A Text-Book of Horseshoeing, for Horseshoers and Veterinarians

by A. Lungwitz

PART II.

CHAPTER III.
SHOEING HEALTHY HOOFS.

A. Examination of a Horse Preliminary to Shoeing.

An examination should be made while the animal is at rest, and afterwards while in motion. The object of the examination is to gain accurate knowledge of the direction and movements of the limbs, of the form and character of the feet and hoofs, of the manner in which the foot reaches and leaves the ground, of the form, length, position, and wear of the shoe, and distribution of the nail-holes, in order that at the next and subsequent shoeings all ascertained peculiarities of hoof-form may be kept in mind and all discovered faults of shoeing corrected.

The examination is best conducted in the following order: The horse should first be led at a walk in a straight line from the observer over as level a surface as possible, then turned about and brought back, that the examiner may notice the direction of the limbs and the manner in which the hoofs are moved and set to the ground. While the animal is moving away the observer notices particularly the hind limbs, and as it comes towards him he examines the fore-limbs. Then a few steps at a trot will not only show whether or not the animal is lame, but will often remove all doubt in those cases in which, while the animal was walking, the examiner was unable to make up his mind as to which was the predominating position of the limb. The problem presented is, therefore, to determine whether or not the direction of the limbs, the lines of flight of the hoofs, and the manner in which they are set down and picked up are regular. If there are deviations from the normal they will fall either into the base-wide and toe-wide group or into the base-narrow and toe-narrow group. When clear upon these points the horse is allowed to stand quietly, and the observer, placing himself in front, examines the foot more closely, fixes the direction of the foot-axis clearly in his mind, marks also the form and character of the hoofs and the position of the coronets, as far as these parts can be inspected from in front. At the same time each hoof should be closely inspected to determine whether the slant of both quarters corresponds to the direction of the long pastern, and whether the course of the wall from the coronet to the plantar border is straight or bent in or out (contraction, fulness). Walls curved from above to below always indicate an unnatural height of some section of the wall and a displacement of the base of support of the foot. In order to gain accurate and complete knowledge of the position of the limbs, the flight of the hoofs, and the manner of setting the foot to the ground, the horse must frequently be moved back and forth many times, especially when the standing position is somewhat irregular and the hoofs are of different shapes.

At this point begins the examination of the position of the limbs, and the form of the feet and hoofs, in profile. After casting a glance over the entire body, so as to gain an idea of the animal’s weight, height, and length, the attention is turned to the position and direction of the limbs and hoofs. The eye should particularly note whether the form of the hoof corresponds to the position of the limb, and, furthermore, whether the slant of the pastern is the same as that of the wall at the toe,—that is, whether the foot-axis is straight or broken; also whether the toes and quarters are parallel, for the toe is sometimes bulging (convex) or hollowed out (concave) between the coronet and plantar border, and the quarters are frequently contracted and drawn or shoved under the foot (weak quarters). If the wall present rings the observer should note their position with reference to one another and to the coronet, and also their extent, and, furthermore, should determine whether or not they cross one another (thrush of the frog). At the same time he should notice the length of the shoes.

Next, the feet should be raised and the examiner should notice the width of the hoof, the arching of the sole, the character of the frog, the position of the bulbs of the heel, as well as the presence of any cracks or clefts in the wall. Then the old shoes should be examined as to their age, form, the distribution and direction of their nail-holes (“punching”), position, and wear. With respect to the form of the old shoe, one should observe whether or not it corresponds to the form of the hoof. The same careful examination should be made of the number and distribution of the nail-holes. As regards the position of the shoe, one must first ascertain whether it completely covers the bearing-surface of the wall, and whether the shoe extends beyond the wall at any point and has caused interfering or given rise to irregular wear. Finally, the wear of the shoe should be observed, and the following points borne in mind: One-sided wear, uneven setting down of the feet, and an unnatural course of the wall are often found together, especially when uneven wearing of the shoe has existed for a long time,—that is, during several shoeings. As a rule, in such a case the more worn branch of the shoe is too near the centre of the foot, and the opposite branch too far from the centre (too “full”); in other words, the base of support (shoe) has been shifted too far in the direction of the less worn branch. Moreover, increased wear of a part of a shoe is an indication that the section of the wall above it is too high (too long) ([Fig. 89]), or that the wall upon the opposite side of the foot is too low (short). The twisting movement of many hind feet should, from physiological reasons, not be hindered by shoeing.

B. Raising and Holding the Feet
of the Horse to be Shod.

This can always be done without much trouble if the horse has been accustomed to it from early colthood. Certain rules governing the manner of taking hold of the feet, and of afterwards manipulating them, are of value.

A shoer should never grasp a foot suddenly, or with both hands. The horse should first be prepared for this act. First see that the horse stands in such a position that he can bear his weight comfortably upon three legs. This is well worth noticing, and if the horse does not voluntarily assume such an easy position, move him gently until his feet are well under his body.

