Conclusion.
The Treaty of Vervins scarcely made any alteration in the political geography of Europe. Its importance lies rather in the changed conditions which accompanied it, and followed it.Condition of Europe at the Peace of Vervins. A few months after the signing of that treaty, Philip II. died (September 12, 1598) in his seventy-second year, at the Escurial—that magnificent though somewhat strange mixture of ‘a palace, a monastery, and a tomb,’ which is the chief architectural monument of his reign. Had Philip been a wiser man, he might have retained the obedience of the Netherlands, and profited by their industry and their colonies. He might have developed the resources and the constitutional liberties of his country, and enriched her by commerce with America. He might have turned her arms against the Turk, made himself master of the Mediterranean, and left Spain consolidated and prosperous.Decline of Spain. Intent, however, on more magnificent schemes, he had failed disastrously. His attempt to lead the Catholic reaction, and to re-establish the unity of the Church on the basis of Spanish supremacy, had ended in disaster. The defeat of the Armada had saved England from both Spain and Rome. The United Provinces had virtually won their religious and political freedom, and Henry IV. had bowed the Spaniard from his doors. Meanwhile Spain, exhausted by the constant drain which the vast attempts involved, and ruined by the disastrous policy pursued at home (cf. [ch. vii.]), was fast declining. After Philip’s death her royal race degenerated rapidly; and with a shrinking population, paralysed industries, and attenuated resources, she was forced to step aside and leave the struggle for supremacy to others.
And yet the Catholic reaction, of which Philip had been the leading spirit, had not been without its successes. If England,Successes of the Catholic Reaction. the United Netherlands, and the Scandinavian kingdoms had decisively broken away from Rome, Protestantism had been completely crushed out in Spain and in Italy, and in 1587, Catholicism was finally restored in Poland by Sigismund. In France, if the Huguenots had secured toleration, that toleration was not to last; and Catholicism had not only captured the King, but had again been recognised as the religion of the State. In Germany, too, the advance of Protestantism had, since the middle of the century, been arrested. The Jesuits had by this time made their influence felt, not only by their missionary and educational work among the people, but also on the policy of the Princes. In Bavaria, Albert III. (1550–1579) drove out the Protestants, and made his Duchy a stronghold of Catholicism. In 1576, Rudolf II. succeeded his father, Maximilian II., in the most important of the Austrian dominions,[85] and was elected Emperor. Maximilian had been half-inclined towards Lutheranism. Rudolf, educated under the influence of his mother, the daughter of Charles V., and subsequently at the Spanish Court, was strongly Catholic. He dismissed the Protestant preachers from Vienna, and supported a Catholic policy in the Empire. The advance of Catholicism was also favoured by the dissensions between the Lutherans and the Calvinists, who were respectively headed by the Electors of Saxony and of the Palatinate. Under these circumstances, quarrels over the controverted clauses of the Peace of Augsburg were inevitable (cf. [pp. 248–9]). The Catholics questioned the right of the Bishop of Magdeburg to a seat in the Diet, and, in 1581, had driven Gebhard Truchsess from his Electoral See of Cologne, because these two prelates had embraced Protestantism.
Day by day the relations between the adherents of the two creeds became more strained. Already the Thirty Years’ WarDisorganised condition of Germany. was looming in the distance—a war in which Protestantism was indeed to hold her own, but at the price of the destruction of German nationality and unity, almost of German independence, and of the crippling of national prosperity and intellectual growth for more than a century.
France, it is true, had suffered severely from her civil war of thirty-six years. Trade and industry had been ruined, and her finances heavily strained.Condition of France. The venality of her administrative system had been increased. The Estates-General and the ‘Parlements,’ the representatives of constitutional life, had been discredited; the former by the extreme views it had at times adopted, both by their subservience to the League. The power and self-importance of the nobles had been increased during the civil wars, and by the system adopted by Henry IV. of buying off their opposition. The desire for federative republicanism had grown with the growth of Calvinism. All these things had been the results of the religious wars. Yet after all, it was the royal power and prestige which in the end had benefited most from the internal discords.Revival of the Royal authority. It was Henry who had given his country peace at last, and thereby earned the gratitude of his people; he it was who chiefly gained by the discredit into which the organs of constitutional life had fallen, and by the divisions and dissensions of his subjects. The nobles, indeed, were dangerous, but Henry IV. was successful in defeating their intrigues. His able, though self-sufficient and egotistical minister, Sully, reorganised the finances, and did something to check the venality and corruption which existed. The marvellous recuperative powers of the country came to his assistance; and France under the clever, though somewhat cynical, rule of her great King became once more a first-rate Power. Had Henry lived longer, or had he been succeeded by a capable son, the Thirty Years’ War would probably not have occurred, or would have been ended sooner. The House of Hapsburg might have been humbled to the dust, and France might have established a dangerous supremacy in Europe. The assassination of Henry IV. in 1610 prevented this; France, on his death, became the victim of a weak minority, and a troubled regency; and Europe was not threatened with a French supremacy until the reign of Louis XIV.
[80] Probably a corruption of the German word ‘Eidgenossen’ (confederates), first applied to the Protestant party in Geneva.
[81] Cf. [Appendix I.] for meaning of this.
[82] Henry held Lower Navarre and the Principality of Béarn in his own right, and, as fiefs, the Duchies of Vendôme, Beaumont, and Albret; the Counties of Bigorre, Armagnac, Rouergue, Perigord, and Marle; the Viscounties of Limoges, and other lordships. See [Map of France].
[83] While Sully had been doing something to replenish the exchequer of King Henry, his antagonist, Philip, attempted a more summary method. On November 20, 1596, he publicly revoked all assignments, or mortgages by which the taxes on the royal domain had been pledged for money advanced to him. The pretext for this wholesale repudiation was that his exertions for Christianity had reduced him to beggary, while the money-lenders had been growing rich at his expense. The deed, however, produced a panic. The chief merchants and bankers suspended payment, and the credit of Spain received a shock from which it did not easily recover.
[84] The Marquisate of Saluzzo in Piedmont had been ceded to France by the Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, cf. [p. 257]. Henry IV. in 1601 exchanged it with the Duke of Savoy for Bresse, Bugey, and Gex.
[85] His brothers, Ferdinand and Charles, received Tyrol and Styria. These were reunited to Austria proper under Ferdinand II., and the Austrian dominions were declared indivisible, 1621.
APPENDIX I
THE FRENCH CONSTITUTION IN THE FIFTEENTH
AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
Cf. Gasquet, Institutions Politiques et Sociales de la France.
Chéruel, Dictionnaire Historique des Institutions de la France.
I. Central Administration.—Conseil du Roi (King’s Council), or Conseil d’État (Council of State). The supreme Executive Council of the realm. It also exercised Legislative powers through its Ordinances, and high Judicial power until organisation of the Grand Conseil.
1. Sometimes heard ultimate appeals from the Sovereign Law Courts.
2. Evoked cases from other Courts in which public interests were involved.
3. Heard complaints against the royal officials.
These Judicial Powers were subsequently transferred to—
α. The Grand Conseil.—Finally organised in 1497, to decide questions of disputed jurisdiction between the other sovereign Courts, but never very important. Composed of the Constable (the Chief Military Officer), the Chancellor (the Supreme Civil Officer), the Princes of the Blood, Officers of State.
β. The Conseil Privé or des parties. A Judicial Committee of the Council erected in the seventeenth century.
A number of clerks (Maîtres de Requêtes) under the Conseil du Roi, worked various Departmental Councils, such as those of War and Finance.
II. Central Courts of Justice.
A. The Parlement of Paris.—The Central Judicial Court of the Realm, sharing with the Grand Conseil the right of hearing appeals from all subordinate Courts.
The Parlement was divided into five Courts:—
1. The Grand Chambre.—This heard all appeals of great importance, and cases of first instance which concerned the Peers; cases of treason; and criminal charges against royal officials and members of the Parlement.
2. Chambre des Requêtes.—Decided smaller cases of first instance.
3. Chambre des Enquêtes.—Heard smaller cases of appeal, and prepared the more important appeals for the Grand Chambre.
4. Chambre de la Tournelle.—Tried less important criminal cases.
5. Chambre de l’Édit.—Established after the Edict of Nantes, 1598, to try cases between Catholics and Huguenots. One or two of the judges were to be Protestants.
B. Chambre des Comptes.—Exercised jurisdiction in all financial matters dealing with the royal domain, and audited accounts of the Baillis and Sénéschals; registered edicts concerning the royal domain, and recorded the fealty and homage of tenants-in-chief. Jurisdiction civil—not criminal.
C. Cour des Aides.—Exercised civil and criminal jurisdiction over cases dealing with Taxation, and audited accounts of the Élus who collected the direct taxes.
III. Local Justice and Administration.
1. Provincial Parlements, exercising the same authority as the Parlement of Paris within their districts, existed in the fifteenth century at—
| Toulouse | for Province of | Languedoc, | instituted | 1443. |
| Grenoble | „ | Dauphiné, | „ | 1453. |
| Bordeaux | „ | Guienne, | „ | 1462. |
| Dijon | „ | Burgundy, | „ | 1477. |
And the following were added during the sixteenth century at—
| Aix | for Provence, 1501. |
| Rouen | for Normandy, 1515. |
| Rennes | for Brittany, 1553. |
Five more were subsequently added—
| Pau | for | Béarn, 1620. |
| Metz | „ | 3 Bishoprics, 1633. |
| Douai | „ | Flanders, 1686. |
| Besançon | „ | Franche-Comté, 1676. |
| Nancy | „ | Lorraine, 1769. |
Most of these Provinces had their separate Chambre des Comptes, and Cour des Aides.
2. The Baillis or Sénéschals (with Prévôts under them).
(a) Collected the dues from the royal domains (while the Élus collected the regular direct taxes).
(b) Tried petty cases.
(c) Administered affairs, civil and military, of their Bailliage or Sénéchaussée.
Their jurisdiction was subordinated to that of the Parlements, and their financial accounts were under the Cours des Comptes, while that of the Élus were audited by the Cours des Aides.
Francis I., however, appointed new officers—the Lieutenants, Civil and Criminel—to whom, by the ordinance of 1560, the judicial functions of the Baillis and Sénéschals were transferred. After that date the importance of the Baillis and Sénéschals rapidly declined, especially after the final institution of the Intendants by Richelieu.
Francis I. also appointed twelve Lieutenants-Général over the frontier Provinces. During the Civil War these were extended to most of the Provinces; and the Governors, as they now were called, made themselves so powerful as to be ‘very kings.’ Henry IV. did his best to buy off these Governors; but their power was not finally overthrown till the time of Richelieu.
3. In 1551 Henry II. instituted Tribunaux Présidiaux as intermediate Courts between the Parlements and those of the Baillis or Sénéschals.
4. The nobles still retained their Seignorial Courts; but these, jealously watched by the Baillis and Sénéschals, were confined to questions between the Seigneur and his dependants.
5. The towns enjoyed municipal government, which varied very much, but was usually composed of a General Assembly which elected a Corps de Ville, which in its turn elected a municipality composed of the Mayor and échevins (sheriffs). In Paris the Prévôt des Marchands took the place of the Mayor. The rights of election, however, became day by day more and more visionary. The officials were usually nominated by the Crown, often in return for money. The towns also had their Courts, but the judicial powers, always limited, were finally withdrawn.
In Paris, however, there was a peculiar Court, that of the Châtelet, under the Prévôt of Paris (to be distinguished from the Prévôt des Marchands). The Prévôt of Paris had no Baillis or Sénéschal over him. He administered the police of the city, and heard cases on appeal from the Seignorial Courts of the town and district, as well as certain cases especially reserved to the Châtelet, such as dowries, rights of succession to property, etc.
The Estates-General (États Généraux).
Composed of three Chambers, consisting of deputies from the three Orders of Nobles, Clergy, Tiers État (Third Estate).
Mode of Election.—On fixed day, nobles, clergy, and townsmen met in chief town of Bailliage or Sénéchaussée.
Nobles and Clergy by direct Election.—The nobles and clergy drew up their cahiers (petitions), and elected their deputies separately.
Tiers État by double Election.—The townsmen chose a body of electors, who drew up the cahier, and elected the deputy.
After 1484 the peasants of the villages took part in the election of the Electoral Body.
In some of the Provinces a different system prevailed. Thus in Languedoc and Champagne, the three orders elected their deputies in common; in Brittany, the deputies of one order were chosen by the other two orders.
Procedure.—On the meeting of Estates-General the three orders were summoned to a Royal Séance (Session), in which the reasons for the summons were given.
The orders then separated, and each order proceeded to draw up their general cahier apart. The three cahiers having then been presented to the King, the States-General was dismissed.
Powers.—The States-General were originally summoned not to discuss, but to hear the will of the King, and to present grievances.
These Petitions were of considerable value, for, although the States-General was dismissed without having received the answer of the King, the cahiers often furnished the basis for royal ordinances. At various dates the Estates-General attempted to gain the same powers as those finally secured by the English Parliament:
1. Frequent and regular Sessions.
2. That their petitions should be answered.
3. Control of taxation and of policy.
4. Appointment, or at least responsibility, of ministers.
But in spite of notable attempts, especially those of 1355–1358, 1484, 1561 ([p. 398]), 1576–7 ([p. 423]), 1588 ([p. 431]), the States-General failed in obtaining its object, and after 1614, ceased to be summoned until 1789.
