BUOYS AND BEACONS.
In approaching channels from seaward red buoys marked with even numbers will be found on the starboard side of the channel and must be left on the starboard side in passing in. Black buoys with odd numbers will be found on the port side of the channel and must be left on the port hand in passing in.
Buoys with red and black horizontal stripes will be found on obstructions with channel ways on either side of them, and may be left on either hand.
Buoys painted with black and white perpendicular stripes will be found in mid-channel, and must be passed close aboard to avoid danger.
All other marks to buoys will be in addition to the foregoing and may be employed to mark particular spots, a description of which will be found in the printed Government lists.
Perches, with balls, cages, etc., will, when placed on buoys, be at turning points, the color and number indicating on what side they shall be passed.
XV.
THE COMPASS.
I have no space in this volume to write an exhaustive chapter on navigation. It is, however, an art easily acquired, and may be wholly self-taught. There are certain rudimentary rules for finding one's way at sea by dead reckoning, that everyone starting out on a cruise should master. The instruments needful are a compass, parallel rulers, dividers, patent log, lead line, aneroid barometer, clock, and the necessary charts of the sea which it is proposed to navigate.
In a small cruiser a compass is generally carried in a portable binnacle. When steering by it take care that the lubber's point is in a direct line with the keel or stem and sternpost. For the benefit of the uninitiated, I will explain that the lubber's point is the black vertical line in the foreside of the compass bowl, by which the direction of the vessel's head is determined. A misplaced lubber's point is sure to cause grave errors in the course actually made. The compass should be as far removed as possible from ironwork of any kind. A spirit compass, as I have remarked elsewhere, is the only kind suitable for small craft. Those with cards of hard enamel, floating in undiluted alcohol, which renders freezing impossible, are the best. The amateur boat sailer should become familiar with the compass, be able to box it by both points and degrees, and to name its back bearings.
The points of the compass are thirty-two in number, as follows:
North
North by East
North, North-East
North-East by N.
North-East
North-East by E.
East, North-East
East by North
East
East by South
East, South-East
South-East by E.
South-East
South-East by S.
South, South-E.
South by East
South
South by West
South, South-W.
South-West by S.
South-West
South-West by W.
West, South-W.
West by South
West
West by North
West, North-West
North-West by W.
North-West
North-West by W.
North, North-W.
North by West
North
These points are sub-divided into quarter points, and again into degrees. The table given on pages 142-143 shows the angles which every point and quarter point of the compass makes with the meridian:
POINTS, ANGLES AND BACK BEARINGS OF THE COMPASS.
The mariner's compass does not, however, give the true direction of the various points of the horizon. The needle points to the magnetic North and not to the true North, the difference between them being called the variation of the compass, which differs widely in various parts of the world, being sometimes easterly and sometimes westerly, and constantly changing. The amount is generally marked on the charts. In New York the variation for 1894 was 8° 26´ West, or three-quarters of a point to the West of the true North. Thus, to make good a true North course, the vessel would have to steer North three-quarters West. A rule easy to remember is that westerly variation is allowed to the left of the compass course, or bearing, and that easterly variation is allowed to the right of the compass course or bearing.
To convert true courses and bearings into compass courses and bearings with variation westerly, allow it to the right of the true course or bearing, and with variation easterly allow it to the left of the true course or bearing.
Deviation is another error of the compass caused by local attraction, such as the ironwork and iron ballast in a boat, or the proximity of a marlinespike to the binnacle. In a wooden boat, if proper care is taken, there should be no appreciable deviation of the compass. Deviation can be discovered by swinging the boat as she lies at her moorings, having first obtained the true magnetic bearing of some distant object, such as a lighthouse or a church steeple. As the vessel's head comes to each point of the compass, a compass bearing is taken of the object, and the difference between that bearing and the true magnetic bearing is observed and noted, and afterward tabulated. It will often be found that the deviation differs not only in amount, but in name, for different directions of the ship's head, being easterly at certain points and westerly at others.
The rule is to allow westerly deviation to the left to get the correct magnetic course, and easterly deviation to the right to get the correct magnetic course.
To find out the error of the compass in order to steer a true course, the sum of the deviation and the variation when both are of the same name, and their difference when they have different names, must be ascertained. For instance, deviation 20° West and variation 25° West, would give an error of compass 45° West, which should be applied to the left.
If the deviation was 20° East and the variation 10° West, the difference between them would be 10° East, which compass error should be applied to the right to steer a true course.
In order to find the compass course or course to steer, proceed as follows, the true course being North 40° East, the variation being 38° West and the deviation 18° East:
Variation, 38° W., being of contrary names, take their difference.
Deviation, 18° E.
------
Correction, 20°, apply to the right, being westerly.
True course N.40° E.
------
Compass course N.60° E.
Another example is given where the variation and deviation are both easterly and the true course is S., 75° West.
Variation, 24° W., being of same name.
Deviation, 16° W., add together.
------
Correction, 40°, apply to the left, being easterly.
True course, S. 75° W.
------
Compass course, S. 35° W.
A volume might be written on the mariner's compass. It is a fascinating study, but unfortunately my space is limited.
There is another correction to the compass that the amateur should have cognizance of. It is called leeway, and is, in untechnical language, the drift that the ship makes sideways through the water because of the force of the wind or the impulsive heave of the sea. Some craft, because of deficiency in the element of lateral resistance, such as in the case of a shallow, "skimming-dish" sort of a boat, with the centerboard hoisted up, will go to leeward like a crab. Others of a different type, such as the "plank-on-edge" variety, with a lead line attached, will hang on to windward in a wonderful manner. It requires, therefore, a certain amount of judgment as well as of knowledge in this particular section of nautical lore to be able to estimate with any degree of approximate certainty the leeway a vessel may happen to make. It should not be forgotten that build has much to do with this, and that trim and draught of water are also two powerful elements in this connection. For instance, a boat with outside lead and a centerboard in a strong breeze and a lumpy sea, so long as the wind permitted her to carry a commanding spread of sail, might make no appreciable leeway, but, on the contrary, might "eat up" into the wind. But given the same boat without the lead and without the adventitious aid that the centerboard affords, she would be compelled to dowse her muslin at the first puff, and as a purely physical consequence she would retain no hold on the water and would drift off to leeward like an irresponsible she-crab.
Thus leeway must be estimated by experience. It is often a most disturbing quantity, especially when the weather is foggy and the channel in which you are steering is perplexing on account of rocks or shoals. I have already expatiated on the wisdom of anchoring in such a contingency as this whenever the elements will permit. But, of course, one is a slave of the winds and the waves, and "bringing-up" is not always possible. I should, therefore, advise the amateur to carefully watch his boat and endeavor to find out approximately the amount of leeway she makes when the first reef is taken in by comparing the direction of the fore and aft line of the boat with that of her wake. This method may also be pursued with advantage under all conditions of wind and weather, and by this means a moderately correct and very useful table may be made.