If the shoer, for example, wishes to raise the left fore foot for inspection, he stands on the left side facing the animal, speaks quietly to him, places the palm of the right hand flat upon the animal’s shoulder, and, at the same time, with the left hand strokes the limb downward to the cannon and seizes the cannon from in front. With the right hand he now gently presses the horse towards the opposite side, and the foot becoming loose as the weight is shifted upon the other leg, he lifts it from the ground. The right hand now grasps the pastern from the inside followed by the left hand upon the inside and the right hand on the outside; then, turning partly to the right, the holder supports the horse’s leg upon his left leg, in which position he should always stand as quietly and firmly as possible. If, now, the shoer desires to have both hands free to work upon the hoof, he grasps the toe with the left hand in such a manner that the toe rests firmly in the palm while the four fingers are closely applied to the wall of the toe, takes a half step toward the rear, passes the hoof behind his left knee into his right hand which has been passed backward between his knees to receive it, and drawing the hoof forward outward and upward supports it firmly on his two knees,—the legs just above the knees being applied tightly against the pastern. The forefoot should not be raised higher than the knee (carpus), nor the hind foot higher than the hock, nor either foot be drawn too far backward. The correct standing position of the shoer or floorman while holding a front foot is shown in [Fig. 91]. Shortness of stature (5′-5′.6″) is desirable in a floorman.

In lifting the left hind foot the animal should be gently stroked back as far as the angle of the hip, against which the left hand is placed for support, while the right hand strokes the limb down to the middle of the cannon, which it grasps from behind. While the left hand presses the animal’s weight over towards the right side, the right hand loosens the foot and carries it forward and outward from the body so that the limb is bent at the hock. The holder then turns his body towards the right, brings his left leg against the anterior surface of the fetlock-joint, and carries the foot backward, at which time his left arm passes over the horse’s croup and above and to the inner side of the hock. Finally, both hands encompass the long pastern.

Fig. 91.

Proper position for holding a front foot.

If the right feet are to be raised, the process is simply reversed.

In raising the feet no unnecessary pain should be inflicted by pinching, squeezing, or lifting a limb too high. The wise shoer avoids all unnecessary clamor and disturbance; quiet, rapid, painless methods avail much more. In dealing with young horses the feet should not be kept lifted too long; let them down from time to time. In old and stiff horses the feet should not be lifted too high, especially in the beginning of the shoeing.

Fig. 92.

The Martin horse rack (modified).

Vicious horses must often be severely handled. Watch the play of the ears and eyes continually, and immediately punish every exhibition of temper either by jerking the halter or bridle vigorously, or by loud commands. If this does not avail, then if soft ground is at hand make the horse back as rapidly as possible for some time over this soft surface; it is very disagreeable and tiresome to him. To raise a hind foot we may knot a strong, broad, soft, plaited band (side-line) into the tail, loop it about the fetlock of the hind foot, and hold the end. This often renders valuable service. The holder seizes the band close to the fetlock, draws the foot forward under the body, and then holds it as above described. The use of such a band compels the horse to carry a part of his own weight, and at the same time hinders him from kicking. Before attempting to place this rope or band about the fetlock, the front foot on the same side should be raised.

The various sorts of twitches are objectionable, and their use should not be allowed unless some painful hoof operation is to be done. The application of the tourniquet, or “Spanish windlass,” to the hind leg is equally objectionable.

Those horses which resist our attempts to shoe them we do not immediately cast or place in the stocks, but first have a quiet, trustworthy man hold them by the bridle-reins and attempt by gentle words and soft caresses to win their attention and confidence.

Ticklish horses must be taken hold of boldly, for light touches of the hand are to such animals much more unpleasant than energetic, rough handling. Many ticklish horses allow their feet to be raised when they are grasped suddenly without any preparatory movements.

C. Removing the Old Shoes.

If a horse’s hoofs are healthy, all the shoes may be taken off at the same time, but there are certain diseases of the hoof in which this should not be done.

The rule to follow in removing every shoe is to draw it cautiously, not wrench it away with violence. Hoofs which are dirty should first be cleansed, preferably with a stiff brush. Next, the clinches should be carefully lifted by means of a rather dull clinch cutter ([Fig. 93]), without injuring the horn of the wall. In order, now, that the nails may be removed singly, the shoe must be slightly lifted. This may be done in one of two ways. The shoer may use a pair of pincers ([Fig. 94]), with broad bills which will encompass the branch of the shoe and come well together underneath it. The handles of the pincers are then moved in the direction of the branches of the shoe. The second method consists in raising the branches of the shoe by driving the nail-cutter from behind between the shoe and hoof and using it as a lever or pry to loosen the shoe.

Fig. 93.

Clinch cutter
and punch.

Fig. 94.

Pincers.

Violent and excessive twisting of the hoof and straining of ligaments may easily occur, but the smith should guard against them by supporting the hoof with the left hand or with the leg just above the knee, while loosening the shoe.

D. Preparing the Hoof for the Shoe.

This preparation is usually termed paring, trimming, or dressing. It is a most important step in the process of shoeing, and its object is to shorten the hoof, which has grown too long under the projection of the shoe, and prepare it to receive the new shoe. The instruments needed for this work are the rasp and the hoof-knife ([Fig. 95]); upon large and hard hoofs a pair of sharp nippers ([Fig. 96]), or a sharp hewing knife, with broad handle and perfectly flat, smooth sides, may be used, since these instruments will considerably facilitate and hasten the work.

Fig. 95.

German hoof set with detachable hook blades. (W. M. Kunde, Dresden): a, a, hoof blades; b, pus searcher; c, scalpel.