Reasons for failure of the States-General.—It is sometimes said that the States-General did not represent France; it is more correct to say that it represented France too well—in its want of cohesion, its class divisions, its absence of local government. Nor were the circumstances of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries propitious. During that period, the hundred years’ war, and the religious wars, led the people of France to lean on the King; the privileges of the feudal nobles prevented any unanimity between the upper and lower classes, and allowed the bureaucracy to gain such strength that it was impossible subsequently to overthrow it.
Thus the causes of failure may be tabulated as follows:—
1. The existence of three Houses prevented unanimity, more especially because they represented class divisions which were deep. The nobility being a caste dependent on blood; while the upper offices of the Church were also filled by nobles.
2. There was no class of country gentry as in England, from whom the knights of the shire were elected, and who united with the burgesses in the House of Commons.
3. The number of royal officials elected as deputies of Tiers État was generally very large.
4. The Estates-General of Orleans (1439), in establishing a permanent army by the Ordonnance sur la Gendarmerie, was held to have granted to the King a permanent tax, the Taille; and this, in spite of several protests, was subsequently increased at the royal will.
5. Since the nobles and clergy were exempt from the Taille—the first because they served in the feudal array; the latter because of their clerical privileges—the deputies of these two orders did not support the Tiers État in their attempt to control the purse. Thus the States-General lost the control of the purse.
6. There was no efficient local government like that of the English shire. The real power being in the hands of the royal officials, the Baillis and the Sénéschals, and later, of the Intendants.
Provincial Estates.—It is true that all the Provinces of France originally had their Provincial Estates composed of three orders.
(1) But in many Provinces they were artificial creations.
(2) They were weakened by the same class divisions as the States-General.
Accordingly after the fifteenth century many Provinces lost their Estates, and finally only some four survived the reign of Louis XIV., and even those had but little power beyond that of assessing the Taille.
The Church.—The Church had its
(1) Ecclesiastical Courts, which as elsewhere in Europe had attempted to extend their jurisdiction very widely, not only over clergy but over laity. By the end of the fifteenth century, however, their jurisdiction was confined to offences of clerics or laics against morals, the law or doctrine of the Church, and to cases concerning the marriage and death-bed—e.g. divorce, wills, etc.; any attempt on the part of the Ecclesiastical Courts to encroach on the domain of secular jurisdiction being met by the Appels comme d’abus (abuse), which were presented to the Parlement of Paris.
(2) Its Assemblies, in which, in and after the sixteenth century, the clergy voted ‘dons gratuits’ (voluntary offerings) to the Crown.
The relations of the Church to the Crown and to the Pope were further defined by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, and the Concordat of Bologna (cf. [p. 81]).
TAXATION.
The revenue during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was drawn from the following sources:—
I. The Royal Domain.
(a) Feudal incidents.
(b) Profits of Justice.
(c) Rights appertaining to the King as Sovereign—e.g. of succeeding to property of aliens dying without heirs, and of all bastards; fines on land granted in mortmain.
II. Direct Taxes.
(1) The Taille, which was of two kinds—
(a) In the Pays d’États it was generally a tax on the value of land, assessed by regular assessments, under orders of the Provincial Assembly.
(b) In the other parts of France (the Pays d’Élection), it was a tax levied on presumed income derived from whatever source, and assessed in a very arbitrary fashion by Élus, who were responsible to the Cour des Aides.
Exempt from the Taille were Nobles following arms, Clergy, Students at the Universities, Royal Officials, Municipal Authorities. Thus the tax fell practically on the lower classes.
(2) Dons Gratuits.—Taxes on clergy voted by ecclesiastical assemblies.
III. Indirect Taxes.
(1) Aides.—Dues levied on the sale of food-stuffs, wine, and other articles.
(2) Gabelles.—Salt was a royal monopoly; and every household had to buy so much salt for every member above the age of eight. The price was very high, but varied, as well as the amount to be bought, in different Provinces.
(3) Customs at the frontiers of every Province. These in later days were so heavy that a cask of wine would pay its value before it reached Paris.
(4) Sale of Offices.—By the end of the sixteenth century there was scarcely any royal office which was not sold.
The Aides, Gabelles, and Customs were in the hands of farmers of the taxes, who exercised great extortion.
APPENDIX II
CONSTITUTION OF FLORENCE IN THE FIFTEENTH
AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES.
I. Based on System of Guilds (since 1282), cf. Von Reumont, Lorenzo de Medici, vol. i. pp. 15 and 67. Villari, Florence, p. 312 ff.
Seven Greater Arti = Popolo Grasso.
Fourteen Lesser Arti = Popolo Minuto.
Each with its Council, Consuls, and Proconsuls. Number of eligible citizens (Statuali), some 5000 out of 100,000.
II. Executive.—The College, composed of Signory and Collegi—I tre Maggiori (offices).
(1) Signoría appointed for two months. Its members (unpaid with exception of its Secretary, and Chancellor), lived in Palazzo Publico at public cost.
| Powers.— | (a) Initiation of Legislation. |
| (b) Supreme Executive power. | |
| (c) Right of summoning a Parlamento. |
Members.—A. Gonfalonier of Justice (first instituted 1293), must be forty-five years of age and a member of one of Arti Maggiori. Presided over all Councils—and could call out the Militia. Originally elected by the Councils, but subsequently appointed by lot. Cf. below.
Members.—B. Eight Priori.—Two from each quarter of the city (originally elected by the Arts), must be thirty years old and members of a guild (six from Arti Maggiori, two from Minori since 1345). Each Prior presided with Gonfalonier for three days, and could put any measure to the vote if Gonfalonier refused. (‘Il proposto.’)
(2) The Colleagues (Collegi).
(a) Twelve Buonuomini (nine from greater, three from lesser Arts). These acted as a Privy Council and check on the Signory.
(b) Sixteen Gonfaloniers of the sixteen militia companies (four from each quarter of the city), under the Capitano del Popolo.
(c) Nine assessors of the Priors.
A permanent paid Secretary called ‘Second Chancellor.’
Exceptional. Capitani di Parte Guelfa.—These instituted in 1297, for protection of city against Ghibellines, were continued long after danger had passed away. They were from three to nine in number, elected for two months, and empowered to administer proceeds of confiscated property of Ghibellines exiled or condemned, and as these sums were large the Capitani undertook the maintenance of fortresses and defences and public buildings.
By Law of 1358 all who held or had held office might be accused openly or secretly before the Capitani as being no genuine Guelph. No witnesses for defence allowed—and if the accusation was supported by six witnesses worthy of belief the accused could be condemned to fine or death, without appeal.
By the end of the fourteenth century, however, this tyrannical organisation had somewhat lost its power.
III. Foreign Affairs were in hands of—
(1) Dieci di Guerra—called later Dieci di libertà e Pace—first appointed 1423.
(2) Two Councils, which considered the bills concerning foreign affairs before they went to the ordinary Councils.
(a) Consiglio del Dugento.—Two hundred of those who had held the highest offices of State.
(b) Consiglio Centotrentuno, 131 (the Signory, Captains of Guelph Party, Ten of War, Councils of craftsmen, Consuls of Guilds, and forty-eight citizens).
IV. Legislation after 1328.
A Law approved by the College went to—
1. The Two Councils of the Capitano del Popolo.
(a) Consiglio di Credenza or del Cento, 100 officials of guilds, sometimes called Senate, often disregarded. Cf. Nardi, 1, 4 (b). Symonds, Age of Despots, p. 530.
(b) Consiglio del Popolo, 300 originally chosen from the greater Arts—later from others as well, renewed every four months.
2. The Two Councils of the Podestà.
(a) A special Council of 90.
(b) The larger Consiglio del Podestà or del Commune, some 390. This contained judges and law officers (and therefore nobles, since nobles could hold these offices), as well as popolani, and were renewed every four months.
Finally, a law having passed these Councils had to be submitted to a General Council of them all.
The Signory and the colleagues ex officio were members of these Councils.
System of voting. By ballot. Black and white beans. Black = yes, white = no. ⅔ of black beans necessary to carry a question.
| Tenere le fave or il partito | = | To vote no. |
| Rendere le fave or il partito | = | To vote yes. |
| L’autorità dei sei fave | = | Majority of ⅔ in Signory. (6 out of 9.) |
| Il piu della fave | = | ⅔ of votes. |
V. Justice.
1. Court of Capitano del Popolo—a paid officer—must be a foreign noble and lawyer. Exercised summary criminal jurisdiction, especially over Plebs.
2. Court of Podestà—a paid officer—must be a foreign (Italian) noble and lawyer. Exercised higher civil and criminal jurisdiction.
3. Executor of Justice—a paid officer—must be a popolano and a Guelph and a foreigner. Exercised summary jurisdiction, especially over nobles.
All these held office for six months.
4. Casa della Mercatanzia. A tribunal for decision of Commercial Cases, which also acted as a Board of Trade.
5. Otto di Balía e Guardia, nominated by Signory, held office for four months.
A court of appeal from Court of Podestà and with powers of police.
The Signoria and the Otto had power to execute, banish, or imprison any citizen.
VI. Mode of Appointment to Chief Magistracies.
Originally elected by the Councils, but subsequently this replaced by system of ‘lot.’
For each office a purse (borsa), was formed every three or five years of all citizens eligible to said office, and names were drawn out of this purse.
In case of Priors, fifty wax balls, each containing eight names (six from Arti Maggiori, two from Minori), were put in the purse, and then a ball was drawn out.
Eligibility (Benefiziati, the Eligible).—This was decided by a Squittino (Scrutiny) conducted by a board—and persons could be considered ineligible ‘messo a sedere,’ for the following reasons (the disenfranchised 9000 out of 100,000):—
| 1. (a) | Grandi.—By Ordini della Guistizia, 1293, nobles could not be members of the Signoria or of the Collegi or of Consiglio del Popolo until 1434, when Cosimo allowed them to enter Guilds. |
| 1. (b) | The Plebe or Ciompi, all not members of Guilds. |
| 1. (c) | Inhabitants of Contado, country districts. |
2. Ammonito.—‘Warned’ for any political offence, e.g. being a Ghibelline, and denounced by the Capitano del Parti Guelfa; disqualification for life or shorter time. This system carried to great extravagance. ‘Hast thou no enemy? Consent to admonish mine and I will do the same by thine.’ Cf. Napier, ii. 235.
3. Moroso di Specchio (mirror).—One who had not paid his taxes. (Netto di Specchio, freed from this ineligibility.) By law of 1421, taxes must have been paid for thirty years by self, father and grandfather.
4. Divieto (prohibited).—Even after names were drawn a man might be disqualified because he or a relation had recently held office—‘veduto ma non seduto.’
The members of the board bound to secrecy, but
(1) As the period for which the purses had been made up drew to its close, it became possible to guess who would be the coming magistrates, and there were charlatans who pretended to foretell this.
(2) The members of the boards of scrutiny were bribed to divulge the names who would be drawn.
Legalised Revolution.—At times of crisis the Signoria would summon a Parlamento nominally of the whole citizens, but generally only of party adherents, who granted exceptional powers (Balía) to a certain number of citizens.
| The Balía | (1) could alter the constitution. |
| (2) Appointed Accopiatori (couplers or joiners) who selected those eligible to office, and sometimes nominated the officials, i.e. appointed ‘a mano’ instead of ‘a sorte.’ |
In 1459 (under Cosimo) a council of 100 was instituted to elect the Accopiatori.
Florence enjoyed political, but no civil liberty.
(1) Powers of magistrates unchecked.
(2) No appeal from Law Courts. Arbitrary Jurisdiction.
(3) No liberty of Press.
CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION.
N.B. Signory lasted till 1530.
I. Under Lorenzo.
II. | 1494. Savonarola’s Reforms. Cf. Burd, p. 94. Guicciardini,Storia Fiorentia, iii. 120. Villari, Savonarola, p. 257.Perrens, ii. c. 3. Cambridge Mod. Hist., vol. i. p. 158. |
(1) Temporary.—A Parlamento summoned, who appointed 20 Accopiatori (Governo de’ Venti). These filled up magistracies for the year and prepared a Squittino for the future.
(2) Permanent.—Constitution formed in imitation of Venice. Consiglio del Popolo and del Commune and Parlamento abolished.
A. Consiglio Generale, or Maggiore, formed of all eligible ‘benefiziati’ citizens (all those of age of 29 whose father, grandfather, or great-grandfather had been veduto or seduto for one of three greater offices, about 3000). But if the number of the ‘benefiziati’ exceeded 1500, they were to be ‘sterzati,’ i.e. divided into 3, and ⅓ of the whole number were to form the Consiglio for 6 months. A small number of citizens, above age of 24 and otherwise qualified, were admitted, and each year 60 eligible but neither veduto nor seduto might be elected if they received two-thirds of votes.