The old navigators like the Drakes and the Frobishers had this matter arranged for them, so when they sailed forth on voyages of great emprise and portent they were guided by certain tabulated formula that gave them full and implicit directions for the allowance of leeway. Thus the skipper of a ship with topgallantsails furled was told to allow one point; when under double-reefed topsails, one point and a half; when under close-reefed topsails, two points; when the topsails are furled, three points and a half; when the fore-course is furled, four points; when under the mainsail only, five points; when under the balanced mizzen or mizzen staysail, six points; and when under bare poles, seven points.
This antiquated method of computation answered very well, for those sterling and sturdy navigators of the olden times seemed to have had a rare faculty of achieving their adventurous purpose and of gaining, too, both fame and fortune. But the commander of a clipper ship, with whom I sailed as a youngster, undertook to demonstrate to me the absurdity of any such hard-and-fast rule. We had carried away our three topgallant masts, off Cape Agulhas, while threshing hard against a westerly gale. They were whipped out of us like pipe-stems. It took all hands a whole day to clear away the wreck. Next day the weather moderated sufficiently for us to have carried every stitch of canvas could we have set it. There were a number of vessels beating round the Cape, and all took advantage of the cessation of the gale to spread all their flying kites to the breeze. Our ship, under three topsails, inner and outer jibs, foresail, mainsail, crossjack, spanker, foretopmast, maintopmast and mizzentopmast staysails, beat all the fleet. When it came on to blow again we were the first to reef, because some of our rigging had got badly strained in the squall that took our topgallantmasts away. Still we maintained our lead, although jogging along comfortably while our opponents were driving at it, hugging their topgallantsails and with lee rails under.
"Now," said our captain, coming on the poop after he had worked up his dead reckoning at noontime, "you see all those ships dead to leeward—well they ought to be to windward of us unless all the books on navigation are wrong. I have entered in my traverse-table the courses we were supposed to have made good under the old rule, and have thus proved its falsity. The fact is the ships that were turned out in the days when these nautical axioms were first propounded were built by the mile and cut off in lengths to suit. They had no shape to speak of below the water-line, and perhaps the rule applied to each alike. Times are different now, and leeway must be determined by the model of the ship."
The rule for reckoning leeway is as follows:
Wind on starboard side, allow leeway to the left.
Wind on port side, allow leeway to the right.
Or you may thus define it:
Vessel on starboard tack, allow leeway to the left.
Vessel on port tack, allow leeway to the right.
In this connection it might be well to urge the young mariner against keeping his boat all a-shiver and bucking against a head sea, and all the while sagging off bodily to leeward. It is better far to keep the wake right astern and keep way on the vessel—unless, of course, the weather is too violent.
The direction and rate of tides and currents have also to be allowed for when correcting a compass course. Thus in crossing Long Island Sound from Larchmont to Oyster Bay in thick weather, the magnetic course as given in the Government chart would have to be rectified and allowance made for the condition of the tide, whether ebb or flood, or your boat might never reach her destination.
XVI.
CHARTS.
There are no better charted coasts in the world than those bounded by the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The United States Navy has done and is doing magnificent hydrographic work. The charts issued by the Government are accurate, reliable, up-to-date and reasonable in price.
The top of a chart when spread out in front of you so that the reading part appears to you like the page of a book, and you can read it from left to right, is the North, the bottom is the South, the side on your right is the East, and the side on your left is the West. There are always compasses on a chart, either true or magnetic, by reference to which and with the aid of the parallel rulers the bearing of one point from another may easily be ascertained by the following method:
Lay the edge of the rulers over the two places; then slide them (preserving the direction) till the edge of one ruler is on the center of the nearest compass; when this is done read off the course indicated by the direction of the ruler.
To measure the distance between two places on the chart spread out the dividers till their points are over them, then apply to the graduated scale at the bottom of the chart, which will give you the required distance. This method, it should be remembered, is only accurate when applied to the large coasting charts. When measuring distances on general charts which extend across many degrees of latitude, the mean latitude of the two places must be measured from.
There are certain signs and abbreviations used on charts which are easily comprehended, such as hrd for hard, rky for rocky, etc. Lighthouses and lightships are clearly marked, and shoals, rocks and other obstructions to navigation are plainly defined. All the marginal notes on the charts should be made familiar by the navigator. I need scarcely say that charts, instruments and books of sailing instructions should be kept dry. There are cylindrical tin boxes for charts which are quite cheap, and these I recommend.
Fig. 6.
The position of a vessel may be ascertained simply and accurately by cross-bearings. Suppose you are in a ship at A in Fig. 6. The point with the lighthouse on it bears correct magnetic N. by W., and the point with the tree on it E. by N. You lay the parallel rules over the compass on your chart at N. by W., and work them to the lighthouse, preserving the direction. You then draw the line from the lighthouse to a. You then lay the parallel rules over the compass on your chart at E. by N., and work them in a similar way to the tree. Then draw the line from the tree to a. The spot where the two lines cut was the vessel's position on the chart when the bearings were first taken. The distance of the ship from both lighthouse and tree can be measured by taking in the dividers the distance between either and the ship, and referring to the scale on the chart.
It should be remembered that when sailing along the land cross-bearings will always determine your position, always allowing the proper corrections on the compass. In taking cross-bearings, try to have a difference between the two objects of as nearly ninety degrees as possible.
The old-fashioned log-ship and log-line for determining the distance run by a vessel need have no place in the equipment of a small yacht. There are several patent self-registering logs which record the distance run, either on the taffrail or on dials on the log itself. Their performance is fairly satisfactory, but they should be kept well oiled, and should be often examined and tested—for instance, in a run between two objects whose distance apart is well known.
By careful attention to the Lead, the Log and the Look-out, a boat may be navigated, by dead reckoning, with a certain amount of accuracy.
A nautical mile, or knot, is the same as a geographical mile. Its length is six thousand and eighty feet. A statute mile in the United States measures five thousand two hundred and eighty feet.
XVII.
MARLINESPIKE SEAMANSHIP.
WITH INSTRUCTIONS FOR MAKING SPLICES
KNOTS AND BENDS.
MARLINESPIKE.
The amateur yachtsman should be able to make all the splices and most of the knots in common use. This knowledge will come in quite handy when fitting out his craft in the spring, and will save him the expense of hiring a sailor to do the work. I have spent many happy hours in rigging a fifteen-ton cutter, doing all the work myself (except stepping the mast) with the aid of a boy.
