased thrusts upon the walls being counteracted by larger buttresses.
Tall towers were built, such as those of York Minster, Gloucester, Worcester, and the churches of Boston (Lincolnshire), Wrexham, Taunton, and many others of magnificence. [Plate IX.], Figs. 1 and 3, give varieties of smaller parish church towers. In these the Tudor arch and square-headed window are shown. Spires are not so common as in the preceding periods. Buttresses were placed diagonally at all corners, scientifically the best position ([Plate IX.], Figs, 1 and 2).
In large churches external wall surfaces were enriched with panelling, covering in some cases the whole from ground to summit, and combined with open tracery in the battlements. In the interior the same kind of decoration prevailed, and in some cases the window tracery was carried below the glass down to the floor as panelling.
[Plate IX.], Figs. 4A and 4B, gives the comparative shape of battlements.
Arch-mouldings ([Plate VIII.], Fig. 12) generally included the large hollow also common in the window jambs. The plane of the arch-mouldings was inclined to the vertical 45° ([Plate VIII.], Fig. 12). The usual dripstone (d.s.) and some of their corbels are shown in [Plate VIII.], Figs. 1 and 3. Piers ([Plate VIII.], Fig. 11) were of the simple form shown with columns at the angles, single, or in groups, as [Plate VIII.], Fig. 13, the general contour of the pier being a rhombus or lozenge in plan.
The ogee arch with crockets and finial was continued from the Decorated period.
The Tudor or four-centred arch ([Plate IX.], Figs. 1 and 6) belongs to the late Perpendicular period.
[Plate VIII.], Fig. 4, shows a common form of Tudor door-head with the label or square dripstone and carved spandril (a triangular space). Columns were circular, with octagonal bases and capitals, the latter moulded or carved with oak-leaf foliage or conventional ornament, resembling that in [Plate VIII.], Fig. 9. Corbels with shields ([Plate VIII]., Fig. 9), armorial bearings, and the Tudor rose ([Plate VIII.], Fig. 2), frequently occur.
Many Perpendicular churches are rich in ornamental woodwork: choir stalls with lifting seats (misereres), under which are grotesque carvings; poppy-heads (Fr. poupée, a doll), the bench-end ornaments which sometimes carried a small carved figure among foliage; panelled screens crowned with brattishing ([Plate VIII.], Fig. 5), and other ornaments. The term brattishing is also applied to the open tracery of some battlements of the Perpendicular period.
The Perpendicular is the longest of the English Gothic periods. In it Gothic construction attained its climax; ornamentation declined from a refined realism to coarse conventionalism, coinciding with the decline of spiritual life in the Church. Cathedrals and churches increased in all dimensions, and everything showed the tendency towards the renaissance of classic art which was flourishing on the Continent. Classic mouldings were imitated, and carved ornament of pure Italian design was applied to decorate Gothic forms—notable instances being the tomb of Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey, and the Salisbury Chantry in Christchurch Priory near Bournemouth. Both were the work of Torregiano, a contemporary of Michael Angelo.
The English people clung to their Gothic style for a century after the same had almost disappeared from the Continent, and in the Elizabethan period, 1558-1603, classic details, including the five orders, were completely incorporated into Gothic design. The pointed arch disappeared; the Roman semicircle took its place. Brickwork superseded masonry, roof construction was concealed, and all kinds of shams were introduced. Then came a period of close imitation of Greek and Roman temples, until the Gothic revival under its pioneer, A. W. Pugin (b. 1812, d. 1852), whose literary works are very instructive and interesting reading. The present-day (1922) tendency is towards a revival of Byzantine architecture.
PLATE X
ENGLISH GOTHIC ROOFS
PLATE X