B. Consiglio degli Ottanta, a Senate elected out of and by Consiglio Generale for six months, must be 40 years of age.
B. The Senate was to advise The Signory (which remained as before), and elect ambassadors and commissioners to army.
The Consiglio Generale was
(1) To elect to magistracies by a complicated system of voting and selection by lot. Cf. Guicciardini, Storia Fiorentina, iii. 125.
(Subsequently the system of direct appointment by lot was again introduced. Cf. Guicciardini, iii. 155, 203, 235.)
(2) To hear criminal appeals from the Signory and Otto di Balía.
(3) To pass laws. The President Il Proposto, one of the Signory, changed every third day, laid the law before the Signory and the Collegi. If they approved it might be submitted to a Practica of selected members of the Consiglio d’Ottanta. Thence it went before the Ottanta, and then to the Consiglio Generale. Here laws could not be discussed, though Signory might call on some one to speak in support, but were voted on.
C. Dieci di Libertà e Pace (called also Dieci di Balía), again restored in place of the Otto di Pratica. The Signory, the Courts of the Capitano and of the Podestà, the Mercatanzia, and the Otto di Balía remained as before. The Dieci di Pace e Libertà restored.
In 1498. The Courts of the Podestà and the Capitano del Popolo were restored.
This Government lasted till 1512, with these exceptions:—
(i) In 1502.
(a) The Gonfalonier to be elected for life, by a double system of nomination and election. Piero Soderini elected. (Guicciardini, iii. 281; Villari, Life of Machiavelli, ii. 102; Perrens, Hist. Flor. ii. 408.)
(b) Courts of Podestà, of the Capitano del Popolo, and of Mercatanzia abolished. Instead, the Ruota della Justizia composed of five Doctors of Law with civil and criminal jurisdiction. These to be foreigners elected by Signory and the College for three years, and paid, one of whom was to be Podestà. The Mercatanzia, however, continued as a Board of Trade.
(ii) 1506. A militia instituted at suggestion of Machiavelli.
All males from 15—50 years of age to serve, but only from the city and country district (contado) of Florence. Not from her subject cities. (Burd, 126.)
The militia placed under a new board of nine, Nove della Milizia, which however was under the Dieci di Libertà e Pace in time of war.
III. 1512. Return of Medici.
The constitution restored as it was before the revolution of 1494, although nomination to offices lay practically in hands of the Medici, Giuliano, and Lorenzo. (Burd, 145, 148.)
IV. 1527. Re-establishment of the constitution of Savonarola, 1494, except that Gonfalonier was to be elected for 13 months.
V. 1530. Final overthrow of the Republic. Perrens, Hist. Flor., iii. 368.
Alessandro de Medici appointed Grand Duke.
12 Reformatori elected in a Parlamento to ‘reform’ the State.
1. Signory abolished.
2. A Council of 200 elected for life.
3. A Senate of 48 elected for life from the 200, with powers of legislation and taxation, and appointment to offices.
4. A Privy Council of four Councillors elected for three months by 12 Accopiatori chosen out of the Senate.
These with the hereditary Grand Duke fulfilled duties of the Signory.
| The Otto di Pratica | ⎰ ⎱ | to be nominated by the Senate. |
| The Otto di Guardia | ||
| The Buonuomini |
All distinction between higher and lower ‘arti’ abolished.
The offices paid.
TAXATION.
See Napier, iii. 117. Von Reumont, i. 30. Ewart, Cosimo de’ Medici. Armstrong, Lorenzo de’ Medici.
I. Indirect Taxes. Import and Export Duties. Monopoly on Salt.
II. On Real and Personal Property.
III. Prestanze.—Forced loans on the estimated property. In theory these were to be repaid and interest paid meanwhile, but this was rarely done (‘tenere i luoghi’ (shares) = to withhold the payment of interest), so much so that most took advantage of the law, that where the amount did not exceed two golden florins they might pay one-third down and forfeit all claim to interest or repayment.
The system led to great abuse. The influential got repaid, not so the poor. Hence speculators connected with Government bought up claims on the State for small sums, and then got the loan refunded.
The Assessment (estimo) of citizen’s property for II. and III. was originally managed thus—
1. A Balía appointed who assigned to each ward their quota.
2. In each ward. Seven Boards of seven each (Sette Settine) made seven schedules of assessment on the citizens according to their idea of the property of each individual.
3. These seven schedules were sent to some of the best reputed monasteries, which rejected the four schedules which differed most widely, and then, adding up the amounts assessed to each taxpayer by the three remaining schedules, divided the total by 3.
But under this system numerous exceptions had crept in; indeed, the rich were largely exempted on the plea that they served the State by taking office.
Hence the reform of the Catasto, 1427 (Accatastare, to heap up). A valuation made every five years of all property subject to taxation. (Lands, movables within or without city, rents, profits of business.)
From this sum capitalised at the rate of 7 per cent., i.e. 7 florins income = 100 florins capital, deductions for necessary expenses were made. The remainder, which was looked upon as a surplus, was liable to be taxed either for direct tax or for loans at the rate of ½ per cent. on the capital.
From the time of Cosimo the Assessment was made by officials instead of representative Committees, and the principle of graduation was introduced. This became perpetual in 1480, when the tax was thrown on land only at
⅒th of annual value (the Decima Scalata). In 1482 the tax on movables and professions (Arbitrio) was reintroduced.
Under Savonarola, 1494, the system of graduation was abolished and the Decima was levied on land only, but shortly after the old system was re-established.
In 1503. The Arbitrio, a tax on Professions established.
IV. Poll Tax from 1¼ to 4¼ florins per head between ages 17–70. In cases of large young families only one member taxed.
Subject Towns and Districts of two kinds.
1. Somissio by conquest or compact. The relation of Florence to these differed; but, generally speaking, the Podestà was appointed by Florence, and an appeal lay to Florentine Courts, while the dependent city kept its own government and laws, and more or less freedom of taxation.
The trade relations were peculiar. Both mother city and dependent cities maintained protective duties against each other.
2. Accomandigia.—Under a Protectorate, the town then called Raccomandato. This did not amount to much more than acknowledging the Florentine supremacy, and following her lead in war.[86]
Causes of instability of Florentine Government—
1. Conflict between idea of equality and desire of families to rule.
2. Jealousy of the Executive.
3. No adaptability in the Constitution.
4. Weakness and partiality of Justice.
5. Taxation the sport of parties, except when regulated by the Catasto, and that only for a short time.
6. Turbulent character of its citizens.
7. Oppressive government of its subject cities.
[86] Guicciardini in his Ricordi says: ‘The subjects of a Republic are in worse case than those of a Prince. A Republic grants no share of its grandeur to any but citizens of its chief city while oppressing others. A Prince considers all equally his subjects.’
APPENDIX III
VENETIAN CONSTITUTION IN THE FIFTEENTH
AND SIXTEENTH CENTURIES
| Authorities.— | Daru, Histoire de la République de Venise, B. xxxix. |
| Brown, Venice, pp. 163, 177, 398; Venetian Studies, p. 178. |
I. The Great Council (Maggior Consiglio).
Confined by law of 1296 to the families of those who were then members (Serrata del Maggior Consiglio). The eligible had to be elected, but were, as a matter of fact, always elected. No one could take his seat until the age of twenty-five, with the exception of thirty who were elected every December, and a few specially allowed to do so, in return for loans lent to the State.
Its functions were chiefly Elective. All officials, and magistrates elected by it, except a few of the highest officers, e.g. the Savii Grandi, the Savii di Terra Firma, and the Admiral.
System of Election.—Nominators, chosen by lot in the Council, elected candidates—sometimes two, sometimes four—for the vacant office. The names of these candidates were then submitted to the Council, and the one who received most votes was declared elected.
The Great Council also originally enjoyed (a) some legislative powers, but these were gradually absorbed by the Senate; (b) judicial powers. On presentation by the College they tried commanders accused of negligence or incompetency.[87]
II. The Senate (Pregadi, i.e. the Invited), 246 in number:—
(a) Sixty elected in the Great Council for one year.
(b) Sixty (the Zonta, i.e. addition) elected by the outgoing Senate and confirmed by the Great Council.
(c) Ex officio.—The Doge, his six Councillors, members of Supreme Court of Criminal Appeal, and members of financial and judicial departments.
(d) Fifty minor officials, who had a right to debate, but not to vote.
Its Functions.
(a) Chiefly Legislative.—It passed laws on the proposal of the College.
(b) Elected a few of the higher officials.
The Savii Grandi.
Savii di Terra Firma.
Admiral.
(c) Sometimes tried commanders accused of negligence or incompetence.
III. The Council of Ten (Consiglio de’ Dieci).—After 1310 this Council absorbed some of the functions of the Senate. Brown, Venice, p. 177.
How elected.
For one year, by the Maggior Consiglio, out of a list of twenty, of which ten were elected by the Consiglio, ten by the Doge, his Councillors, and the Chiefs of the Supreme Court of Justice. No member to be re-eligible for a year after holding office. The Doge and his six Councillors were ex-officio members. Subsequently, twenty additional members were elected in the Maggior Consiglio for each important case.
Functions.—(a) It looked after urgent questions of finance, public policy, and military organisation.
(b) Tried cases of treason, and other cases removed from the ordinary courts by the College.
IV. The Collegio proposed measures to the Senate, and was the Supreme Executive Authority.
Members.—(a) The Doge, six Councillors, three Presidents of the Criminal Court of Appeal.
(b) Six Savii Grandi, elected by the Senate for a period of six months. Must be 38 years old.
These superintended the action of the boards below them, and fulfilled the work of the responsible ministers of State.
(c) Five Savii di Terra Firma, elected for six months. Must be 30 years old.
1. Savio alla Scrittura. Minister of War.
2. Savio Cassier. Chancellor of Exchequer.
3. Savio alle Ordinanze. Minister for Native Militia.
4. Savio ai da mo. Minister for execution of urgent matters.
5. Savio ai ceremoniali. Minister for ceremonies of State.
(d) Five Savii da Mar, or agli ordini.
The Board of Admiralty, elected for six months, worked under direct superintendence of the Savii Grandi. Had a vote, but no voice in the College. Filled for most part with young men, who here received their political education.
V. The Doge.—Elected for life, by forty-one electors, themselves chosen by ballot, and vote in the Great Council (cf. Brown, Venice, p. 150). His position ornamental. He, with his six Councillors, who were elected for eight months in the Great Council, presided over the Council, the Senate, the College, and all State affairs were conducted in his name. But he had no power without his six Councillors, and little even with them.
VI. Justice.—This was administered by four Supreme Courts formed of judges elected out of its own members by the Great Council, who held office nominally for one year, but were usually re-elected.
(a) Criminal.—The members of this Court sat in the Senate, and its three presidents in the College.
(b) Three Courts of Civil Jurisdiction: of which one heard appeals from the inferior Courts in Venice, the other two from the Courts in the dependencies.
No decision of the appellant Court was valid unless it confirmed the decision of the inferior Court; and in the event of their decisions differing, the matter was constantly referred backward and forward until the Court of first instance and the Supreme Court could agree.
VII. Taxation.—Venice always objected to permanent direct taxation, and it was not till 1530 that she resorted to an income tax.
The chief taxes were:
1. Forced loans, redeemable or not, on which the State paid regular interest. This system, adopted in 1171, is perhaps the earliest instance of a national debt.
2. Each member of a guild paid—
(a) The Taglione = capitation fee for belonging to a guild.
(b) The Tansa insensibile = tax on profits of his work.
3. Duties on imports and exports.
4. Trade in salt, which was a State monopoly. The profits of this trade at home and abroad amounted at times to one-tenth of the gross revenue.
5. Profits of the State Bank, which did business often with foreign princes.
6. In days of her decline Venice also resorted to the system of selling public offices.
VIII. Government of Dependencies.—Aim to leave as much independence as was compatible with maintenance of Venetian supremacy, and to assimilate the government of the dependent town as closely as was possible with that of Venice.
The representatives of the Venetian Supremacy were the Rettori.
That is—
1. The Podestà—the supreme civil officer, with control over the police, the fiscal, and other administrative work.
2. The Capitano—who looked after the local levies and other forces.
Both these officials were in immediate communication with the Venetian Senate and the Ten, but were bound by oath to respect the local privileges.
Under the Rector stood the Free Municipal Government, which varied in every town, but was always presided over by a Podestà—an elected officer, who was sometimes a native, sometimes a Venetian, sometimes the Rector himself.
Reasons for stability of Venetian Government—
1. Coincidence of theoretical and practical Sovereignty in the same hands.
2. Adaptability of the Constitution, e.g. gradual assumption of power by Senate, and then by the Ten.
3. Strength of the Executive which excited no jealousy.
4. Impartiality of Justice.
5. Provision made for nobles in Government of Dependencies, for the middle class in civil service and commerce, for the lower classes in the fleet.
6. Large alien Population who did not want political power, but to be judged fairly, taxed lightly, and find employment.
For the imperial Institution, see pp. [106], [145].
For the Spanish Constitution, see pp. [92], [299].
[87] The College decided whether the offender should be tried by the Council or the Senate. If he was accused of treason, the case went to the Council of Ten.
THE POPES, 1494 TO 1598.