A few fathoms of rope, a marlinespike, a knife, a small pot of grease, a ball of spun yarn, another of marline and one of roping twine, and you are equipped for work. Splicing ropes and making fancy knots may be made a quite pleasant way of spending a winter's evening. It keeps one out of mischief, and the art once learned is rarely forgotten. I think if you follow my directions and take heed of the diagrams that accompany them (which I have taken pains to make as clear as possible) you will have no difficulty in becoming quite expert in the use of a marlinespike.
The ends of all ropes, whether belonging to the running or standing rigging, must be whipped with tarred roping twine or they will unravel. Take the rope in your left hand and lap the twine round it very tight a dozen times, taking care that the end lies under the first turns so as to secure it. Then make a loop with the twine and continue the lapping for four turns round the rope and the end of the twine, as shown above. Haul taut and cut off the end.
Eye Splice—Unlay the rope and lay the strands E, F, G at the proper distance upon the standing part, as shown at A. Now push the strand H through the strand next to it, as shown in B, having first opened it with a marlinespike. Strand I is then thrust over the part through which H was passed. Strand K is thrust through the third on the other side. Repeat the process with each strand, and then hammer the splice into shape with the butt of the marlinespike. Stretch and cut off the ends of the strands. If particular neatness is required, the strands, after having been passed through the standing part the first time, should be halved and passed again, and then still further tapered by being quartered before being passed for the third and last time. An eye splice is useful. Standing rigging should have eyes spliced in to go over the mast-head, and for dead-eyes to be turned in, etc.
FIG. 1.
FIG. 2.
Short Splice—Unlay the ends of two ropes of the same size and bring their ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Hold the rope D and the strands A, B and C in the left hand. Pass the strand E over A and under C of rope H and haul taut. Pass strand G over B and under A. Pass strand F over the strand next to it and under the second. Turn the rope round and treat the other side in the same way, when the splice will be like Fig. 2. The single tucking of the strands will not, however, be strong enough, and the process should be repeated on both sides, halving the strands for the sake of neatness. This splice is used only for rope that is not required to run through a block.
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Long Splice—Unlay the ends of the two ropes that are to be joined some two or three feet, according to the size of the rope. Place the two ends together, as shown in Fig. 1. Unlay strand C and lead it back to A; then take D and lay it up in the space left by C. Do this with the strands E and F on the opposite side. The rope will now look like Fig. 2. Give the two middle strands, G and H, a lick of tar if the rope is of hemp, and grease if of manilla, and knot them together with an overhand knot, taking care that the knot is so formed as to follow the lay of the rope. Then halve these strands and pass them over one strand and under two. Treat the remaining strands in the same way, after which stretch the rope well and cut off the ends of the strands. A long splice is the neatest way there is of putting two ends of a rope together. If well made it does not increase the diameter of the rope, and therefore renders through blocks as though it did not exist. If one strand of a rope is chafed through while the other two are sound, a new strand may be put in to replace it, and the ends may be finished off in the same way as in a long splice.
Cut Splice—A cut splice is made the same as an eye splice, only with two ropes instead of one.
Overhand Knot—It is used at the ends of ropes to prevent them from unreeving. There should always be one in the end of the mainsheet, which is difficult to reeve again in anything like a breeze.
Reef Knot—It is always used to tie the reef points of a sail. First make an overhand knot and then pass the ends so that they take the same lay as the crossed parts of the overhand knot. If passed the other way, the knot will form what sailors call a granny, which will slip when it is subjected to a strain.
Bowline Knot—Take the end (1) of the rope in the right hand and the standing part (2) in the left hand. Lay the end over the standing part and turn the left wrist so that the standing part forms a loop (4) enclosing the end. Next lead the end back of the standing part and above the loop, and bring the end down through the loop as shown. This is a very useful knot.
Running Bowline—It is made by passing the end of a rope round its standing part and forming a bowline as in Fig. 8.
Bowline on a Bight—To make it, double the rope and take the doubled end (1) in the right hand, the standing part (2) of the rope in the left hand. Lay the end over the standing part, and by turning the left wrist form a loop (3) having the end inside. Next pull up enough of the end (1) to dip under the bight (4), bringing the end towards the right and dipping it under the bight, then passing it up to the left over the loop and hauling taut.
Two Half Hitches—Pass the end of the rope round the standing part and bring it up through the bight. This makes a half hitch. Repeat the process and haul taut. If the knot is to bear a great strain, seize the end back with spunyarn to the standing part.
Timber Hitch—Pass the end of a rope round the spar, then round the standing part b, then several times round its own part c against the lay of the rope.
Gaff Topsail Halyard Bend—Pass two turns round the spar, then lead the end back round the standing part and underneath all the turns, bringing it round to its own part and back again over the two outer turns and underneath the inner turn.
Blackwall Hitch—It is the simplest method known of making fast the end of a rope to the hook of a tackle. The figure is self-explanatory, the underneath part or the rope being jammed hard and fast by the strain on the hook.
Common Bend—Make a bight with the end of one rope, and pass the end of the other through the bight from beneath, and round both parts with the end under its own standing part. The greater the strain, the faster will this bend jam.
Magnus Hitch—Pass two round turns with the end of a rope over a spar, then take it before the standing part, pass it again under the spar and up through the bight.
Selvagee Strop—It is made by driving two nails into a length of plank at a distance apart equal to the desired length of the strop. Make fast one end of a ball of spunyarn or knotted ropeyarns to one of the nails and pass it round the other, continuing the process until the strop is as thick as required. Marl it down with spunyarn and sew canvas or leather round it if intended for a block.
Grommet Strop—It is made of a single strand of rope. To make it, lay one end over the other at the size required, and with the long end follow the lay round until a ring is formed with three parts of the strand all round. Finish by dividing the ends, overhand knotting, and passing them over one strand and under the other exactly as in a long splice. To make a neat job, use a strand from rope that has been some time in use and is well stretched. The strand should be about a foot more than three times the length of the strop, to allow for the knotting. It may be wormed and covered with canvas or leather if intended for a block.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
Figs. 19 and 20 show a Wall Knot. Unlay the end of a rope and with the strand A in Fig. 19 form a bight, hold it down at the side B, pass the end of the next strand C, round A, the end of strand D round C and through the bight of A. Haul taut and the knot is made as in Fig. 20. This can be crowned by taking strand in Fig. 21 and laying it over the top of the knot. Then lay B over A, and C over B and through the bight of A and haul taut. Fig. 22 shows a double wall and double crown, which is made by letting the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts appear double, first walling and then crowning.