After the shoer has carefully examined the hoofs in the manner described upon pages 90, 91, and 92, and has fixed in mind the relation of the height of the hoofs to the size and weight of the body, he cleanses the hoof and removes all stubs of old nails. At the same time he should be asking himself if, where, and how much horn is to be removed. In all cases all loosely attached fragments of horn are to be removed, for example, chips of horn produced by repeated bending and stretching of the lower border of the wall. The sole is then freed from all flakes of dead horn. The shoer then runs the rasp around the outer border of the wall and breaks it off to the depth to which he thinks it should be shortened, and then cuts the wall down to its union with the sole, so that at least one-eighth of an inch of the edge of the sole lies in the same level as the bearing-surface of the wall. Finally, the wall, white line, and outer margin of the sole, forming the “bearing-surface,” must be rasped until they are perfectly horizontal, except that at the toe of fore-hoofs this bearing-surface may be rasped slightly upward (rolled toe).

In dressing the hoof the branches of the frog should always be left prominent enough to project beyond the bearing-surface of the quarters about the thickness of an ordinary flat shoe. If it be weakened by paring, it is deprived of its activity, shrinks, and the hoof becomes narrow to a corresponding degree. The frog should, therefore, be trimmed only when it is really too prominent. However, loose and diseased particles of horn may be trimmed away when it is affected with thrush.

Fig. 96.

Nippers.

The bars should be spared and never shortened except when too long. Their union with the wall at the quarters must in no case be weakened, and never cut through (opening up the heels). They should be left as high as the wall at the quarters, or only a little less, while the branches of the sole should lie about one-eighth of an inch lower.

The buttress (angle formed by the union of wall and bar) requires special attention. In healthy unshod hoofs the bars run backward and outward in a straight line from the anterior third of the frog. In shod hoofs, however, it happens that the buttresses gradually lengthen, curl inward, and press upon the branches of the frog, causing the latter to shrink. In such cases the indication is to remove these prolongations of horn from the buttresses so as to restore to the bars their normal direction.

The sharp edge of the plantar border of the wall should be broken away with a rasp until the relative thickness of the wall equals its absolute thickness. ([Fig. 97]). However, in healthy hoofs, that is, in those whose walls are straight from the coronet to the ground, the outer surface of the wall should never be rasped. The only exceptions to this rule are those cases in which there is an outward bending of the lower edge of the wall, most frequent on the inner side wall and quarter.

Fig. 97.

Longitudinal (vertical) section of the wall at the toe: a c is the absolute, and a b the relative thickness of the wall. With a as the centre, and the line a c as a radius, a circle is drawn; the corner of horn in front of this circle and indicated by dotted lines is to be removed with the rasp.

With respect to the inclination of the ground-surface of the hoof to the direction of the foot-axis, as viewed from in front, the following facts are established:

In the regular standing position of the limbs (seen from in front) the plantar surface of a hoof is at right angles to the foot axis, and the outer and inner walls are of equal heights.

In the base-wide position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the foot-axis, usually to a very small degree, and the outer wall is somewhat higher (longer) and more slanting than the inner.

In the base-narrow position of the limbs the plantar hoof-surface is more or less inclined to the direction of the foot axis, usually quite considerably, and the inner wall is somewhat higher than the outer.

The foot is observed from the side in order to determine the proper relation of the length of the toe to the height of the quarters.

Fig. 98.

An untrimmed hoof with
an excess of horn (a) at
the toe which breaks
the foot-axis backward.

Fig. 99.

An untrimmed hoof with
the an excess of horn (b) at
heels, which breaks the
foot-axis forward.

Fig. 100.

Hoof dressed and foot-axis
straightened by removing
excess of horn below dotted
lines in the two preceding
illustrations.

In this also the foot-axis is our guide. If this axis is as it should be, the wall at the toe and the long pastern will have the same slant ([Figs. 67], [68] and [69]). If the hoof has become too long under the protection of the shoe, this will be shown by the foot-axis being no longer a straight line, but broken backward at the coronet ([Fig. 98]); that is, the hoof in comparison with the fetlock will be too slanting. By shortening the toe more than the quarters this faulty relation will be corrected ([Fig. 100]) and the foot restored to its proper slant. If the quarters are too long (too high) in comparison with the length of the toe, the foot-axis will be broken forward at the coronet ([Fig. 99]), and the hoof will be too upright. By shortening the quarters more than the toe the foot-axis may be made straight. The plantar surface of the hoof is therefore correct (balanced) when the horse places the foot flat upon the ground in travelling, and when the lines bounding the hoof, viewed from in front, from behind, and in profile, correspond to the direction of the three phalanges (foot-axis).

Finally, this fact should be emphasized, that in changing from flat shoes to those with calks, or the reverse, the hoofs must first be dressed in accordance, so that the foot axes will remain straight, and the feet be set always flat to the ground when the new shoes are on. Each hoof, when ready for the new shoe, should be let down and the horse allowed to stand upon it while it is again carefully examined and closely compared with the opposite hoof. Only after such close inspection has proved the dressing to be faultless can the hoof be considered as properly prepared and ready for the shoe. The two front hoofs and the two hind hoofs, when the legs are in the same position, should not only be of equal size, but also in proper relation to the size and weight of the body.