Alexander VI. (Rodrigo Borgia), August 1492 to 1503.
Pius III. (Francis Piccolomini), September to October 1503.
Julius II. (Julian della Rovere), November 1503 to February 1513.
Leo X. (Giovanni dei Medici), March 1513 to December 1521.
Adrian VI. (Tutor of Charles V.), January 1522 to September 1523.
Clement VII. (Giulio dei Medici), November 1523 to September 1534.
Paul III. (Alexander Farnese), October 1534 to November 1549.
Julius III. (Giovanni Maria del Monte), February 1550 to March 1555.
Marcellus II. (Marcello Cervini), April 1555.
Paul IV. (John Peter Caraffa), May 1555 to April 1559.
Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo dei Medici), December 1559 to December 1565.
Pius V. (Michael Ghislieri), January 1566 to May 1572.
Gregory XIII. (Hugh Buoncompagno), May 1572 to April 1585.
Sixtus V. (Felix Peretti), April 1585 to August 1590.
Urban VII. (Giovanni Baptist Castogna), September 1590.
Gregory XIV. (Nicholas Sfondrati), December 1590 to October 1591.
Innocent IX. (Giovanni Antony Facchinetti), October to December 1591.
Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), January 1592 to March 1605.
INDEX
Aargau, [120].
Aben-Aboo, King of Moriscoes, [290].
Aben-Farax, a leader of the Moriscoes, [288].
Aben-Humeya, King of Moriscoes, [288], [290].
Abruzzi, the, [40].
Adrian VI., tutor to Charles V., appointed Regent of Castile, [139];
Pope, [161];
policy of, [162];
death and character of, [164].
Aerschot, Duke of, [348], [354].
Africa, Portuguese conquests in, [85];
Spanish possessions in, [97], [206], [208].
Agnadello, battle of, [63].
Albert, and Albert Alcibiades. See [Brandenburg].
Albert, Cardinal-Archduke of Austria, Governor of Netherlands, [383];
invades France, [440];
retreats, [442].
Albret, Alan d’, in command against Spain, [46].
—— Charlotte d’, [35].
—— John d’, King of Navarre, [46].
Albuquerque, Portuguese Commander in India, [87].
Alençon, Hercules Francis, Duc d’, offered sovereignty of Netherlands, [347];
marriage negotiations with Elizabeth, [413];
sides with Huguenots, [418];
deserts them, [423]. See [Anjou].
Alessandria pillaged, [37].
Alessandro. See [Medici].
Alexander of Parma. See [Parma].
Alexander VI., Pope, [17];
makes terms with Charles, [20];
flies to Perugia, [22];
suspends and excommunicates Savonarola, [27], [28];
family policy, [35];
ratifies treaty of Granada, [41];
death, [46];
—— Alfonso the Magnanimous, [15].
—— II., [15];
succeeds Ferrante, [12];
marriage with Ippolita of Milan, [15];
abandons alliance with Milan, [16];
abdicates, [20];
escapes from San Germano, [21].
Alfonso of Este, [51].
Algiers, taking of, [97].
Allègre, Ives d’, [50].
Almeyda, Portuguese Commander in India, [86].
Alost, revolt at, [349].
Alva, Duke of, success in Italy, [253] ff.;
takes Lisbon, [298];
minister, [304] ff.;
sent to Netherlands, [327];
success in Netherlands, [331] ff.;
system of taxation, [337] ff.;
asks for recall, [339];
attempts to subdue revolt, [341] ff.;
leaves Netherlands, [343];
at Conference of Bayonne, [406].
—— Frederick, son of Duke, defeats Genlis before Mons, [341];
takes Haarlem, [342].
Alviano, Bartolomeo d’, [64].
Amboise, George, Cardinal of, [35], [46].
—— Castle of, [25];
‘Tumult’ of, [396];
‘Pacification’ of, [406].
Amiens, Conference of, [181];
seizure of, [441].
Amsterdam, rise of, [365].
Ancona, [49].
Angoulême, Francis of. See [Francis I.]
Anjou, Hercules Francis, Duke of (cf. [Alençon]), in Netherlands, [355] ff., [360];
death of, [426].
—— Henry, Duke of (cf. [Henry III.]), made Lieutenant-Governor of France, [407];
defeats Coligny, [409];
marriage negotiations, [412] and foll.;
plots massacre of St. Bartholomew, [414]–[416]. See [Henry III.]
Anne. See [Austria], [Brittany], [Saxony], and [Beaujeu].
Annona, assault of, [57].
Andrada, Fernando de, [45].
Anspach, George Frederick of, succeeds Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg, [246].
Antonio, Don, claims crown of Portugal, [297], [378].
Antony. See [Navarre].
Antwerp, rise of, [87], [319];
sack of, [350];
capitulation, commercial decline, [365].
Aragon, Ferdinand of, reclaims Roussillon, [6];
Treaty of Barcelona, [7];
Lord of Sicily and Sardinia, [11];
aids Ferrante, [24];
Treaty of Granada, [40];
war with Louis XII., [42], [48];
character of, second marriage, and death, [104] ff.
—— Catherine of, marriage, [92].
—— Isabella of, marriage, [92].
—— Joanna of, marriage, [92].
—— John of, death, [92].
—— Constitutional rights of, [92];
policy of Ferdinand, [94];
Cortes of, extracts confirmation of liberties from Charles V., [138];
not fulfilled, [144];
under Philip, [300].
Armada, [375] ff.
Arques, battle of, [433].
Arezzo, department of Florence, [52].
Arras, Union of, [357].
Asti, [37];
acquired by Savoy, [194].
Atella, fall of, [24].
Aubigny, Stuart d’, Governor of Calabria, [22];
invades Italy, [37];
enters Rome, [41];
gains Calabria, [43].
Augsburg, Diets of (1530), [111], [198], [230], [234], [247];
‘Confession’ of, [198];
(1555) Compromise on religious question, [247] ff.
Augustus. See [Saxony].
Aumont, Marshal d’, [433].
Austria, Anne of, marriage, [285].
—— Don John of. See [John of Austria].
Aversa, battle of, [191].
Avila, Sancho de, [334];
aids mutiny of Spanish soldiery, [349].
Axel, surprise of, [370].
Backerzell, [336].
Bailiwicks, the Swiss, [120].
Bajazet II., intrigues with Alexander VI., [17], [36].
Baglione, Gian Paolo, of Perugia, [53].
Barbarossa, Hayraddin, and Huroc, [206], [208].
Barberigo, Venetian admiral at Le panto, [294].
Barcelona, Treaty of, [7], [192].
Barletta, [44].
Basel, Peace of, [124].
Basilicata, the, [42].
Barneveld, John Van Olden, [368], [371].
Bavaria, Duke William of, supports election of Charles, at head of Suabian League, drives out Duke Ulrich, [131];
approves of his restoration, [210];
won over by Charles, [222].
—— Albert III., Duke of, [446].
Bayonne, Conference of, [406].
Beaujeu, Anne of, [5].
—— Susanna of, [33].
Bentivoglio, Giovanni, of Bologna, [50], [52], [53].
Bergen, Marquis of, [327], [336].
Bergerac, Treaty of, [424].
Berlaymont, Count, [321], [333].
Berquin, Louis de, [388].
Béza, Théodore, successor of Calvin, [274].
Bicocca, battle of, [163].
Bienne, [121].
Birago, successor of L’Hôpital as Chancellor, [414].
Biron, Marshal de, [425], [435], [439].
Biseglia, Duke of, second husband of Lucrezia Borgia, [52].
Blois, Treaty of, [36];
second Treaty of, [61].
Boisot, Admiral, relieves Leyden, [345].
Bologna in hands of Giovanni Bentivoglio, [50];
under French protection, [51];
threatened by Borgia, [52];
gained by Pope Julius II., [56];
Concordat of, [81].
Bonnivet, Admiral, [173].
Borgia, Cæsar, [47], [49]–[56];
released from ordination vows, [35];
conquests in Romagna, [50];
subdues revolt of his captains, [53];
death, [55].
—— Lucrezia, marriages, [52].
—— Rodrigo. See [Alexander VI.]
Borromeo, Carlo, Archbishop of Milan, [268], [302].
Bouillon, Robert de la Marek, Lord of, [147].
Bourbon, family of, [392].
—— Charles, Cardinal of, [392];
candidate of League for Crown, [428], [433];
reproaches to Catherine, [432];
death, [435].
Bourbon, Duc de, quarrels with Francis, commands Italian army with success, [172];
wins battle of Pavia, [175];
takes Rome, death, [186].
Bourg, Anne de, [391];
death, [396].
Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of, [81];
surrender of, [405].
Bragadino, [294].
Brandenburg, Albert of, [125];
secularises Prussia, [197].
—— Albert Alcibiades (of Brandenburg-Culmbach) joins Charles, [222];
joins Maurice against Charles, [241];
rejoins Charles, defeated by Maurice, [245];
driven from Germany, [246].
—— Joachim I. of, [131].
—— John Cicero of, [108].
—— John of Brandenburg-Küstrin, [222].
Breda, Conference of, [346].
Brederode, Henry, Viscount of, [326], [330].
Brescia, assault of, [67].
Bresse ceded to France, [445].
Briçonnet, Bishop of Meaux, [307].
Brille seized by ‘Beggars of the Sea,’ [339], [413];
handed over to Elizabeth, [366].
Brindisi occupied by Venice, [24].
Brissac yields Paris to Henry IV., [437].
Brisson, death, [434].
Brittany, Anne of, betrothed to Maximilian, marries (1) Charles VIII., [6];
(2) Louis XII., [34].
Brouage, fall of, [423].
Brunswick, House of, in Luneburg and Wolfenbüttel, [167].
Brussels, Union of, [351].
Buchhurst, Lord, [372].
Buda, battle of, [214].
Bugey ceded to France, [445].
Buoncompagno, Cardinal. See [Gregory XIII.]
Burgrave, Daniel de, secretary to Leicester, [368].
Burgundy, Mary, heiress of, [126].
Burleigh, Lord, [414].
Buys, Paul, [368].
Cadiz, Sack of, [383].
Cajetan, Cardinal, Papal Legate, [156].
Calabria, [40].
Calais taken by Duke of Guise, [255];
taken by Archduke Albert, [440].
Calvin, John, early life, [272];
at Geneva, [273] ff.
Cambray, Capitulation of, [439];
League of, [63];
Peace of, [193].
Camerino in hands of Giulio Cæsare Varano, [50];
occupied by Cæsar Borgia, [52].
Campeggio, Legate of Clement VII., [170].
Cappel, battle of, [203];
second Treaty of, [203].
Capitanata, the, [42].
Capitulations signed by Charles V., [134].
Capponi, Nicolo, re-establishes Florentine republic, [189].
Capua, fall of, [41].
Caraffa and the Counter-Reformation, [262]. See [Paul IV.]
Caravaggio, [37].
Carberry Hill, battle of, [339].
Cardona, Raymond de, commands army of Holy League, [67];
loses battle of Ravenna, [68].
Carlos, Don, mystery of, [281] ff.;
proposal for marriage of, [407].
Carlotta of Naples, [35].
Carranza, Archbishop of Toledo, [280].
Castellaneta, [44].
Castile, constitutional privileges of, [92], [299];
centralising policy of Ferdinand and Isabella, [93];
social cleavages in, [137];
protests of Cortes to Charles V., [138];
unsuccessful revolt, [140] ff.;
loss of liberties, [144].
—— Isabella of. See [Isabella].
Catalonia, [46].
Cateau Cambrésis, Treaty of, [257].
Caterina Sforza. See [Sforza].
Catherine. See [Medici] and [Navarre].
Cecil, Sir Thomas, Governor of Brille, [366].
—— Lord Burleigh, [414].
Cerdagne, cession of, [7].
Cerignola, battle of, [45].
Cerisoles, battle of, [216].
Cesena, surprise of, [56].
‘Chambres mi-parties,’ [421], [424], [443].
Champagny, brother of Granvella, [357].
Chandieu, a Swiss leader, [45].
Charles III., Duke of Savoy. See [Savoy].
Governor of Netherlands, alliance with Francis I., [78];
King of Spain, [82];
Peace of Noyon, [82];
character of, [130];
early difficulties in Spain, [137] ff.;
disputes with Diet of Worms, [145] ff.;
attitude to Luther, [159];
leagued with Henry VIII. and
Leo X., [160];
with Adrian VI., Milan, Genoa, Florence, and Venice, [164];
Spanish sympathies, [165];
attitude towards Luther, [171] ff.;
success in Italy; alliance with Henry VIII., [172] ff.;
makes Treaty of Madrid, [183];
opposed by League of Cognac, [184];
his success over Clement, [186];
makes Treaty of Barcelona, [192];
makes Treaty of Cambray, [193];
conciliatory policy in Italy, [194];
crowned by Pope at Bologna, [195];
forced to procrastinate in Germany, makes peace of Nuremberg; repulses Solyman; leaves Germany, [204];
his difficulties, [205];
negotiations and quarrel with Francis, [207];
tries to win over the Protestants, [213];
alliance with Henry VIII., [215];
holds Diet of Spires, [216];
Treaty of Crespi, [217];
secures various princes, [222];
issues ban against recalcitrants, [224];
arrangement with Ferdinand as to succession, [235];
failure of ecclesiastical policy, and of political schemes, [236] ff.;
agrees to Treaty of Passau, [243];
ill-success against France, [244];
Diet of Augsburg, [247];
policy in Netherlands, [317] ff.;
abdication, [250];
death, character of, [251] ff.