Matthew Walker Knot—Made by unlaying the end of a rope and taking the end A round the rope and through its own bight, the strand B underneath through the bight of A, and the strand C underneath through the bights of strands A and B, and hauling all the strands taut. This knot is used principally for the ends of lanyards. In making these knots a whipping of sailmaker's twine should be put round the rope where the knot is to be when formed.
This illustration shows the process of worming a rope, which consists of winding spunyarn of suitable size into the space between the strands with the lay of the rope, so as to make the rope smooth for parcelling. This must be done with the rope on the stretch. A shows the spunyarn.
This illustration shows the process of parcelling and serving. After the worming is finished wrap narrow strips of canvas—tarred, if the rope is of hemp, and painted if it is of wire—round the rope with the lay, secure the parcelling to the rope by marling it with twine, the rope can then be served against the lay. Lay the serving mallet B with its groove on the rope. Take a turn with the spunyarn round the rope and head of the mallet, round the side next you, and two turns on the other side and twist it round the handle. Get an assistant to pass the ball A round the rope while you heave round the mallet. The last half-dozen turns of the service must have the end of the spunyarn put through them and hauled taut to secure it.
XVIII.
WEATHER "WRINKLES"
The boat sailer or yachtsman should be able, from close observation of the barometer and the general appearance of the sky, to foretell the weather with a certain degree of accuracy. The aneroid barometer is peculiarly sensitive to all atmospheric changes, and is thus invaluable for meteorological forecasts. A regular code of phenomena has been formulated by meteorologists, from which I take the following:
A rapid rise indicates unsettled weather.
A gradual rise indicates settled weather.
A rise with dry air and cold increasing in summer indicates wind from the northward, and if rain has fallen better weather may be expected.
A rise with moist air and a low temperature indicates a continuance of fine weather.
A rapid fall indicates stormy weather.
A rapid fall with westerly wind indicates stormy weather from northward.
A fall with northerly wind indicates storm with rain and hail in summer and snow in winter.
A fall with increased moisture in the air and increasing heat indicates southerly wind and rain.
A fall after very calm and warm weather indicates rain and squalls.
The barometer rises for a northerly wind, including from northwest by north to the eastward, for dry or less wet weather, for less wind, or for more than one of these changes, except on a few occasions when rain, hail or snow comes from the northward with strong wind.
The barometer falls for a southerly wind, including from southeast by south to the westward, for wet weather, for stronger wind, or for more than one of these changes, except on a few occasions, when moderate wind, with rain or snow, comes from the northward.
A fall, with a south wind, precedes rain.
A sudden and considerable fall, with the wind due west, presages a violent storm from the north or northwest, during which the glass will rise to its former height.
A steady and considerable fall of the barometer during an east wind indicates a shift of wind to the southward, unless a heavy fall of snow or rain immediately follows.
A falling barometer, with the wind at north, brings bad weather; in summer rain and gales; in spring snows and frosts.
If, after a storm of wind and rain, the barometer remains steady at the point to which it had fallen, severe weather may follow without a change in the wind. But on the rising of the barometer a change of wind may be looked for.
The following rhymes are familiar to most sailors:
When the glass falls low,
Look out for a blow.
First rise after low,
Portends a stronger blow.
When the glass is high,
Let all your kites fly.
Long foretold—long last;
Short notice—soon past.
The following notes may be relied on for forecasting the weather:
Red sky at sunset, fine weather.
Red sky in the morning, wind or rain, and
often both.
Gray sky in the morning, fine weather.
Hard, oily looking clouds, strong wind.
Yellowish green clouds, wind and rain.
Bright yellow sky at sunset, wind.
Pale yellow sky at sunset, rain.
Very clear atmosphere near the horizon is a
sign of more wind and often rain.
Here follow some old sailors' jingles which I heard when a boy in the forecastle:
When rain comes before the wind,
Sheets and halyards you must mind;
When wind comes before the rain,
Hoist your topsails up again.
Evening red and morning gray
Are sure signs of a fine day;
But evening gray and morning red,
Makes a sailor shake his head.
Amateurs while on a cruise should frequently look at the barometer and take notes of its height and enter them in the log.
The action of the aneroid barometer depends on the effect produced by the pressure of the atmosphere on a circular metallic chamber partially exhausted of air and hermetically sealed. This kind of barometer is liable to changes on account of its mechanism getting out of order, and it should be often compared with a mercurial barometer, which from its cumbersomeness cannot be conveniently carried in a small craft. Aneroid barometers of excellent quality, and of about the size of an ordinary watch, are offered for sale at a reasonable price, and a cruise should not be undertaken without one.
A phosphorescent sea is a certain sign of continuance of fine weather.
When porpoises come into shallow water and ascend the river stormy weather is near.
Sea birds fly far out to sea in fine weather, but if they fly inland bad weather may be expected.
A halo round the moon, especially if it appears distant and yet very distinct, indicates a gale of wind and probably rain.
When the wind changes it usually shifts with the sun from left to right. Thus an East wind shifts to West by way of Southeast, South and Southwest, and a West wind shifts to East by way of Northwest, North and Northeast. If the wind shifts the opposite way it is said to "back," but this it rarely does except in unsettled weather.
The United States Signal Service has a local observer stationed at each of the principal ports. When the "information signal," which consists of a red pennant, is displayed, it indicates that information has been received from the central office of a storm covering a limited area, dangerous only for vessels about to sail to certain points. Ship-masters and others interested will be supplied with the necessary information on application.
A cautionary signal, which is a Yellow Flag with a white center, indicates that the winds expected are not so violent that well found and seaworthy vessels cannot encounter them without great danger. A cautionary flag hoisted alone signifies that the direction of the expected wind is doubtful.
CAUTIONARY SIGNALS.
A dangerous storm signal, which is a Red Square Flag with black center, is hoisted when the wind is over thirty-five miles an hour.
At night a Red Light indicates Easterly winds, and a Red and White Light Westerly winds.
STORM SIGNALS.
Following are the weather signals, which explain themselves:
WEATHER.
Beaufort's scale is used to measure the velocity of the wind. It is given below:
| Hourly Velocity in Miles. | Scale. | State. |
| - | 0 | calm. |
| 1 | 1 | light airs. |
| 2 to 3 | 2 | light breezes. |
| 4 to 7 | 3 | gentle breeze. |
| 9 to 15 | 4 | moderate breeze. |
| 15 to 18 | 5 | fresh breeze. |
| 19 to 22 | 6 | strong breeze. |
| 23 to 28 | 7 | moderate gale. |
| 28 to 40 | 8 | fresh gale. |
| 40 to 48 | 9 | strong gale. |
| 48 to 56 | 10 | whole gale. |
| 57 to 80 | 11 | storm. |
| 80 to 100 | 12 | hurricane. |
XIX.