E. Preparing the Hoof for going Barefoot.

This becomes necessary when the nature of the ground and the kind of service required of the horse render shoeing unnecessary. However, to go barefoot the hoof must have plenty of horn. After removing the shoes the frog should be pared down nearly to the level of the wall, and the sharp outer edge of the wall well rounded off with the rasp, in some cases as far as the white line, otherwise large pieces of the wall will readily break away. Hoofs with very slanting walls must be more strongly rounded off than upright hoofs. Going barefoot strengthens the hoofs. From time to time the condition of these shoeless hoofs should be ascertained by inspection, and any growing fault in shape or direction of the horn immediately corrected. It quite frequently happens that the sharp edge of the wall must be repeatedly rounded, especially on very oblique walls (outer half of base-wide hoofs), and the quarters may require frequent shortening, because they are not always worn away as fast as the horn at the toe.

F. Making Shoes.[3]

Besides good, tough iron for the shoe, we need an anvil with a round horn and a small hole at one end, a round-headed turning-hammer, a round sledge, a stamping hammer, a pritchel of good steel, and, if a fullered shoe is to be made, a round fuller. Bodily activity and, above all else, a good eye for measurement are not only desirable, but necessary. A shoe should be made thoughtfully, but yet quickly enough to make the most of the heat.

The iron of which horseshoes are made is derived from the natural iron ore. Iron used for technical purposes is not chemically pure. Pure iron is rather too soft, and is therefore mixed with different substances, mostly with “carbon,” the most important ingredient of our fuel. Of course, the iron contains a very small quantity of carbon (0.5 to 5 per cent.). When iron contains more than 2.2 per cent. of carbon it is hard, brittle, and more easily melted, and is known as crude iron, or raw iron, because it is derived from the raw product,—black ore. The melted crude iron is called cast iron. Iron is ductile when it contains less than 2.2 per cent. of carbon, and is then called forge iron, or wrought iron. Wrought iron is fusible only at a high temperature. Only weldable iron containing less than 1.6 per cent. of carbon is suitable for general use. Of this iron we distinguish two sorts,—steel and wrought iron. A larger percentage of carbon is found in steel than in wrought iron. Steel is hard, can be tempered, and may be called tempered wrought iron. In order to temper or harden steel, bring it to a cherry-red heat, and then cool it suddenly by dipping it in cold water or wet sand. The tempered steel can again be softened as desired by heating and slowly cooling. By heating to a high temperature in a forge wrought iron will become doughy, and may then be intimately united (welded) with another piece at the same temperature by pressure or hammering. This property is called weld-ability; it is of great importance in making horseshoes. The heating of iron until it reaches the welding stage is called getting a “heat.” The act of welding wrought iron with steel is called “steeling.”

Fig. 101.

Fuller.

Fig. 102.

Hammer-punch.

Fig. 103.

Pritchel.

Regarding the tools, the following hints are sufficient:

The anvil should have a level, smooth, flat steel face.

Likewise, the round head and flat face of both turning-hammer and sledge should be smooth.

On the fullering-hammer ([Fig. 101]) the left side is flat, the right side convex, and the cutting edge has slightly rounded corners.

The hardy, fullering-hammer, and cold chisel should be flawless on the edge.

The punch ([Fig. 102]), used to make the nail-holes in the shoe, has a dull point, which should correspond in size with the head of the horseshoe-nail and have slightly rounded corners.

The pritchel ([Fig. 103]) should not taper to a point, but should end in a rectangular surface whose length is twice its width, in order to punch iron through the shoe under the blow of the hammer.

Making the Shoe.

To make a flat shoe, take the length of the hoof from the point of the toe to the buttress and the greatest width of the hoof; these two measurements, when added together, give the length of the bar for the shoe. The bar should be of such width and thickness as will require the least amount of working. For a bar-shoe or a shoe with heel-calks the bar must be correspondingly longer.

Should we wish to preserve the exact outline of the plantar border of the wall, we may advantageously use such a podometer as is shown in [Fig. 104]. This consists of a perforated sheet-iron plate one-sixteenth to one-twelfth of an inch thick. This is laid upon the hoof, and the outline of the wall marked upon it with chalk.

If necessary, the hoof may be set on a piece of smooth, stiff wrapping paper or card-board, and the outline of the wall closely traced with a lead pencil.

Fig. 104.

Podometer.

To make a front shoe ([Figs. 107] and [108]), heat the bar white-hot just beyond its middle, place the head of the sledge hammer across one end of the face of the anvil, hold the unheated end of the bar on the head of the sledge,—the heated end resting on the face of the anvil, and bend the bar into a half-circle with the round head of the turning-hammer. (The outer branch of all shoes is made first; in making pairs the right shoe is made first.) The extreme end of the heated bar is drawn out to the desired width and thickness with the sledge. The bent branch is then placed obliquely across the heel of the horn of the anvil, is turned over toward the right till it rests upon an edge, and is then bevelled diamond-shaped from the toe to the end of the branch. [The edge in contact with the horn is the inner edge of the right branch (outer branch) of the right shoe; the edge beaten down by the hammer is the outer edge of the outer branch.] The branch is then flattened on the anvil because in the bending the outer edge has been stretched and thinned, while the iron of the inner edge has been crowded together (back-set) and thickened. In flattening, the shoe should be left a trifle thinner on the inner edge. The branch is again placed over the horn, and gone over lightly with the flat head of the turning-hammer and brought to a proper shape. It is now to be concaved with or without the help of the sledge, or the concaving may be omitted. The concaving should end about three-fourths of an inch from the end of the branch. Now turn the branch and fuller it, or fuller it first and concave afterwards. The fuller should be set in about one-twelfth of an inch from the edge for small shoes, somewhat more for large shoes, and led from the end of the branch towards the toe, twice being necessary to make the fullering of sufficient depth. Next, stamp the holes, punch them through with the pritchel, run over the surfaces, go over the outer edge of the shoe upon the horn, and, finally, hammer the bearing-surface smooth and horizontal. The left branch is made in the same way, except that it is turned to the left and the fullering carried from the toe to the heel. Any ordinary shoe can and should be completed in the rough in two heats. One pair of shoes requires from eight to fifteen minutes.