Charles VIII., Accession of, [5];
betrothed to Margaret of Hapsburg, but marries Anne of Brittany, [6];
makes treaties of Naples, Senlis, and Barcelona, [7];
claims on Naples, [15];
death, [25].
—— IX., Accession, [398];
declared of age, [406];
jealous of Anjou, [410];
supports Coligny, [411] ff.;
massacre of St. Bartholomew, [414] ff.;
death, [420].
—— of Guise. See [Guise].
Charron joins in massacre of St. Bartholomew, [414].
Châtillon, Odet, Cardinal of, [393].
Chaves, Fray Diego de, [307], [309].
Chièvres, [138];
attitude towards Luther, [158];
death of, [164].
Chimay, son of Duke of Aerschot, surrenders Bruges, [362].
Chinchon, Archbishop of Saragossa, [301].
—— Count de, [309].
Circles of German Empire, [114].
Città di Castello, [53].
Claude, daughter of Louis XII., [34], [42], [61], [78].
—— of Guise. See [Guise].
Clement VII. tries to enforce Edict of Worms, [170] ff.;
concludes Holy League of Cognac with Francis, Sforza, Venice, and Florence, [184];
obliged to submit to Monçada, but breaks terms, [185];
sack of Rome by Germans, [186];
captivity, [187];
selfish policy, final reconciliation with Charles, [192];
cites Henry’s cause to Rome, [193];
defensive alliance against Charles, [194];
crowns Charles at Bologna, [195];
refuses a General Council, [199];
death, [207].
—— VIII., [440].
Cleves, Duke of, claims Gueldres, [214];
forced to resign pretensions, [216].
Cœworden, capitulation of, [381].
Cognac ceded to Huguenots, [410];
Holy League of, [184].
Coligny, Gaspard de, Admiral, defence of St. Quentin, [255];
in power, [340];
connected with Bourbons, [393];
deprived of governorship of Picardy, [395];
joins Condé, [402];
retires on Orleans, [405];
opposes pacification of Amboise, [406];
in supreme command, [408];
defeated at Moncontour, [409];
expedition, Peace of St. Germain, [410];
his foreign policy adopted by court, [411];
attempted assassination, [414];
death of, [415].
Cologne, Hermann von der Wied, Archbishop of, [132];
becomes protestant, [211];
resigns, [227].
—— Diet of, [114].
Colonna, Prospero, Milanese commander, [79].
Columbus, Bartholomew, [100].
—— Christopher, difficulties in obtaining assistance, [99];
his discoveries and rule in Hispaniola, [100] ff.
Comuneros, revolt of, [137]–[144].
Condé, Louis of (a Bourbon), [392];
tried for conspiracy, [397];
appeals to arms, [402];
taken prisoner, [405];
pacification of Amboise, [406];
defeat at Jarnac, death, [408].
—— Henry of, in hands of Catherine, [415];
connected with ‘Politiques,’ [418];
escape of, [420];
comes to terms with Catherine, [421].
Condottieri, their influence, [7]–[13].
Constance, Diet of, [62], [114].
Contarini, [212].
Coqueville, [335].
Corbeil, occupation of, [434].
Cordova, Gonzalvo de, Spanish general in Italian war, [24], [43]–[48];
character of, [48].
Cortona, department of Florence, [9].
—— Cardinal of, [172].
Cosimo. See [Medici].
Cossé, Marshal de, [420].
Courtras, battle of, [431].
Creil, occupation of, [434].
Cremona, [36].
Crespy, Treaty of, [217].
Cruzada, a, [294].
Culmbach, Albert Alcibiades of, See [Brandenburg].
Custrin, John of, Margrave of the Neumark, joins Charles, [222].
Damville. See [Montmorenci].
D’Andelot connected with Bourbons, [393];
joins Condé, [402];
death, [409].
Del Nero, Bernardo, enemy of Savonarola, [29];
executed, [30].
Del Rio, [333].
Deventer made burgomaster of Utrecht by Leicester, [368].
—— surrender of, [371];
reduction of, [380].
Deza, Diego, [288].
Diet of Empire, construction of, [107];
chief Diets in period—Worms (1495), [109];
Augsburg (1500), [111];
Constance (1507), [114];
Trèves and Cologne (1512), [114];
Worms (1521), [145];
Nuremberg (1523), [167];
Spires (1526), [196];
second (1529), [197];
Augsburg (1530), [198];
Ratisbon (1532), [204];
second (1541), [212];
Worms (1545), [221];
Augsburg (1547), [230];
second session (1550), [234];
Augsburg (1555), [247].
Diois given to Cæsar Borgia, [35].
Diu, battle of, [87].
Djem, brother of Bajazet II., [20].
Doesburg, reduction of, [370].
Doria, Andrea, carries over Genoa to Francis; affronted with Francis, makes terms with Prince of Orange, [190];
establishes independent republic in Genoa, commands fleet against Barbarossa, [206].
—— John Andrew, at Lepanto, [294].
Doullens, battle of, fall of, [439].
Dragut, [285].
Drake, Sir Francis, [374].
Dreux, battle of, [405].
Duplessis-Mornay, [418].
Eboli, Ruy Gomez de Silva, Prince of, [304] ff.;
advises clemency towards Flemings, [331].
Egmont, Lamoral, Count of, wins battle of Gravelines, [256];
his reputation, [320];
joins in opposition to Philip, [324];
rallies to government, [328];
declines to support William of Orange in arms, [330];
arrested, [333];
executed, [335].
—— Egmont, Count, son of former, [357].
Eleanora of Portugal, sister of Charles V., second marriage arranged with Francis, [183], [193].
Elizabeth of England, Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, [257];
foreign policy of, [339] ff.;
offer of sovereignty of Netherlands, [347];
marriage negotiations with Anjou, [360];
sends Leicester to Netherlands, [366] ff.;
orders execution of Mary Queen of Scots; altercations with Dutch, [371] ff.;
policy of, [373] ff.;
Armada, [373] ff.;
leagued with Henry IV. against Spain, [383];
alliance with Huguenots, [405];
gives up claim to Calais, [406];
negotiations with France and Netherlands, [412] ff.;
marriage negotiations, [426];
attempts to obtain Calais from Philip in exchange for Brille and Flushing, [445].
—— of France, marriage of, [279];
death of, [412].
Enghien, Count of, [216].
Épernon, a favourite of Henry III., [425], [438], [440].
Erasmus, Desiderius, [151] ff.
Ernest, Archduke, in Netherlands, [382];
proposed as King of France, [435];
death, [383].
—— Duke of Luneburg, [167].
Escovedo, Secretary to Don John, murdered, [306], [353].
Espinosa, Bishop of Siguença, Cardinal and Secretary, Grand Inquisitor, [281], [288];
influence with Philip, [305] ff.
Essek, battle of, [208].
Estampes, Madame d’, [217].
Estates-General of France at Tours (1506), [62];
at Orleans and Pointoise (1560–1), [397], [398];
at Blois (1577), [423];
at Blois (1588), [431];
of 1593, [435]. See [Appendix I.], [453].
Este, House of, [9].
—— Ercole I., Marquis of Ferrara, [50].
—— Alfonso, marries Lucrecia Borgia, [51].
—— Ercole II., [259].
Estrées, Gabrielle d’, [440].
Étaples, Treaty of, [7].
Excusado, an, [294].
Faber, Peter, [263].
Famagusta, fall of, [294].
Farel, William, of Dauphiné, [273].
Farnese, Alexander. See [Parma].
—— Paul. See [Paul III.]
—— Ottavio, his grandson, [215];
Charles promises him Parma and Piacenza, [221];
refuses to appoint him Stadtholder of Milan, [227];
in possession of Parma, [237], [259].
—— Pierluigi, granted Parma and Piacenza by Paul, anti-imperialist, death, [231].
Federigo. See [Naples].
Ferdinand of Aragon makes second Treaty of Blois, [61];
on Joanna’s madness secures Castile, [62];
Holy League, [67];
Treaty of Mechlin, [75];
peace with France, [76];
a member of counter-league, [78];
death, [82];
policy, [92];
Church reform, [94].
—— of Austria obtains Austria, marriage of, [145];
assists in Italian campaign, [177];
sends Frundsberg to help Charles, [186];
elected King of the Romans, [203];
defeated at Essek, [208];
at Laufen, [210];
at Buda, [214];
arrangement with Charles as to succession; dissatisfaction of, [235];
neutral position of, [242] ff.;
manages affairs at Augsburg, [247];
becomes Emperor, [250].
Federigo of Naples, [24];
capitulates, [41].
Feria, Duke of, [435].
Fermo, Oliveretto da, [53].
—— occupation of, [52].
Ferrante I. of Naples, his cruelty and abdication, [12].
—— II. of Naples, driven from Naples, returns, but dies, [21], [24].
—— Duke of Calabria, [41].
Ferrara, House of Este in, [9];
birthplace of Savonarola, [25].
—— ceded to the Pope, [259].
Fivizzano, sack of, [19].
Fleix, Peace of, [424].
Florence, constitution of, [9] (and see [Appendix II.]);
leagued against France, [15], [78];
submits to Charles VIII., expels Piero, [19];
refuses to join League of Venice, [22];
reforms constitution, [26];
Medici restored to, [71];
Medici driven out and a republic re-established, [189];
siege of, Alessandro reinstated, [194];
under Cosimo, [259].
Flushing held by Dutch, commercial results of, [365];
handed over to Elizabeth, [366].
Foix, Germaine de, betrothal of, [62];
heiress to Gaston, [73].
—— Gaston de, [46];
commands in Italian wars, [67];
death in battle of Ravenna, [68], [69].
—— Catherine de, Queen of Navarre, [73].
Fontaine-Française, [439].
Fontarabia, [46].
Forest Cantons, the, [118]. See [Swiss Confederation].
Fornovo, battle of, [23].
Fossombrone, engagement of, [53].
France, under Louis XII., [90];
under Francis I., [219];
after civil wars, [447];
constitution of, [5]. And see [Appendix I.]
Francesco and Francesco Maria Sforza. See [Sforza].
Francis I. of Angoulême, King of France, [71];
Treaties with Venice, England, and Charles, [78];
Italian expedition of, [78];
makes Peace of Noyon, [82], and Treaty of London, [83];
character of, [129];
taken prisoner at Pavia, [175];
signs Treaty of Madrid, [183];
joins Holy League of Cognac, [184];
allies himself with Henry VIII., [187];
sends army to Italy, [188];
makes Treaty of Cambrai, [193];
commercial Treaty with Solyman, [207];
invades Italy, [208];
truce of Nice, [209];
war with Charles, Treaty of Crespi, [216];
death, character, [218] ff.
—— II., marriage, position of affairs at accession of, [258], [391];
death, [397].
—— See [Guise] and [Montmorenci].
Franco-Gallia, the, [418].
Frederick I., Elector-Palatine, [113].
Frederick the Wise. See [Saxony].
Fresneda, Fray Bernardo de, [309].
Friedwald, Treaty of, [330].
Frundsberg, an imperialist leader, [186].
Fuentes, Governor in Netherlands, [383];
defeats Turenne, [439].
Gaëta, siege of, [47].
Galeazzo Maria Sforza. See [Sforza].
Gandia, Duke of, a Borgia, [35].
Garigliano, battle of, [47].
Gaston. See [Foix].
Gelnhausen, compact of, [112].
Gemblours, battle of, [355].
Genazzano, Fra Mariano da, [30].
Geneva, position of, [273];
Calvin at, [274] ff.
Genlis, Count of, defeated before Mons, [341], [414].
George of Saxony. See [Saxony].
Gérard, Balthazar, [362].
Germaine. See [Foix].
Gertruydenberg, siege of, [383].
Gex, ceded to France, [445].
Ghent, revolt and submission of, [209].
Gian Galeazzo Sforza. See [Sforza].
Giovanni. See [Medici] and [Sforza].
Giulio. See [Medici].
Goletta, storming of, [206].
Gonzaga, House of, [9].
—— Imperial Stadtholder at Milan, [231].
Granada, Treaty of, [40].
Granvelle, Cardinal, influence with Philip, [308] ff.;
Gravamina, the hundred, [168].
Grave, surrender of, [370].
Gravelines, battle of, [256].
Gravina, Duke of (Orsini), [53].
Gregory XIII., [270];
attempts to mediate between Philip II. and Antonio, [298].
Gröningen, betrayal of, [358];
fall of, [383].
Gruet, executed at Geneva, [274].
Guasto, Marquis de, [216], [237].
Guerrero, Pedro, Archbishop of Granada, [288].
Guidobaldo, Duke of Urbino, [56].
Guinnegate, battle of, [76].
Guise, family of, [393].
—— Claude, Duke of, [393].
—— John, Cardinal, brother of Claude, [267], [392].