SEA COOKERY FOR YACHTSMEN.
Those who go a-sailing for pleasure in small craft, frequently suffer hardships, or at least inconvenience, in the way of meals, because of their lack of knowledge of the provisions to take with them, and of simple methods of preparing wholesome and appetizing dishes.
Fig. 1. A Yachtsman's Stove.
Sea cooking differs materially from shore cooking, inasmuch as the stove in a house is erected on a floor that is both stationary and stable. The yachtsman who has a cosy galley with a fixed stove that burn coal or coke or charcoal, and that draws well, has reason to bless his fortunate stars.
There have now come into vogue several varieties of the blue-flame wickless cooking stove. In the accompanying illustration, Fig. 1, I have depicted a stove which I have found to suit. It is wickless and burns the ordinary kerosene oil. To suit sea conditions the stove is slung on gimbals like a ship's compass, so as to yield to every motion of the vessel. The railing round the top prevents pots and pans from sliding to leeward. Fig. 2 shows the finest fry-pan ever invented for an oil stove, on which broiling is impracticable. It acts as a broiler or fryer at will. The raised bars prevent the steak or cutlet from being soddened with fat, the result being equal or nearly equal to a gridiron. If frying is required put the necessary quantity of oil, butter or fat in the pan. Let it come to a boil, and then immerse in it the article, fish, flesh, fowl, reptile, or vegetable that you wish to cook.
With a stove having only one lid or burner the sea-cook might often have some difficulty in keeping three utensils on the boil at once. Luckily ingenuity has surmounted the obstacle, and Fig. 3 shows three stew-pans of small size that will fit over the burner of the stove shown in Fig. 1. They are in the market, but it took me a long time to find out where they are for sale. In one you may cook curry, in the second rice, while clam broth may simmer in the third. In good sooth a very cerberus of stew-pans!
Some sort of a contrivance for storing ice so as to keep it solid as long as possible is indispensable. Such a device is shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 2. The Ideal Fry-Pan.
For sea picnics buy as many of the thin wooden plates (costing only a trifle) as you may require. These after being used may be thrown overboard. Take no crockery ware or china to sea in a small boat. Cups, saucers, plates and dishes can be obtained made of enameled steel. These are unbreakable and cleanly. Stew-pans, kettles, pitchers, coffee-pots and fry-pans are also made of enameled steel, and they cannot be surpassed. Cooks' furnishings depend on the size of the boat and the hands she carries. I suggest the following, but leave the sizes to the discretion of the purchaser who knows about how many mouths he has to feed: One kettle for boiling water for tea or coffee, one deep fry-pan, one iron pot with tight-fitting cover for boiling meat, fish or cooking chowder, one teapot, one coffee-pot, a soup ladle, a long iron two-pronged fork (known aboard ship as the cook's tormentors), two stew-pans for cooking vegetables, one broiler (if the implement can be used), one cook's knife, one vegetable knife, one swab for washing pots, pans and plates, and dish towels for drying them, soap, cups, plates, dishes, knives, forks, spoons, glasses, quant. suff. Do not forget a galvanized iron bucket for the cook, a can opener and a corkscrew. Also matches in an airtight can or glass. Fuel in either fluid or solid shape should not be omitted.
When we come to the question of the food supplies to be taken aboard, much will depend upon the individual. Hard tack, salt tack, flour, beans, corned beef, salt pork, bacon, hams, canned meats, sardines, canned fruits and vegetables, cornmeal, lard, butter, cheese, condensed milk, sweetened and unsweetened coffee, tea, cocoa, chocolate, pepper, salt, mustard, vinegar, poultry seasoning, sugar and rice are some of the staple comestibles that suggest themselves, but these may be added to or subtracted from according to circumstances.
A ham is one of the most easily procured comestibles. Pick out a small one, not too fat. If you want it tough as leather, boil it furiously for a couple of hours, then haul it out of the pot and eat it. If you want a delicate, tender and juicy ham soak it in a bucket of fresh water for twelve hours. Then scrape it well and pop it into a big pot full of cold fresh water. Let it come slowly to the boil. As soon as the water reaches the boiling stage, regulate the heat so that a gentle simmering, the faintest possible ebullition is kept up for five or six hours, according to the size of the joint. Then take it out of the pot and skin it. The rind will come off as easily as an old shoe. Then return meat to the water in which it was boiled and let it remain until it is quite cold. Next dish it, drain it and put it in the ice box to harden. Cut in very thin slices with a sharp knife, and you will admit that cooked after this scientific formula ham is mighty fine eating.
Fig. 3. A Nest of Stew-pans.
Corned beef cooked after this same fashion will also be a success. The secret is a simple one of chemistry. Hard boiling hardens the fibers and tears the meat to rags. Gentle simmering softens the meat while allowing it to retain its juices.
The navy bean at present in use, though much may be said in its praise, is far inferior to the lima bean. This legume if substituted for the insignificant (by comparison only) little bean on which Boston breakfasts every Sabbath morn will be found so palatable that the lesser variety will never again be used. Procure a quart of lima beans. Pick out all that are shriveled or discolored. Soak the rest all night in plenty of cold fresh water and in the morning you will find them plump and tender. Wash them well and place them in a pot on the fire with a square piece of salt pork weighing three-quarters of a pound; simmer them gently till they are tender, but not till they reach the porridge stage. On the contrary, let each bean be separate like the soft and swelling grains of well-cooked rice. Strain through a colander, saving a pint of the water in which they were boiled. Pack in the bean pot. Bury the chunk of pork in the beans. Season the pint of water reserved as mentioned above, to your liking. Pour over the beans in the pot and put in the oven to bake. The flavoring of beans depends upon the taste of the cook.
Sirloin steaks are a good staple viand. Make the butcher cut them not less than two inches thick. If you cannot grill them heat your fry-pan almost red-hot. Put no fat in the pan. Place your steak cut into convenient chunks into the hot pan. Let one side sear for a minute or so to keep in the juices. Then turn meat over. It will be cooked sufficiently for most palates in five or six minutes. Place on a piping hot platter, spread some fresh butter on the steak, sprinkle with pepper, and pipe to grub. Chops may be cooked in the same way.
Meat may be roasted in an iron pot if the cook has no oven. Moderate heat, continuous care to prevent burning, and frequent basting are the three requisites of a successful pot roast.