The hind shoe ([Fig. 116]) is made in like manner, but the branches are not bent in a circle but given that form shown in [Fig. 106]. Concaving is not necessary; it is sufficient merely to round the inner edge of the web.

Fig. 105.

The curvature of a branch of a front shoe.

Fig. 106.

The curvature of a branch of a hind shoe.

Since in bending the shoe, and especially the toe of a hind shoe, the inner edge is crowded together (back-set) and thickened to the same extent that the outer edge is stretched and thinned, we must remember to do away with these inequalities of thickness and strain by hammering the shoe smooth.

Peculiarities of the Shoe.

They are dependent upon the structure, direction, and position of the leg and hoof, as well as upon the horse’s service and the nature of the ground. Since the shoe is an artificial base of support, and since a proper surface of support is of the greatest importance in preserving the soundness of the feet and legs, careful attention must be given to this matter. Naturally shoes designed for the various forms of hoofs must present equally great and equally numerous differences of form, as well as other peculiarities.

General Properties. 1. Form.—A form corresponding to the shape of the hoof is indispensable in every shoe. Front and hind and right and left shoes should be sharply defined and easily distinguishable. Front shoes must, above all else, be circular round cut the toe. Hind shoes, on the contrary, should be round pointed at the toe, yet not too much so, but as in [Fig. 116].

2. Width.—All shoes should be wider webbed (more covered) at the toe than at the ends of the branches. The medium width should be about twice the thickness of the wall.

Fig. 107.

Right front shoe, ground-surface.

Fig. 108.

Right front shoe, hoof-surface:
a, bearing-surface;
b, concaving, or “seating.”

3. Thickness.—Each shoe should, in general terms, be so thick that it need not be renewed under four weeks. Lungwitz found that the average required thickness is about seven-sixteenths of an inch. Of course, this thickness must be diminished or increased according to the rapidity of wear of the shoe. Shoes without calks should be of uniform thickness, unless there are special reasons for making them otherwise.

4. Length.—For draft-horses they should be long enough to reach the bulbs of the heel, otherwise shorter, though in other respects they may differ ([see “special properties”]), but should in all cases completely cover the bearing-surface of the hoof.

5. Surfaces.—That part of the hoof-surface of the shoe which is in contact with the hoof (bearing-surface of the shoe, [Fig. 109, a]) should be horizontal and wide enough to cover the wall, the white line, and from a twelfth to an eighth of an inch of the outer edge of the sole. Shoes for large hoofs require a broader bearing-surface than those for small hoofs. The concaving, or “seating” ([Fig. 109, b]), should be made deeper or shallower, according to the nature of the sole. Shoes for hoofs with strongly arched (very concave) soles, do not require any concaving (hind hoofs, narrow fore-hoofs). The object of concaving is to prevent pressure of the shoe upon the horny sole except at its margin.

Fig. 109.

Transverse section of a branch of a
front shoe: a, bearing-surface;
b, concaving; c, fullering,
or “crease”; d, nail-hole.

The ground-surface of the shoe should be flat and perfectly horizontal, except at the toe, which may be turned upward (rolled toe, “rolling motion”).

6. Borders.—The outer border should usually be moderately base-narrow,—that is, the circumference of the ground-surface of the shoe should be less than the circumference of its hoof-surface; in other words, the entire outer border of the shoe should be bevelled under the foot. Shoes made base-narrow are not so easily loosened, and materially assist in preventing interfering. The inner border should be moderately rounded.

Fig. 110.

(a) correct and (b) incorrect fullering.

7. The “Fullering” ([Fig. 109, c]).—In depth it should be about two-thirds the thickness of the shoe, of uniform width, and “clean.” A fullering is not absolutely necessary, but it makes the shoe lighter in proportion to its size, facilitates a uniform placing of the nail-holes, renders the ground-surface somewhat rough, and, because it is rather difficult to make, increases the workman’s skill.

Fig. 111.

Swiss military shoe,
hoof-surface.

Fig. 112.

Swiss military shoe,
ground-surface.

8. Nail-Holes ([Fig. 109, d]).—The importance of the nail-holes, as regards their character, number, distribution, depth, and direction, cannot be over-estimated, because by the nails which are driven through them the stability of the shoe upon the hoof should be maintained without injuring the sensitive structures, splitting the horny wall, or immoderately interfering with the elasticity of the foot. Each nail-hole should taper uniformly from the ground to the hoof-surface (funnel-shaped). For a medium-weight shoe six nail-holes are sufficient, while for all heavy shoes, especially those with toe- and heel-calks, eight are indicated; however, it should by no means be said that every nail-hole should contain a nail. Hind shoes usually require one more nail-hole than front shoes, yet seldom more than eight. In front shoes the nail-holes should be placed in the anterior half of the shoe ([Figs. 107] and [108]), while in hind shoes they are to be placed in the anterior two-thirds of the shoe ([Fig. 116]), and in both cases so distributed that the toe shall be without nail-holes, except in those shoes in which it may be desirable to omit the nail-holes in an entire branch ([Fig. 153]). The depth of the nail-holes—that is, their distance from the outer edge of the shoe—will depend always upon the thickness of the wall, and should equal the absolute (real) thickness of the wall ([Fig. 97]). It is evident, therefore, that all nail-holes should not be placed at the same depth (for thickness of the wall, [see p. 53]).