Guise, Mary, sister of Claude, Regent of Scotland, [215].
—— Francis, Duke of, success at Metz, [244];
advises war, [252];
defeated in Italy, [254];
takes Calais, [256];
falls from power, [397];
enters Paris and secures person of king, [401];
death, [406].
—— Charles, Cardinal of Lorraine, brother of Francis, [393], [407], [422].
—— Louis, Cardinal of Lorraine, brother of Francis, [393].
—— Henry, Duke of, holds Poictiers, [409];
joins in plot for murder of Coligny, and in massacre of St. Bartholomew, [414];
position of, [422];
heads Catholic League, [427];
enters Paris, death, [431].
—— Charles, Duke of, [435];
reconciled to Henry IV., [438];
takes Marseilles, [440].
—— Louis, Cardinal of, brother of Duke Henry, executed, [431].
Guisnes, scene of ‘Field of Cloth of Gold,’ [136].
Güns, repulse of Solyman at, [204].
Haarlem, sack of, [342].
Hapsburg, House of, Sigismund of Tyrol, [123].
—— Maximilian, betrothed to Anne of Brittany, [6];
war with Charles VIII., makes treaty of Senlis, [7];
Italian expedition, [28];
wishes to maintain Treaty of Lyons, [61];
a member of League of Cambray, [63];
signs Treaty of Mechlin, [76];
leagued against France, [79];
accepts Peace of Noyon, [83];
election of, [106];
attitude to reforms of Empire, [110];
position abroad, [113];
defeated by Swiss, [123];
dynastic policy of, [124];
character of, [126];
death of, [127].
—— Philip, Archduke, son of Maximilian, marriage of, [42].
—— Charles, son of Archduke. See [Charles V.]
—— Ferdinand, brother of Charles V., [145]. See [Ferdinand of Austria].
—— Joanna, daughter of Charles V., regent of Castile, [251].
—— Margaret, daughter of Maximilian, governess of Netherlands, [92]. See [Margaret].
Hapsburg, Albert, Cardinal Archduke. See [Albert].
—— Ernest, Archduke, brother of Emperor Rudolf. See [Ernest].
—— Maximilian II., son of Ferdinand, [446].
—— Rudolf II., son of Maximilian II., [446].
Havre ceded to Elizabeth, [405];
fall of, [406].
Hayraddin, Huroc. See [Barbarossa].
Heiligerlee, battle of, [335].
Henry II. of France, war in Italy, [237];
alliance with Maurice and Protestants, [239];
campaign in France, [254];
Peace of Cateau Cambrésis, [257];
persecution of Huguenots, [389];
Henry III. (see [Anjou]) succeeds his brother, [420];
refuses sovereignty of Netherlands, [366], [427];
yields to League, [429];
has Duke of Guise murdered;
on revolt of League turns to Navarre;
death, [431].
Henry IV. succeeds Antony of Navarre, [405];
his possessions, [412];
in hands of Catherine, [415];
connected with ‘Politiques,’ [417];
escapes, [420];
heir-presumptive, [426];
supported by ‘Politiques,’ [429];
his success, [429] ff.;
reconciliation with Henry III., [432];
struggle for the crown, [433];
‘conversion,’ [436];
war with Spain, [438] ff.;
leagued with Elizabeth and Netherlands, [383];
negotiations with Philip, [384], [442];
treatment of Huguenots, [442] ff.;
Peace of Vervins, [444];
rule and death of, [447] ff.
—— IV. of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, [167].
—— of Guise. See [Guise].
—— of Montmorenci. See [Montmorenci].
—— of Saxony. See [Saxony].
—— VII. makes Treaty of Étaples, [7].
—— VIII. supports Holy League, [67];
Treaty of Mechlin, [75];
victory of Guinnegate, [76];
peace, [77];
Treaty of London, [83];
leagued with Charles V. and Leo X., [160];
with Charles and Adrian VI., [164];
alliance with Charles V., [173];
allies himself with France after Pavia, [181];
anxious for divorce, [187];
Clement cites the cause to Rome, [193];
change of policy and alliance with Charles, [214] ff.;
war with France, Treaty of Ardres, [216] ff.
Henry (the Navigator), [85].
—— of Portugal, [297].
Hermandad, the, [93].
Hesse, Philip, Landgrave of, puts down the Knights’ War, [169];
defeats Münzer, [176];
establishes Lutheranism, [197];
signs protest, [198];
commands forces of League of Schmalkalde, [200];
battle of Laufen; restores Duke Ulrich; opposes John of Leyden, [210];
leader in Schmalkaldic War, [226] ff.;
submission and imprisonment, [229];
freed by Treaty of Passau, [243].
Hessels, [333].
Hohenzollern, House of, [166]. See [Brandenburg].
forces Venice to restore Medici, [71];
breaks up, [73].
Hoogstraten, [335].
Hoorne, Count, an opponent of Philip’s policy in Netherlands, [324];
rallies to government, [328];
arrested, [333];
executed, [335].
Hotman, author of Franco-Gallia, [418].
Howard, Lord, of Effingham, in command against Armada, [377].
Huguenots, early history of, [389] ff.;
origin of name, [391];
condition of, in 1561, [398];
Edict of January, [399];
massacre of Vassy, [401];
geographical distribution of, [403];
peace of St. Germain, [410];
massacre of, on St. Bartholomew, [414];
change in party; writings, [418];
federative republics, [419];
peace of Monsieur, [421];
altered position of, [429];
obtain Edict of Nantes, [442].
Hulst, reduction of, [380].
Humières organises League Péronne, [422].
Hutten, Ulrich von, [169].
Idiaquez, Juan de, [308].
Imbercourt, Chevalier d’, [43].
Imbize, a demagogue, [357].
Imola, in hands of Caterina Sforza, [50].
Inquisition in Italy, [269] ff.;
in Spain 278 ff.;
in Netherlands, [323] ff.
Interim, [232].
Ippolita Sforza. See [Sforza].
Isabella of Castile, [91];
policy of, [92];
Church reform, [94];
death, character of, [103];
importance of reign, [105].
—— of Portugal, [277].
Italy, the chief states of, in 1494, [7] ff.;
in 1559, [259].
Ivry, battle of, [433].
Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI., wife of Louis XII., [34].
Jarnac, battle of, [408].
Jemmingen, battle of, [337].
Joanna II. of Naples, [14].
succeeds her mother as Queen, [113];
—— Regent of Castile, [251].
Joachim I. and II. of Brandenburg. See [Brandenburg].
John Casimir of the Palatinate, [357], 359, [431].
—— Cicero of Brandenburg. See [Brandenburg].
—— Don, of Austria, [290] ff.;
wins Lepanto, [294];
commands a second expedition against the Turks, [296];
Governor of Netherlands, [351] ff.;
excites jealousy of Philip, [353];
victory of Gemblours, [355];
death, [356].
—— of Saxony. See [Saxony].
—— Frederick of Saxony. See [Saxony].
Joinville, Treaty of, [428].
Joyeuse, Duke of, [425], [431].
Julius II., policy of, [54], [56];
makes terms with Venice, [66];
forms Holy League, [67];
death of, [74].
—— III., imperialist policy of, [234], [236], [247].
Justin, son of William of Orange, [364].
‘Justiza,’ the, of Aragon, [94], [300].
Knights’ War, the, [169].
La Charité, [410];
fall of, [423].
Ladislas, King of Bohemia and Hungary, [40].
—— of Poland, [125].
La Fère, reduction of, [439], [440].
Lagny, occupation of, [434].
La Marck, William, Comte de, seizes Brille and Flushing, [339], [413]. See [Bouillon].
Landshut, George the Rich, Duke of, [113].
Landriano, battle of, [191].
Languet, [418].
Lainez, Iago, [263].
Lannoy in command under Bourbon, [173];
death of, [190].
Laon, reduction of, [438].
La Renaudie, [396].
La Rochefoucauld, [415].
La Rochelle, [408], [410], [416];
Treaty of, [417].
Laso Pedro, leader of the Junta, [139], [141], [142].
La Trémouille, [46].
La Torre, [333].
Lautrec, French commander in Italy, [160], [163], [188], [190].
Laufen, battle of, [210].
Lavoro, district of, [40].
Lefévre, Jacques, influence on Calvin, [273];
position and doctrine of, [387].
Leghorn, dependency of Florence, [9];
French garrison in, [22];
given back to Florence, [24].
Leicester, Earl of, commander of forces in Netherlands, [366] ff.
Leipheim, battle of, [179].
Leith, Treaty of, [397].
Leo X., election of, makes Treaty of Mechlin, [75];
peace with France, [76];
joins Counter-League, [78];
makes peace with France and signs the Concordat of Bologna, [80];
policy towards Luther, [157];
leagued with Charles V. and Henry VIII., [160];
character of, [16].
Lepanto, battle of, [294] ff., [411].
Lewis V., Elector-Palatine, [167], [179], [211].
—— of Poland, [125].
—— Duke of Beja, [297].
Leyden, investment of, [344].
—— John of, [210].
Leyva, Antonio de, [173];
holds Milan for Emperor, [188];
wins battle of Landriano, [191];
granted Monza by Charles, [194];
death, [208].
L’Hôpital, Michel, Chancellor, [397], [407], [408].
Ligny, Count of, [37].
Limeuil, Mdlle. de, [406].
Linz, Conference of, [242].
Lisbon, capitulation of, [298].
Lodi, [37].
London, Treaty of, [83].
Longjumeau, Edict of, [407].
Longueville, Duke of, [433], [439].
Lorenzo. See [Medici].
Lorraine, Charles II., Duke of, reconciled to Henry IV., [438].
—— Cardinal of. See [Guises].
Louis. See [Nassau].
Louis of Orleans (the XIIth), leader of opposition to Anne of Beaujeu, [5];
claims on Milan, [15];
at Rapallo, [18];
surrenders Novara, [23];
succeeds Charles VIII., [25];
makes Treaty of Granada, [40];
death of, [78].
Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis I., negotiates peace of Cambray, [193], [388].
Loyola, Ignatius, early life, foundation of Order of Jesus, [262] ff.
Los Veles, Marquis of, cruelty to Moors, [289];
inefficiency as general, [291];
in power, [306].
Lucca, enemy of Florence, [9];
joins league against France, [22].
Ludovico il Moro. See [Sforza].
Luneburg, Ernest I. of, [167].
Luther, Martin, early difficulties and visit to Rome, [153];
the Theses, [155];
break with the Church, [157];
at Diet of Worms, [168];
attitude to peasants’ revolt, [178];
supports League of Schmalkalde, [200];
death, character, [225].
Lyons, Treaties of, [45], [61].
Machiavelli, views on Cæsar Borgia, [55];
devotes himself to letters, [72];
his militia, [194].
Madrid, Treaty of, [183].
Maestricht, fall of, [358].
Magdeburg, surrender of, [239].
Magellan, discoveries of, [102].
Magione, [53].
Mahomet Sirocco, Turkish Admiral, [294].
Mansfeld, Count Peter Ernest, [348], [382].
Mantes, Declaration of, [435].
Malatesta, Pandolfo, [50].
Manfredi, Astorre, [50], [51].
Mantua, the Gonzagas of, [9].
Marcellus II., Pope, [247].
Margaret, Duchess of Parma, Governess of Netherlands, appointed to Netherlands, [320];
policy, [324], [325], [328], [329], [331], [332].
—— of Savoy, aunt of Charles V., [92];
Governess of the Netherlands, [317];
negotiates Peace of Cambray, [193].
—— sister of Henry II., marriage of, [257].
Margaret of Valois, marriage of, [412], [440].
Mary of Burgundy, [126].
Mary Queen of Scots, marriage, [258];
Carberry Hill, [339];
plots against Elizabeth, [339]; death of, [371].
—— sister of Henry VIII., marries Louis XII., [77].
—— of Hungary, Governess of Netherlands, [320].
Marignano, battle of, [79].
Mathias, Archduke, brother to Emperor Rudolf, elected Governor-General of Netherlands, [354];
defeated at Gemblours, [355];
his inefficiency, [359].
Matricula, the, [114].
Maurice. See [Orange].
—— of Orange. See [Orange].
—— of Saxony. See [Saxony].
Maximilian I. and II. See [Hapsburg].
—— Sforza. See [Sforza].
Mayence, Berthold, Archbishop of, [108], [113].
—— Archbishop of, a Hohenzollern, [131], [132], [133].
Mayenne, Duke of, made Lieutenant-General, rules Paris, [432];
defeated at Arques, [433];
selfish aims, [437];
comes to terms with Henry IV., [440].
Mazarquiver, fall of, [97];
relief of, [286].
Meaux, Briçonnet, Bishop of, [387];
conspiracy of, [407].
Mechlin, Treaty of, [75];
sack of, [342];
surrender of, [358].
Montigny, Baron of, execution, [336].
Medici in Florence, [9];
Piero, joins Alfonso of Naples against Ludovico of Milan, [16];
submits to Charles VIII.;
flies from Florence, [19].
—— Giovanni, Cardinal, restored to Florence, [71]. See [Leo X.]
—— Giulio de. See [Clement VII.]