So far as beverages are concerned, useful hints in that direction are given in Fig. 5, which shows a picturesque and shipshape vessel to carry when a-cruising.
Fig. 4. Ice Tub.
There is no daintier dish than a fresh, fat lobster, generous and juicy, just hauled from the pot in which he was caught. Pick out a particularly lively specimen of medium size but heavy. The cock lobster may be distinguished from the hen by the narrowness of the tail, the upper two fins of which are stiff and hard, while the tail of the hen is broader and the fins soft. The male has the higher flavor; the flesh, too, is firmer and the color when boiled is a deeper red. The hen is well adapted for lobster a la Newburg, but for eating on the half-shell a male in prime condition is far preferable.
The secret of cooking lobsters is to plunge them into a pot of furiously boiling sea water, and to keep the water in a condition of fast ebullition for just twenty minutes. Fresh water to which salt is added will not do so well. Salt water fresh from the ocean is indispensable. It brings out the correct flavor and imparts an indefinable zest to the lobster. Hard-shell crabs may be boiled in the same way, but ten minutes will be ample time.
All fresh vegetables are, in the opinion of the writer, improved in flavor by cooking them in sea water fresh from the ocean, not from a harbor contaminated by noxious influences from the shore. All vegetables should be immersed in boiling water and cooked till done. Potatoes will take about half an hour to boil, but cabbages, carrots and turnips much longer. I should not advise the cooking of the last-named three esculents aboard a small craft. Canned asparagus, French peas and string beans take little time to prepare and are excellent if a reliable brand is purchased. Open the can, drain off the liquid and throw it away. Wash the vegetables, strain the water off, place in a stew-pan with a lump of butter, and heat thoroughly. The liquid of canned vegetables is unfit for human food.
Hard clams or quahaugs are plentiful at any port during the boating season. The recuperative qualities of the small variety served ice-cold on the half shell with a dash of Tabasco sauce and no other seasoning are beyond praise. Now while the little clam is excellent eating just as soon as opened from the shell, taking care to waste none of his precious juices, his elder brother also has inestimable gastronomic values.
The easiest and simplest method of preparing clam broth is to scrub the clams well and wash them in several waters. Put them in an iron pot, without any water or liquid. Let them remain on the fire for twenty minutes. Then strain the juice, into which put a little fresh butter, a small quantity of milk, and a dash of red pepper. Drink while hot.
Fig. 5. A Traveling Companion.
Never add water to clam broth, and never let it boil after the milk is added, as it will curdle nine times out of ten.
To make clam soup, clean the clams as for broth. Place them in an iron pot on the stove. As soon as they open take them out of their shells and chop very fine. A hardwood bowl and a two-blade chopping knife are the best apparatus for this job. Strain the clam liquor, return to the pot, add minced onions to taste and the chopped clams; simmer gently for one hour, thicken to taste with cracker dust, season with sweet herbs and pepper; let boil fast for ten minutes, take off the stove and add some hot milk and a lump of fresh butter. Serve.
Clam chowder is an old sea dish whose popularity seems likely never to wane. It is a simple dish to prepare, although many cooks make a mystery of it. Cut half a pound of streaky salt pork into small cubes. Fry in an iron pot together with half a dozen medium-sized sliced onions until they are a light brown. Chop fifty hard-shell clams fine. Peel and slice thin a dozen large raw potatoes. Break up four sea biscuits and soak till soft in cold water or milk. Scald and peel and slice six ripe and juicy tomatoes. Put these ingredients into the pot in layers, pour over them the strained juice of the clams. Season with red and black pepper, sauces and herbs to taste. Cover an inch with hot fresh water and simmer for three hours. A pint of sound California claret added just before serving is an improvement. An old hen makes tip-top chowder cooked in the same fashion.
Fish chowder may be prepared in a similar way. Cod, haddock, sea bass and bluefish are good made into a chowder.
The soft-shell clam makes a delicate stew or broth. The tough parts should be rejected from the chopping bowl. Boiled for twenty minutes and eaten from the shell with a little butter and pepper they are also very appetizing. A big potful soon disappears.
There is no excuse for the yachtsman neglecting to enjoy the delights of fish fresh from the sea. Fishing tackle should always be carried. Bluefish and mackerel may be caught by trolling; and if you have fisherman's luck, once in a blue moon a Spanish mackerel may fall to your lot. If so, that day must be marked by a white stone, for a Spanish mackerel transferred in about two shakes of a lamb's tail from the fish-hook to the fry-pan, or better still, if your arrangements permit, to the gridiron or broiler, is good enough for the gods to feed on. Two axioms should be borne in mind, namely, to fry in plenty of boiling fat or to plunge into boiling water. Never humiliate a fish by placing him in a cold fry-pan or into a cooking pot of cold water.
Before frying fish dip in well-beaten egg and then sprinkle with bread crumbs or cracker dust, dip in egg again, and then add more bread crumbs or cracker dust. This is for epicures. For ordinary seafarers if the fish is rolled in yellow cornmeal without the egg the result will be nearly the same. Cut up large fish into suitable sizes, but fry small fish whole.
Soft-shell crabs should be cooked in boiling fat. When brown they are done. Ten minutes is usually enough to cook them thoroughly.
Always when you boil fish of any kind indigenous to salt water or fresh put them in boiling water either from the sea or fresh water well salted. A little vinegar added is good. A two-pound fish should cook sufficiently in fifteen or at most twenty minutes. Fish with white flesh take longer to boil than those with dark.
An excellent sauce for boiled fish may be made thus: Put a piece of butter as big as an egg in a saucepan or a tomato can; heat till it bubbles, add a heaping tablespoonful of flour, stir till quite smooth; pour slowly into this, stirring continually, a pint of the water the fish was cooked in, and add two hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. This may be flavored with anchovy sauce or a few drops of Harvey or Worcestershire. Some prefer the addition of a little lemon juice or even vinegar. Every man to his taste!
When a very little boy I sailed in the Derwent, a small schooner engaged in carrying bottles from Sunderland to London. The bottles were taken in from the factory where they were made, stowed in the hold of the schooner and transported to a wharf at Wapping. Bottles are a clean kind of freight, and our skipper being a very particular kind of a man the Derwent was kept as bright as a new pin outside and inside, alow and aloft. On this dashing little vessel I was cook and cabin boy. There was no regular galley on deck, simply an iron cooking stove erected on the foreside of the mainmast; and on that in storm and calm I boiled and baked for a crew of four for more than a year—in fact till I quit the coasting trade and signed away foreign. My skipper took me under his special guidance. The grub had to be well cooked and the deck kept spotless or I used to suffer. Skipper and mate were epicures after a fashion, so I had to keep my weather eye open.