The direction in which the nail-holes should pass through the shoe depends upon the obliquity of the wall. The nail-holes around the toe, as a rule, should incline somewhat inward, the holes at the sides less so, while those at the quarters should be punched straight,—that is, should pass perpendicularly through the shoe.

Both front and hind shoes for army horses in time of war and manœuvres should be so punched that one or two nails may be placed in the posterior half of the shoe ([Figs. 111] and [112]).

Fig. 113.

Form of clips: a, correct; b, indifferent; c, faulty.

9. Clips ([Fig. 113]) are half-circular, leaf-like ears drawn upward from the outer edge of the shoe. They should be strong and without flaw at the base, and somewhat higher and thicker upon hind than upon front shoes. Their height on flat shoes should equal the thickness of the shoe, while on shoes with leather soles, or with toe- and heel-calks they should be somewhat higher.

According to their position we distinguish toe- and side-clips. They secure the shoe against shifting; therefore, as a rule, every shoe should have a toe-clip. A side-clip should always be drawn up on that branch of the shoe which first meets the ground in locomotion.

A Shoe with Heel-Calks.—All shoes with heel-calks designed for healthy hoofs should be so made and applied that they will disturb the normal setting down of the foot as little as possible, that the wear of the shoe will take place uniformly, and slipping be diminished. The toe of the shoe must, therefore, be left somewhat thicker than the branches just in front of the heel-calks. Moreover, every front shoe with heel-calks must be relatively long, and be provided with considerable rolling motion at the toe; that is, the shoe should be turned up at the toe, the bending beginning near the inner edge of the web. The three- or four-cornered, somewhat conical heel-calks with rounded corners should not be higher than the thickness of the shoe. With reference to the direction of the ends of the branches, we should see to it that they do not rise excessively, but that they assume as near as possible a horizontal direction in passing back to the heels ([see Fig. 115]).

Fig. 114.

Shoe without calks, with perfectly level hoof- and ground-surfaces, and with roll at the toe (flat, rolling motion shoe).

Fig. 115.

Shoe with heel-calks for a front hoof.

A Shoe with Toe- and Heel-Calks.—Such a shoe should be of uniform thickness from end to end, and should have a toe-calk and two heel-calks that are somewhat stronger and longer than the heel-calks of a shoe which has no toe-calk. If to a shoe of uniform thickness, on which the heel-calks are somewhat higher than those already described, a piece of steel ([Fig. 116, b]) of the height of the heel-calks is welded at the toe, we have a shoe with toe- and heel-calks. The toe-calk should never he higher than the heel-calks. There are three principal kinds of toe-calks,—namely:

1. The Sharp Toe-Calk.—A bar of toe-steel of proper width and thickness for the toe-calk is thrust with the shoe into the fire. When the end of the bar is cherry-red in color it is withdrawn, laid across the straight hardy, and cut nearly through at a point a calk-length from the end. Bar and shoe are then brought to a welding heat, the calk quickly and securely welded across the toe of the shoe, the bar wrenched away, the calk gone over again with the hammer, when it is immediately beaten out to a sharp edge from the anterior face, either over the far edge of the anvil, or in a foot-vise. The posterior face of a sharp toe-calk should be perpendicular to the ground-surface of the shoe. Machine-made toe-calks, sharp, half-sharp and blunt, provided with a sharp spud at one or both ends, are in general use. Their use requires two heats, and the sharp calk is blunted in the welding.

Fig. 116.

Right hind shoe with toe- and heel-calks: a, heel-calks; b, toe-calk; c, greatest width of the base of support (i.e., contact with the ground) of this shoe when without toe- and heel-calks; d, the greatest, and e, the least width of the base of support of this shoe with calks.

2. The Blunt Toe-Calk.—It is a rather long rectangular piece of toe-steel, straight, or curved to conform to the toe of the shoe. The shoe-surface and the ground-surface of the calk are of equal dimensions. It should be welded on in one heat.

3. The Half-Sharp Toe-Calk (Coffin-Lid Toe-Calk).—It resembles the blunt calk, except that the surface of the calk that is applied to the shoe is somewhat broader and longer than the surface that comes in contact with the ground. It is welded on in one heat. The first and third kinds are most suitable for winter.

Since heel-and toe-calks raise the hoof far from the ground and prevent all pressure upon the frog, they diminish the elasticity of the hoof and injure it. They are injurious also to the joints, because they furnish a base of support which is essentially smaller than that afforded by a flat shoe ([Fig. 116]). However, they are indispensable for heavy draft purposes on slippery roads and in winter. Upon all other roads and in summer they are superfluous, at least upon front hoofs, especially as they do not wholly prevent slipping.

Special Properties.—The many different forms of hoofs require a great variety of shoes. Following are the special peculiarities of each of the chief classes of shoes.