—— Alessandro, Governor of Florence, [172];
driven from Florence, [189];
reinstated, [194].
—— Cosimo, Duke of Florence, [250];
Grand Duke of Tuscany, [259].
—— Catherine de, [394] ff.;
regent, [398];
adopts policy of Guises, [402], [406]–[408];
joins Coligny, [411];
becomes alarmed, [413];
her share in massacre of St. Bartholomew, [414];
subsequent policy, [415] ff.;
death of, [432].
Medina Celi, Duke of, sent to Netherlands, [336];
returns to Spain, [343].
—— Sidonia, Duke of, [285];
in command of Armada, [375].
Mendoza, imperial Ambassador to Rome, severe rule at Siena, [244];
Ambassador to Elizabeth, [374];
envoy to France, [431].
Mercœur, Duke of, [438];
submission to Henry IV., [442].
Messina, [24].
Miguel, Don, [92].
Milan, claims of House of Orleans to, [14];
leagued with Naples and Florence against France, [15];
Maximilian grants investiture to Sforza, [16];
joins League of Venice, [21], [22];
Treaty of Vercelli (1495), [23];
surrenders to French, [37];
lost by French, [70];
leagued against France, [79];
in French hands, [80];
French driven out, given to Francesco Sforza, [160];
taken by imperialists from Francesco Maria Sforza, [185];
held by Leyva, [188];
granted by Charles to Sforza, [194];
on his death annexed by Charles, [207];
given by Charles to his son Philip, [212];
Philip’s government of, [301].
See [Sforza].
Mirandola, conquest of, [66].
Mitylene, French attack on, [40].
Modena taken by Julius II., [66].
—— Cardinal of, [53].
Modon taken by Turks, [40].
Mohacs, battle of, [184].
Monçada, Hugo de, succeeds Pescara; takes Milan; treacherous seizure of Rome, [185].
Moncontour, battle of, [409].
Mondragon, success of, [348].
Mondejar, Marquis de, [289].
Monopoli, occupation of, [24].
defeat of Genlis before, capitulation of, [341].
Monsieur, Peace of, [421].
Monte, Cardinal. See [Julius III.]
Montefeltro, Guidobaldo di, Duke of Urbino, [50].
Montigny, Baron of, brother of Count Hoorne, [327], [336].
Montmorenci, Anne de, Marshal and Constable, his policy, [209];
disgraced, [213];
defeated at St. Quentin, advises peace, [255];
policy, [392];
reconciled with Guises, [401];
taken prisoner, [405]
of, [407].
Montmorenci, Francis of, Marshal of France and Governor of Paris, leader of the ‘Politiques,’ [410], [417], [420], [423].
—— Henry, (Damville), Governor of Languedoc, a leader of the ‘Politiques,’ [417];
becomes Duke and Marshal, and makes peace with court, [423], [441].
—— William (Thoré), Charles (Méru), [417].
Montpensier, Count of, Viceroy in Italy, [22];
capitulates, [24].
—— Duke of, [410].
Mooker Heyde, battle of, [344].
Morone, Bishop of Modena, [212].
—— Cardinal and Papal Legate, [247].
Moura, Christoval de, [308].
Mühlberg, battle of, [229].
Muley-Hassan, [206].
Munster, Anabaptist revolution at, [210].
Münzer, Thomas, [177].
Mustapha in command against Malta, [286].
Naarden, razing of, [342].
Nantes, Edict of, [442].
Naples, condition of, [11];
government of, by Philip, [301].
Nassau, John of, brother of William, [355], [358].
defeated at Jemmingen, [337];
invades France, [337], [409]; negotiations with France, takes Mons, [337], [409];
capitulates, [341];
defeated at Mooker Heyde, death, [344].
—— Maurice of. See [Orange].
—— William of. See [Orange].
Navarra, Pedro, [46], [69], [191].
Navarre, Spanish, conquered by Ferdinand, [73].
—— Antony of (see [Albret]), position of, [392];
submissiveness to Catherine, [398];
death, [405].
—— Henry of. See [Henry IV.]
Navarino, battle of, [40].
Nemours, Conference of, [429].
—— Duke of, [5], [44], [45], [438].
Netherlands, condition of, at accession of Philip II., [316];
at his death, [385];
Philip’s ecclesiastical policy, [322];
plan of reform of nobles, [325];
Alva in, [331];
revolt of, [335] ff.;
independence of, [384].
Nicosia, fall of, [293].
Nice, truce of, [209].
Nîmes, [416].
Noircarmes, [333].
Norris, Sir John, [370].
Novara, battle of, [76].
Noyon, Peace of, [82].
Nuremberg, Diet of, the religious struggle at; the hundred Gravamina, [167] ff.;
peace of, [204].
Nymwegen, reduction of, [381].
Oliverotto, [53].
Oran, fall of, [97].
Orange, Philibert, Prince of, commands imperial army in Italy, [190];
killed in siege of Florence, [194].
—— William (of Nassau), Prince of, [320];
leader of malcontents, [324] ff.;
leaves Netherlands, [328];
ill-success, [337];
French campaign, [337], [409];
negotiations with England and France, [340], [412];
forced to retire, [341];
increased authority, [347];
pacification of Ghent, [350];
opposition to Don John, [353] ff.;
ban and Apologia, [359];
death, character, [362];
marriages and children, [363].
—— Maurice, Prince of, second son of William, Captain-General, [364];
reappointed Governor-General, [371];
again appointed, [377] ff.;
early life, [379];
military reforms, [380];
success, [380] ff.
Orleans, siege of, [406].
—— Louis, Duke of. See [Louis XII.]
—— Cardinal, [53].
—— Paolo, [53].
Otranto, occupation of, [24].
Pacheco, Donna Maria, widow of Padilla, [143].
Padilla, Don Juan de, heads revolt at Toledo; defeated at Villalar and executed, [139] ff.
Padua, [64].
Palatinate, Family of Wittelsbach in, [167].
—— John Casimir of, [357], [359], [431].
Palatine, Frederick I., Elector, defeat of, [113].
—— Rupert, second son of Frederick, death of, [113].
—— Lewis V., Elector, [167];
puts down peasants, turns Protestant, [179], [211].
Palatine, Frederick II., Elector, brother of Lewis, submits to Charles, [227].
‘Pancarte,’ [441].
Paolo, Gian, [52].
Papal States, the, origin of, [10];
Parlement of Paris, [5];
weakness of, [5];
policy towards Huguenots, [390], [396], [400], [404], [408], [421], [430], [443].
—— Provincial ([Appendix I.], [451]);
policy of, [408], [421], [424], [443].
Parma, Alexander Farnese of, at Lepanto, [294];
son of Margaret, successor of Don John, [356];
successes, [358], [361], [364], [370];
takes Sluys, [372];
negotiates with Elizabeth, [374];
success of, [378];
jealousy of Philip, [379];
ill-success and death, character, [380], [434].
—— Margaret, Duchess of, birth, education, and marriage, [320]. See [Margaret of Parma].
Paredes, Diego de, [43].
Passau, Treaty of, [242].
Paul III., allies himself with Charles V., [206];
mediates to bring about Truce of Nice, neutral policy, [209], [214];
re-summons Council to Trent, [221];
refuses to support Charles;
intrigues with Francis, [228];
refuses to recall Council from Bologna to Trent, negotiates with Henry II., [231] ff.;
death, [234].
—— IV., Pope, [247];
anti-Spanish policy, [252];
terms with Alva, [254].
Paz, Pedro de, [43].
Perez, Antonio, accused by Inquisition, [281];
accuses Philip of murder of Don Carlos, [283];
quarrel with Philip, [300];
rise, quarrel with Philip, exile, [306] ff.
Perpetual Edict, [352].
Perpignan, [215].
Pesaro, [50].
Pescara, Marquis of, [173];
advises Treaty of Madrid, death, [183].
Peschiera, [64].
Pescia, Domenico da, [31], [32].
Philibert of Orange, [190], [194].
—— Emanuel, Duke of Savoy. See [Savoy].
Philip, Archduke of Austria, [42];
marriage, [316].
Philip II., granted Milan by his father, [212];
governor in Spain, etc., [234] ff.;
King of Spain, [250];
Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, marriage with Elizabeth of France, [257];
position of affairs, [259];
ecclesiastical policy, [268], [271], [278];
marriages, [277], [282], [284];
treatment of the Moriscoes, [287] ff.;
internal policy and government, [299] ff.;
character of, [310];
commercial policy, [311] ff.;
policy in Netherlands, [319] ff.;
ecclesiastical scheme, [322] ff.;
opposition to plan of reform, [325];
policy to Elizabeth of England, [374];
to Catherine of France, [407], [410];
designs on France, [435];
method of filling exchequer, [441];
negotiations with Henry IV., [442];
peace of Vervins, [444];
death and policy, [445] ff.
—— of Hesse. See [Hesse].
death at Lepanto, [295].
Piero. See [Medici].
Piccolomini, Cardinal, Pope Pius III., [47].
Pietra-Santa, dependency of Florence, [9];
French garrison, [22];
sold to Lucca, regained by Florence, [24].
Piombino, surrender of, [51].
Pisa, dependency of Florence, [9];
joins Charles VIII., [19], [22];
regained by Florence, [24];
Council of, [66].
Pistoja, dependency of Florence, [9].
Pitigliano, Count of, [64].
Poictiers, taking of, [405];
siege of, [409].
—— Diana of, [217].
Pointoise, States-general at, [398].
Poissy, colloquy of, [399].
Pol, Count de St., defeated at Landriano, [191].
Poland, Ladislas of, [125].
—— Lewis of, [125].
—— Sigismund of, restores Catholicism, [446].
Pole, Reginald, [212].
Polesine, the, [64].
Poltrot assassinates Duke of Guise, [406].
Pompeio, Cardinal, leader of the Colonnesi, takes Rome, [185].
Porto Carrero, Governor of Doullens, [441].
Portugal, Isabella of, [277].
—— Kings of—Antonio, Prior of Crato; Henry; Lewis, Duc de Beja; Sebastian, [297] ff., [378].
Portuguese, discoveries and conquests of, [85].
Prato, sack of, [71].
Principati, the district of the, [42].
Puglia, Francesco da, [31].
Quiroga, Archbishop of Toledo, Grand Inquisitor, [281].
Rapallo, battle of, [18].
Ratisbon, Congress at, [171];
Diets of (1532), [204];
(1541), [212].
Ravenna, occupied by Julius II., [64];
battle of, [68].
Regency, Council of, ill-success of, [169], [179].
Regnault, head of Finance Chamber in Netherlands, [368].
Requesens, Don Louis de, grand commander of Santiago, at Lepanto, [294];
succeeds Alva, [343];
change of policy, [344];
attempt at reconciliation, [345] ff.;
death, [348].
Reuchlin, John, [150].
Rhætian Leagues, [122].
Rhodes, fall of, [164].
Roda, Jerome de, [348], [349].
Romagna, papal claims over, [49];
Cæsar Borgia’s conquests in, [50] ff.
Roromantin, Edict of, [396].
Rosny, Baron de. See [Sully].
Rouen taken by Catholics, [405];
secured by Henry IV., [437].
Rovere, Francesco Maria della, lord of Sinigaglia, [50].
—— Giuliano della. See [Julius II.]
—— Francesco, Duke of Urbino, [56].
Rudolf II., Emperor, [446].
Rupert, son of Frederick I., Elector-Palatine, [113].
Ruvo, [44].
St. André, Marshal, [405].
St. Denis, battle of, [407].
St. Gall, [121].
St. Germains, Treaty of, [340], [410].
St. Quentin, battle of, [254].
Saint Jean d’Angély, fall of, [409].
Sainte Aldegonde, Philip van Marnix, Lord of, [326].
Santa Cruz, Marquis de, [426].
—— Severina, [45].
Sapienza, battle of, [40].
Saluzzo, Marquis of, [48];
succeeds Lautrec in command, defeated at Aversa, death, [191].
—— Marquisate of, ceded to France, [257];
exchanged for Bresse, Bugey, Gex, [445].
Sancerre, siege of, [416].
San Severino, Galeazzo di, [37].
Santa Cruz, Marquis of, [294], [298], [299].
Sarzana, dependency of Florence, [9];
French garrison in, [22];
sold to Genoa, [24].
Savoy, Charles III., Duke of, quarrel with Francis, [207];
Treaty of Crespi, [217];
Emanuel Philibert, son of Charles III., commands Philip’s forces against France with success, [255];
restored by Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, [257].
—— Philibert Emanuel, [257], [320].
—— Louise of, [193]; persecutes the Huguenots, [388].
Saxony, Frederick the Wise, Elector of, his family, [166];
one of party of reform, [108];
refuses to be a candidate for the Empire, [133];
founds University of Wittenberg, [154];
protects Luther, [159].
—— George, Duke of, [166]–[168], [170].
—— Henry, [166].
—— John the Steadfast, Elector of, character of, [204];
establishes Lutheranism after Diet of Spires, [197];
signs protest against Second Diet, [198];
commands forces of League of Schmalkalde, [200];
protests against election of Ferdinand as King of the Romans, [203];
death, policy of, [204].