My experience in merchant vessels and pleasure craft has fitted me to write with some small assumption of authority on the subject of sea cooking.
Some of my methods may seem queer and perhaps grotesque, but condemn them not till you have tested them in the crucible of experiment.
XX.
NAUTICAL TERMS IN COMMON USE.
Aback—A sail's condition when the sheet is to windward and it drives the vessel astern.
Abaft—The position toward the stern of any object or point such as "abaft the mast" or "abaft the binnacle."
Afore—The contrary of abaft.
Ahoy!—An interjection used in hailing a vessel, such as "Vigilant ahoy!"
Athwart—Across the keel.
Atrip—When the anchor is broken out of the ground.
Avast—Stop, discontinue. As "avast hauling" (stop hauling).
Balance reef—A diagonal reef in a fore-and-aft sail extending from throat to clew.
Batten down—Covering hatches with tarpaulins and securing them with battens.
Beam ends—A vessel is said to be on her beam ends when knocked down by a squall to an angle of about 45 degrees.
Belay—To make fast a rope or fall of a tackle.
Below—Greenhorns call it "downstairs" and seamen laugh at them.
Bight—A loop of a rope.
Bilge—The round in a vessel's timbers where they turn from her sides toward the keel.
Binnacle—A case in which the compass is contained.
Block and block—When the blocks of a tackle are hauled close together.
Bolt rope—The rope sewn round the edges of sails. It is made of the best hemp.
Bonnet—An extra piece of canvas laced to the foot of a jib or foresail, taken off when it blows hard.
Box the compass—To call over the points of the compass in correct order.
Break off—When a vessel sailing close-hauled is headed by the wind and is unable to lay the course she was steering.
Bring up—To anchor.
Broach to—To come to against wind and helm.
Capsize—To turn over.
Carvel built—Constructed with the planks flush edge to edge and the seams caulked and payed.
Caulking—Driving oakum into the seams of a vessel with a mallet and a blunt chisel called a caulking iron.
Clews—The lower corners of square sails; the lower after-corners of fore-and-aft sails.
Clinch—To fasten a rope by a half hitch and then seize the end back to the standing part.
Close-hauled—Hauled as close to the wind as the sails will permit without shaking their luffs. A cutter-rigged yacht with well-cut canvas should lie within four and a quarter points of the wind. Some modern racing craft have done half a point better than this. Square-rigged vessels cannot head better than five and a-half points of the wind.
Collar—An eye spliced in a shroud or stay to go over the masthead.
Comber—A big wave.
Companion—The entrance from the deck to the cabin below.
Compass bowl—The bowl in the binnacle that contains the compass.
Corinthian—A term in yachting possessing the same significance as amateur; the opposite of professional.
Counter—That part of a vessel which projects abaft the sternpost.
Covering board—The outside deck plank fitted over the timber heads. The same as planksheer.
Cracking on—Carrying a press of sail.
Crank—Not stiff under canvas; easily heeled or listed.
Cranze or Cranse—A metal band with eyes on it fitted to the end of a bowsprit or other spar.
Cringle—A metal thimble worked in the clews and leeches of sails.
Dandy—A cutter-rigged vessel with lug-mizzen set on a jigger-mast.
Davits—Iron cranes on vessels to which boats are hoisted.
Deadeye—A circular wooden block with three holes in it without sheaves, through which a lanyard is rove to set up standing rigging.
Dead wood—Solid wood worked on top of the keel forward and aft.
Depth of hold—The height between the keelson and the deck of a single-decked vessel.
Displacement—The quantity of water displaced by a vessel, which in weight is always equal to her own weight.
Dogvane—A light vane made of bunting or feathers to show the direction of the wind.
Dowse—To lower a sail suddenly.
Down-haul—A rope by which a sail is hauled down.
Draught of water—The depth of a vessel measured from the under side of the keel to the load water-line.
Earrings—Ropes for fastening the corners of the heads of sails to yards and for reefing.
Ease off—To slacken a rope handsomely.
Eyelet holes—Small holes worked in sails for lacings or lashings to be rove through.
Eyes of the rigging—Collars spliced in the ends of shrouds to go over the masthead and also over the deadeyes.
Fair leaders—Holes in planks, etc., for ropes to be rove through so that they lead fairly.
Fair wind—A wind that permits a vessel to steer her course without tacking.
Fall—The hauling part of the rope of a tackle.
False keel—A timber bolted to the under side of the keel proper.
Fathom—A sea measure of six feet.
Fender—A species of buffer made of wood, rope or other material to hang over a vessel's side to prevent her from chafing against a dock, or another vessel.
Fid—An iron or wooden bar to keep bowsprits and topmasts in place; a conical wooden instrument used by riggers and sailmakers.
Fish, To—To strengthen a weak or repair a broken spar by lashing another spar or batten to it.
Flare—To project outwards; contrary to tumbling home.
Flat aft—When sheets are trimmed as close as possible for effective windward work.
Floors—The bottom timbers of a vessel.
Flowing sheet—The sheet eased off to a fair wind.
Flush decked—Having neither poop nor forecastle.
Foot—The lower edge of a sail.
Forereach—To sail faster through the water on a wind than another vessel.
Freeboard—That part of a ship's side above the water.
Full and by—To steer as close to the wind as possible, while at the same time keeping the sails full of wind.
Futtocks—The timbers which join and butt above the floors, called first, second and third futtocks.
Gammon iron—An iron hoop fitted to the side of the stem, or on top of the stem, to receive and hold the bowsprit.
Garboard—The strake of plank next above the keel, into which it is rabbeted and bolted.
Gripe, To—A vessel gripes when she has a tendency to come up in the wind and requires much weather helm.
Gudgeons—Metal straps with eyes secured to the stern post, into which the pintles of the rudder are fitted.
Gunwale—The timber fitted over the timber heads and fastened to the top strake.
Guys—Ropes used to steady a spar or other thing.
Gybe—To let a fore-and-aft sail shift from one side to the other when running before the wind. To let a vessel go so much off the wind as to bring the wind on the opposite quarter.
Half-mast high—When a flag is hoisted halfway up as a mark of respect to a person recently dead.
Halyards—Ropes for hoisting sails.
Handsomely—Steadily; carefully.
Handy billy—A watch tackle kept on deck for getting a pull on sheets or halyards.
Hanks—Rings or hooks for fastening the luffs of sails to stays.
Hard down—The order to put the tiller a-lee. Hard up, the order to put the tiller a-weather.
Heave to—To so trim a vessel's sails that she does not move ahead.
Heel rope—The rope by which a running bowsprit is hauled out or a topmast lowered.