1. Shoe for a Regular Hoof.—Outer edge: moderately base-narrow (bevelled under) all around. Distribution and direction of the nail-holes: regular. Length: longer than the hoof by the thickness of the shoe ([see Figs. 121] and [122]).

2. Shoe for an Acute-Angled Hoof.—Outer edge: strongly base-narrow around the toe, but gradually becoming perpendicular towards the ends of the branches. Punching: regular, except that the nail-holes at the toe must incline inward somewhat more than usual. Length: rather longer than the preceding shoe ([see Fig. 123]).

3. Shoe for an Upright (stumpy) Hoof.—Outer edge: perpendicular at the toe; but if the hoof is very steep, then base-wide at the toe,—i.e., bevelled downward and outward. Punching: last nail should be placed just beyond the middle of the shoe. Direction of the holes: perpendicular. Length: short; at most, one-eighth of an inch longer than the hoof. In the case of a “bear-foot” ([see Fig. 70]) the shoe should be long.

4. Shoe for a Base-Wide Hoof.—Outer edge; the outer branch should be moderately base-narrow,—i.e., bevelled downward and inward, the inner branch perpendicular. Punching: upon the outer branch the holes should extend well back, while upon the inner branch they are to be crowded forward towards the toe ([see Fig. 117]). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof as seen in profile ([see 1], [2], and [3]).

5. Shoe for a Base-Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge: the outer branch either perpendicular or base-wide, the inner branch strongly base-narrow. Punching: the nail-holes in the outer branch should be crowded towards the toe and, under certain conditions, punched deeper than the wall is thick, on account of the greater width of this branch; in the inner branch the nail-holes are to be distributed back to the quarter and punched light ([see Fig. 118]). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. The outer branch should be about one-fourth of an inch longer than the inner.

Fig. 117.

A right front shoe for a base-wide
(toe-wide) hoof. The inner branch
should be about one-fourth of an
inch longer than the outer.

Fig. 118.

A right front shoe for a base-narrow
(toe-narrow) hoof. The outer branch
is wider and one-fourth of an inch
longer than the inner.

6. Shoe for a Wide Hoof.—Somewhat wider webbed (more covered) than usual. Outer edge: bevelled under the foot all around (base-narrow). Punching: nail-holes carried back into the posterior half of the shoe ([see Fig. 119]). Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof.

7. Shoe for a Narrow Hoof.—Outer edge: moderately bevelled under the foot at the toe (base-narrow), elsewhere perpendicular. Distribution of the nail-holes: regular. Direction of the nail-holes: perpendicular and towards the quarters, inclining somewhat outward. The holes about the toe incline somewhat inward. Length will depend upon the obliquity of the hoof. Concaving unnecessary ([see Fig. 120]).

Fig. 119.

Flat shoe for a round hoof
(right front).

Fig. 120.

A left front shoe for a narrow hoof.
The concaving is unnecessary.

The forms of shoes described in paragraphs 2 to 7 differ from that described in paragraph 1, but are necessary in order to lessen the injurious consequences of irregular loading (unbalancing) of the feet, and of unfavorable bases of support of the body-weight.

G. Choosing the Shoe.

The choice of the shoe for a given horse is not at all difficult after we have carefully considered his weight, the nature of his work, his standing position, gait, the form of his hoofs, and quality of the horn, bearing in mind the general and peculiar properties of shoes. As a rule, we choose a shoe that is longer than the hoof, because the latter grows and carries the shoe forward with it, and because the quarters gradually become lowered by rubbing and wearing away upon the branches of the shoe. The length of the shoe is of especial importance. For horses employed for slow, heavy draft purposes the shoe supplied with heel-and toe-calks should extend backward far enough to support the bulbs of the heels. On the contrary, horses used at a trot or gallop, as coach-and saddle-horses, require shorter shoes ([see Fig. 124]).

The weight of the shoe should be so adjusted to the demands of the horse’s work, the condition of the legs (whether used up with work or not), and the nature of the ground that the shoeing will last at least a month. Hard roads and a heavy, clumsy gait require strong, durable shoes, which, under some conditions, are to be rendered still more durable by welding in steel. For moderate service upon soft roads we should use light shoes. Running horses require unusually thin and narrow shoes of steel ([see Figs. 125-128]).

H. Shaping and Fitting Shoes.
General Considerations.

This is one of the most important parts of horseshoeing. Its object is to so fashion or shape the shoe which has been chosen for a particular hoof that its circumference will exactly correspond to the lower circumference of the previously prepared hoof, and its bearing-surface will fit air-tight to the bearing-surface of the hoof. At this time all defects in the surfaces of hoof and shoe and in the nail-holes must be remedied, the clips drawn up, and the shoe made to fit perfectly. The bearing-surface of the shoe, especially at the ends of the branches, must be kept horizontal[4] and smooth, and its width regulated by the width of the bearing-surface of the hoof ([see page 99]). Perfectly uniform heating is absolutely indispensable in shaping the shoe, because an irregularly heated shoe twists or becomes distorted at the warm places. Every shoe should be straight, and when held before the eye one branch should exactly cover the other. A flat shoe laid upon a level surface should touch at all parts of its ground-surface; the only exception to this is the shoe with a rolled toe (rolling motion), in which the toe is turned upward. A shoe is termed “trough-shaped” when only the inner edge of the web rests upon the flat surface. It is faulty, disturbs the stability of the foot, and shifts the weight of the body too much upon the quarters.