—— John Frederick, [222] ff.;
Schmalkaldic War, [224] ff.;
capture, [229];
freed by Treaty of Passau, [243].
—— Maurice, secured by Charles’ promises, [223];
overruns Saxony, repulsed, reinstated, [226] ff.;
conspires and takes arms, [238] ff.;
death, character, [244] ff.
—— Augustus, succeeds Maurice as Elector, [246].
—— Anne of, daughter of Maurice, marriage of, [324].
Schinner, Mathias, Bishop of the Valais, Cardinal of Sion, [70], [132].
Schmalkalde, meeting of, [198]; League formed, [200];
joined by Southern Germany, [203].
Sebastian of Portugal, [297].
Selim II., Sultan, [288], [293].
Seminara, battle of, [24], [45].
Senlis, Treaty of, [7].
Servetus burnt at Geneva, [274].
Sesa, Duke of, [291].
Sforza, Francesco, seizes Milan, [7];
allies himself with Naples and Florence, [15].
—— Ippolita, daughter of Francesco, wife of Alfonso of Calabria, [15].
—— Galeazzo Maria, son of Francesco, [7].
—— Gian Galeazzo, son of Galeazzo, [7];
marries Isabella of Naples, [16];
death of, [18].
—— Ludovico il Moro, uncle of Gian Galeazzo, seizes power, [8];
calls on Charles VIII., [16];
joins League of Venice, [22];
makes Treaty of Vercelli, [23];
flies to Maximilian, [37];
returns but is taken prisoner, [38];
death, [39];
family of, [39].
—— Caterina, niece of Ludovico, at Imola and Forli, [50].
—— Giovanni, Lord of Pesaro, cousin of, [50].
—— Maximilian, son of Ludovico, [39];
restored to Milan, [72];
surrenders to Francis, [80].
—— Francesco Maria, granted Milan, [160];
joins League of Cognac, [184];
capitulates to imperialists, [185];
commands troops of Holy League, [191];
restored by Charles V., [194];
death, [207].
Sicily, government of, by Philip, [301].
Sickingen, Franz von, [132];
organises League of Knights, defeat and death, [169].
Sidney, Sir Philip, Governor of Flushing, [366];
death, [370].
Siena, enemy of Florence, [9];
accepts a French garrison, [20];
joins league against Florence, [22];
turns to Emperor,then to France, [244];
regained for Imperialists by Cosimo, Duke of Florence, [250].
Sievershausen, battle of, [245].
Sigismund of Tyrol, cousin of Maximilian, [123].
—— of Poland, [446].
Signory, Florentine executive, [26], [458].
Silvestro, Fra, executed with Savonarola, [32].
Simonetta, counsellor of Bona of Savoy, murdered by Ludovico ‘Il Moro,’ [8].
Sinigaglia, massacre of, [53].
Sixtus V., [270];
disapproval of League, [428];
excommunicates Henry of Navarre, [429].
Soderini, Piero, Gonfalonier of Florence, [71].
Solyman wins battle of Mohacs, [184];
forced to retreat from Vienna, [196];
treaty with Francis, defeats Ferdinand at Essek, [208];
and at Buda, [214];
nearly completes conquest of Hungary, [216];
supports the French, [244];
sends fleet against Malta, [286];
death, [293].
Spires, Diets of, [196], [197], [216].
Stanley, Sir William, [371].
Steenwyck, fall of, [381].
Stralen, Burgomaster of Antwerp, [333], [336].
Suabian League, formation of, [108];
defeat at Bruderholz and Dornach, [123];
favours election of Charles, [131];
wins battle of Leipheim; with Elector of Trèves and Elector-Palatine suppresses revolt of peasants, [179].
Swiss Confederation, origin of, [117] ff.;
constitution of, [120] ff.;
war with Maximilian, [123];
makes Peace of Basel, [124].
Tassis, [371].
Teligny, [415].
Termes, Marshal de, defeated at Gravelines, [256].
Terranova, battle of, [43].
Theatins, the, [262].
Thurgau, the, [120].
Toledo, revolt of, [139].
Torrelobaton, sack of, [142].
Tours, Estates-General of, [62].
Trani occupied by Venice, [24].
Trent, [62];
Council of, first and second session, [221];
at Bologna, [230];
reassembles at Trent; failure, [235];
third session, [266] ff.
Trèves, John of Baden, Archbishop of, [108];
death, [113].
Trèves, Richard Greifenklau, Archbishop of, his policy at the imperial election, [131]–[133];
joins in suppressing peasants’ revolt, [179];
attacked by Sickingen, [169];
opposes Council of Regency, [170].
—— Diet of, organisation of Empire, [114].
Tripoli, [97].
Trivulzio, General in French service, [36];
Governor of Milan, [38];
in Italian Wars, [70];
surrenders Genoa, [191].
Tübingen, University of, [210].
Turnhout, battle of, [383].
Turenne, Duke of Bouillon, [439].
Ulrich. See [Wurtemberg].
Uluch Ali, Dey of Algiers, [295];
retakes Tunis and reduces Goletta, [296].
Urbino, [50];
occupied by Cæsar Borgia, [52], [53], [56].
—— Duke of, leads army of Holy League, [186] ff.
Utrecht, Adrian of. See [Pope Adrian VI.]
—— Union of, [358].
Valdès, Don Fernando, Archbishop of Seville, Grand Inquisitor, [281].
—— a Spanish Commander, [345].
Vaila, battle of, [63].
Valencia, social war in, [140].
Valenciennes, fall of, [414].
Valette, Jean de la, Grand Master of Knights of Malta, [286].
Valentina, Visconti, [14].
Valentinois given to Cæsar Borgia, [35].
Valla, Laurentius, [150].
Valois, Margaret of, [412], [440].
Valori supports Savonarola, [27];
slain, [31].
Varano, Giulio Cæsare, Lord of Camerino, [50].
Vargas, Juan de, [333].
Vassy, Massacre of, [401].
Vega, Don Pedro Laso de la, [139].
Velasco, Don Fernan de, [439].
Venice, constitution of, [Appendix III.];
position of, [8];
joins League against Charles VIII., [22];
growth of, [57];
losses of, [64];
recovery of, [65];
agrees to peace of Noyon, [83];
causes of decline, [84];
though an ally, seizes Ravenna and Cervia from Clement, [189];
forms defensive alliance with Charles, [194].
Venloo, capitulation of, [370].
Venosa, [45].
Vercelli, Treaty of, [23].
Verona, [64].
Vers, Stephen de, Duke of Nola, [22].
Vervins, Peace of, [384], [442].
Vespucci, Amerigo, [102].
Vielleville, Marshal, [411].
Viglius, [321].
Villalar, battle of, [143].
Villequier, [425].
Vitellozzo, Vitelli, a captain of Cæsar Borgia’s, [52], [53].
Vindiciæ contra Tyrannos, [418] ff.
Volterra, a dependency of Florence, [9].
Welf, House of, [167].
Wettin, House of, [166]. See [Saxony].
Wilkes, [370].
William I. of Bavaria, [167].
—— of Orange. See [Orange].
Willoughby, Lord, in command in Holland, [378].
Wingfield, Sir Robert, Ambassador of Henry VIII., [78].
Wittelsbach (see [Palatinate] and [Bavaria]);
House of, [167].
Wolfenbüttel, Henry IV. of, [167].
Wolfgang of Zweibrücken, [409].
opposition to France, [82];
policy of, [135] ff.;
joins Charles V. and Leo X., [10];
induces Henry to ally himself with France after Pavia, [181];
persuades Henry not to promise ‘protection’ to Holy League of Cognac; divorce question on foot, [184] ff.;
therefore alliance with France necessary, conference at Amiens with Francis, [188];
Clement revokes powers of Wolsey and Campeggio to try Henry’s cause, [193].
Worms, Diet of (1495), reforms demanded, [109];
second Diet of, chief questions for settlement, [145] ff.;
practical failure of, [148], [221].
Würtemberg, Ulrich, Duke of, driven out by Suabian League, [131];
recovers Duchy, [178];
ousted again by Suabian League, [179];
restored by Philip of Hesse, establishes Protestantism, [210];
Schmalkaldic war, [226].
Xavier, Frencesco, [263].
Ximenes, Francisco, de Cisneros, Cardinal, [62];
Archbishop of Toledo, [95];
rise, reforms, [95];
persecution, [96];
death of, [138].
York, Rowland, [371].
Zamora, Acuña, Bishop of, [142].
Zapolya, John, Waivode of Transylvania, allied with Solyman, holds Hungary, [195] ff.
—— Isabella, secures Transylvania, [244].
Zierickzee, fall of, [348].
Zutphen, engagement of, [370];
reduction of, [380].
Zweibrücken, Wolfgang, Duke of, [409].
Zwingle, position as a reformer, reaction against him in Switzerland, death in battle of Cappel, [201] ff.
Transcriber’s Note
Footnotes have been moved to the end of the respective chapter or appendix. The summary of chapter [IX] has been moved to precede the heading of the first section, consistent with all other chapters.
Where historical names have been anglicized, e.g. Nicolo Capponi for Niccolò Capponi (page [189]), the author’s version has been retained. Other spelling variations including but not limited to comuneros—communeros, Custrin—Küstrin, Bèza—Beza, Granvelle—Granvella, Groningen—Gröningen are as in the original.
[Pages 183], [193], [298], [474], [475], [481], “Eleanor”, “Eleanora”, “Eleonora” all refer to Eleanor of Austria, the widowed sister of Charles V and later wife of Francis I.
The following corrections have been made to the printed original:
[Page ix], “treaty” amended to “Treaty” (Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis).
[Page x], “Süd Europa” corrected to “Süd-Europa” (Fürsten und Völker von Süd-Europa).
[Page xi], “Ponjoulat” corrected to “Poujoulat” (Pétitot, Michaud et Poujoulat).
[Page xiii], “republica” corrected to “repubblica” (Storia della repubblica).
[Page xiii], “Alberi” amended to “Albèri” (Albèri, La relazione degli Ambasciatori).
[Page xiii], “Niccolo” amended to “Niccolò” (Niccolò Machiavelli).
[Page xiv], “Harisse” corrected to “Harrisse” (Harrisse, Christophe Colomb).
[Page xiv], “Gashard” corrected to “Gachard” (Ed. Gachard.)
[Page xv], “Mexica” corrected to “Mexico” (Conquest of Mexico).
[Page 26], “Liberta” corrected to “Libertà” (Dieci di Libertà e Pace).
[Page 34], [footnote 11], “[Appendix I.]” changed to “[Appendix i.]” for consistency’s sake ([Appendix i.], [p. 456].)
[Page 60], “Sep.” corrected to “Sept.” (Blois, Sept. 22, 1504.)
[Page 72], “Liberta” corrected to “Libertà” (Dieci di Libertà e Pace).
[Page 102], “Balbao” corrected to “Balboa” (Vasco Nuñez de Balboa).
[Page 113], “brilliantmatch” corrected to “brilliant match” (promised a brilliant match).
[Page 114], “Meckle burg” corrected to “Mecklenburg” (Mecklenburg, the Archbishoprics of Magdeburg).
[Page 142], “digusted” corrected to “disgusted” (disgusted at the turn).
[Page 166], [footnote 44], “Wurtemburg” corrected to “Wurtemberg” (Wurtemberg, Ulrich I., 1503–1550).
[Page 170], “Guilio” corrected to “Giulio” (Cardinal Giulio de’ Medici).
[Page 185], “Moncada” corrected to “Monçada (Monçada and the Cardinal).
[Page 189], “Ippollito” corrected to “Ippolito” (Alessandro and Ippolito).
[Page 208], “Sep.” corrected to “Sept.” (July–Sept. 1536.)
[Page 208], [footnote 51], the missing footnote marker was supplied.
[Page 220], “Cambresis” corrected to “Cambrésis” (Treaty of Cateau Cambrésis).
[Page 280], “cause” corrected to “case” (case being transferred).
[Page 387], “Etaples” amended to “Étaples” (Jacques Lefèvre of Étaples).
[Page 414], “Prévot” amended to “Prévôt” (Prévôt des Marchands).
[Page 449], “chief” corrected to “Chief” (the Chief Military Officer).
[Page 454], “d’État” to “État” (deputies of Tiers État).
[Page 464], “Podesta” corrected to “Podestà” (Courts of the Podestà).
[Page 480], “Chatillon” corrected to “Châtillon” (Châtillon, Odet).
[Page 481], “Epernon” corrected to “Épernon” (Épernon, a favourite of Henry).
[Page 482], “Etaples” amended to “Étaples” (Étaples, Treaty of).
[Page 484], “Etaples” amended to “Étaples” (makes Treaty of Étaples).
[Page 484], “Albret” corrected to “Albert” (Hapsburg, Albert, Cardinal)
[Page 484], “Peronne” corrected to “Péronne” (League Péronne).
[Page 486], “Carpinal” corrected to “Cardinal” (Giovanni, Cardinal, restored).
[Page 487], “Meru” corrected to “Méru (Charles (Méru)).
[Page 487], “Moncada” corrected to “Monçada” (Monçada, Hugo de).
[Page 487], “Naussa” corrected to “Nassau” (Nassau, John of).