Hoist—The length of the luff of a fore-and-aft sail.
Horns—The projections forming the jaws of gaffs or booms.
Hounds—The projections on a mast that support the lower cap and rigging.
House—To lower a topmast down within the cap.
Inhaul—The rope used to haul sails inboard.
In irons—The condition of a vessel head to wind and with way lost, unable to pay off on one tack or the other.
Irish pennants—Loose ropes flying in the breeze or dangling over the side.
Jackstay—A rod of iron, a wooden cleating, or a wire rope for sails or yards to travel on; also a wire rope on the main boom to which the foot of the sail is laced.
Jiggermast—The mizzenmast of a yawl or dandy.
Kentledge—Pig iron used as ballast.
Lanyards—Ropes rove through deadeyes by which shrouds or stays are set up.
Leeboard—An old-fashioned contrivance to check leeway, still in use on some Dutch vessels and English barges.
Load water-line—The line of flotation when a vessel is properly ballasted or laden.
Luff—To come closer to the wind.
Make fast—To belay a rope.
Masthead—That part of the mast above the hounds.
Mast hoops—The hoops to which the luffs of fore and aft sails are seized to secure the sails to the masts.
Miss stays, To—To fail in an attempt to tack.
Mousing—A yarn wound round a hook to prevent it from becoming unhooked.
Near—Very close to the wind.
Nip—To nip a vessel is to sail her too close to the wind.
On a wind—Closehauled.
Outhaul—A rope or tackle by which a sail is hauled out on a spar.
Paddy's hurricane—A dead calm.
Painter—A rope spliced to a ring bolt in the bow of a boat to make fast by.
Pay—To pour hot pitch or marine glue into seams after they are caulked.
Pintles—The metal hooks by which rudders are attached to the gudgeons.
Pole mast—A mast without a topmast, but with a long masthead above the hounds.
Put about—To tack.
Raffee—A square or triangular sail set flying on the foretopmasts of schooners.
Rake—To incline forward or aft from the vertical, as raking mast, a raking sternpost, etc.
Reef band—A strip of canvas sewn across a sail, in which eyelet holes for the reef points are worked.
Reef pendant—A strong rope with a Matthew Walker knot in one end. It is passed up through a hole in the cleat on the boom, and then through the reef cringle in the sail and down through the hole in the cleat on the other side of the boom.
Reef points—Short lengths of rope in sails to tie up the part rolled up when reefing.
Reeve—To pass a rope through a block or a hole of any kind.
Roach—The curved part of the foot of a sail.
Rockered keel—A keel whose ends curve upward.
Running bowsprit—A bowsprit so fitted as to run in or out and reef.
Serve—To cover a rope with spunyarn.
Shake out a reef—To untie the reef points and set the sail.
Sheathing—The copper or other metal nailed on the bottom of a vessel.
Sheave—The grooved wheel in a block or in the sheave hole of a spar over which the rope passes.
Sheet—The rope by which the clew of a sail is secured.
Snotter—An eye strop used to support the heel of a sprit.
Spitfire jib—The smallest storm jib.
Taunt—Tall, high.
Taut—Tight.
Tie up—A lubber's synonym for moor. You tie up a dog. You moor a vessel.
Thimble—A heart shaped or circular ring with a groove outside for ropes to fit in. They are used for the eye splices in ropes, the straps of blocks and for the cringles in sails.
Thwarts—The transverse seats in boats.
Tumble home—When the sides of a vessel near the deck incline inward the opposite to flaring.
Tyers—Ropes that secure a mainsail when stowed.
Unbend—To cast loose a sail from stay, gaff, boom or yard.
Veer—To pay out chain.
Wear—To bring the wind on the other side of a vessel by turning her head from the wind. The reverse of tacking.
Weather gauge—The condition of a vessel that is to windward of another.
Weather helm—A vessel is said to carry weather helm when she has a tendency to fly up in the wind.
Weathering—If one vessel eats to windward of another, she is said to weather on her. Weathering an object is passing it on the windward side.
Whip, To—To bind the end of a rope with twine to prevent it from unlaying.
Yaw—A vessel yaws when her head flies from one direction to the other; as, for instance, when her helmsman is unable to keep her steady on her course.
Yawl—A cutter-rigged vessel with a mizzenmast stepped in her counter.
THE SLOOP YACHT.
Names of Spars, Rigging, Sails, Etc.
1 Jib Topsail.
2 Club Topsail Sprit.
3 Topsail Club.
4 Club Topsail Guy.
5 Jib.
6 Club Topsail.
7 Mainsail.
8 Bowsprit.
9 Club Topsail Tack Line.
10 Mainsheet.
11 Foresail or Forestaysail Sheet.
12 Jib Topsail Sheet.
13 Topping Lift.
14 Gaff Topsail, Clewed Down.
15 Tack of Jib.
16 Tack of Jib Topsail.
17 Luff of Jib Topsail.
18 Head of Jib Topsail.
19 Jib Topsail Halyards.
20 Leach of Jib Topsail.
21 Main Gaff.
22 Main Boom.
23 Main Topmast.
24 Foot of Jib.
25 Leach of Jib.
26 Clew of Jib.
27 Reef Points.
28 Tack of Mainsail.
29 Clew of Mainsail.
30 Peak of Mainsail.
31 Throat of Mainsail.
32 Main Crosstrees.
33 Masthead Runner and Tackle.
34 Head of Club Topsail.
35 Clew of Club Topsail.
36 Tack of Club Topsail.
37 Topmast Shrouds.
THE CUTTER YACHT.
Names of Spars, Sails, Standing and Running Rigging, Etc.
SPARS.
1 Lowermast.
2 Topmast.
3 Bowsprit.
4 Main Boom.
5 Gaff.
6 Topsail Sprit.
7 Spinnaker Boom.
8 Tiller.
RIGGING AND ROPES.
9 Crosstrees.
10 Shrouds.
11 Topmast Shrouds.
12 Topping Lift.
13 Masthead Runner and Tackle.
14 Forestay.
15 Topmast Stay.
16 Bobstay.
17 Bobstay Fall.
18 Spinnaker Boom Topping Lift.
19 Spinnaker Boom Brace.
20 Topmast Backstay.
21 Reef Pennant.
22 Truck.
23 Ensign.
24 Channels.
25 Mainsheet.
26 Spinnaker Boom Guy.
27 Clew of Sprit Topsail.
28 Tack of Sprit Topsail.
29 Tack Line or Pendant.
30 Sprit Topsail Halyards.
SAILS.
A Jib.
B Sprit Topsail.
C Mainsail.
D Foresail.
E Jib Topsail.