Fig. 121.

Shod fore-hoof viewed in profile
to show the “roll” at the toe.

To front shoes we give a rolled toe ([Fig. 121], rolling motion), by which we mean a more or less pronounced upward turn of the toe of the shoe. Ordinarily, the toe begins to turn up at the middle of the web, and should be elevated about one-half the thickness of the iron. The rolled toe corresponds to the natural wear of front hoofs, facilitates the “breaking over” of the feet, and insures a uniform wear of the shoe ([see Fig. 86]). The shoe is made moderately hot and placed on the foot with the toe-clip against the wall exactly in front of the point of the frog. The scorched horn should be repeatedly removed with the rasp until a perfect-fitting bed has been made upon the bearing-surface of the hoof. From the bearing-surface of the shoe to the inner border of the web the iron must be free from the sole around its entire circumference. The horn sole should not be burnt, because the velvety tissue of the sole lies immediately above it. In the region of the nail-holes the outer borders of shoe and wall should correspond. The nail-holes must under all conditions cover the white line. From the last nail-hale back to the ends of the branches, for hoofs of the regular standing position of the limbs, the shoe should gradually widen until it projects at each quarter from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch beyond the edge of the wall. The posterior half of the shoe should, therefore, be somewhat wider than the hoof. The effect of this will be to prolong the usefulness of the shoes. With respect to the width of the branches, an exception arises in the case of hind shoes, in which the inner branch, with few exceptions, should closely follow the border of the wall; this will prevent interfering and tearing off the shoe by the opposite foot.

Fig. 122.

Left fore-hoof of normal position shod.

Between the ends of the branches and the frog there should be enough room, with few exceptions, to pass a foot-pick.

In order to judge of the width of a shoe which has been fitted to the hoof, it is of advantage to seize the hoof in the left hand and, extending it towards the ground, to observe from behind and above the outer border of the shoe and the surfaces of the wall.

Furthermore, the most important rule is that the shoe should always have the form of the foot, so long as the form of the hoof remains unaltered. In all hoofs that have already undergone change of form we must strive to give the shoe that form which the hoof had before it underwent change. Such treatment will not only do the hoof no injury, but, on the contrary, is of advantage to it, as it is well known that in time the hoof will acquire the form of the shoe.

Shaping and Fitting Shoes.
Special Considerations.

(a) A shoe for a hoof of the regular form fits properly when the outer border of the shoe in the region of the nail-holes closely follows the outer edge of the wall, but from the last nail-hole to the end of each branch extends beyond the wall from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch, the shoe is straight, lies firmly and air-tight upon the bearing-surface of the hoof, the nail-holes fall exactly upon the white line, and there is sufficient space between the frog and the branches of the shoe for the passage of a foot-pick. The branches must be of equal length.

While in fitting a shoe to a hoof of regular form we need pay attention only to the form of the hoof, it is very different when we come to shape and fit shoes to hoofs of irregular forms. In these cases we must consider not only the form of the hoof, but the position of the limbs and the distribution of weight in the hoof, because where the most weight falls the surface of support of the foot must be widened, and where least weight falls (on the opposite side) the surface of support must be narrowed. In this manner the improper distribution of weight within the hoof (an unbalanced foot) is regulated,—that is, is evenly distributed over the surface of support. The manner in which this is accomplished in the various forms of hoofs is as follows:

(b) An acute-angled hoof requires the shoe described in [paragraph 2, page 114]. The branches must be long, because more of the weight falls in the posterior half of the foot, and long branches extend the surface of support backward, while the surface of support in front is to be diminished by making the toe of the shoe base-narrow, either by turning it up or by bevelling it in under the foot. A shoe for an acute-angled hoof fits when it is otherwise related to the hoof as is described in paragraph a, above.

(c) An upright or stumpy hoof presents exactly reverse conditions with respect to the distribution of weight within the hoof, and is treated in an exactly opposite manner. The surface of support should be increased at the toe and diminished at the quarters. This is accomplished by a shoe possessing the peculiarities described in [paragraph 3, page 114], whose nail-holes are directed either straight or slightly outward.

(d) A base-wide hoof requires the surface of support to be widened upon the inner side of the foot and narrowed upon the outer side, because the inner half of the foot hears the more weight. A shoe having the peculiarities described in [paragraph 4, page 114], accomplishes this end.

(e) The base-narrow hoof is just the reverse of the preceding, and requires a shoe whose peculiarities are described in [paragraph 5, page 114]. While in the normal standing position of the limbs, viewed from in front, the ends of the branches of the shoe should be equally distant from the middle of the median lacuna of the frog, this is not so in the base-wide and base-narrow positions. In the base-wide position the outer and in the base-narrow position the inner branch should be somewhat farther from the median lacuna than the branch of the opposite side.

Fig. 123.

The three principal forms of hoofs shod with flat shoes.

(f) The wide hoof has too large a surface of support, and, therefore, the shoe designed for it should possess the peculiarities enumerated in [paragraph 6, page 115].

(g) The narrow hoof has already too narrow a base of support, and must not be made smaller; therefore, the shoe should not have a base-narrow but a perpendicular outer border, as described in [paragraph 7, page 115].

Shoeing Saddlers and Hunters.

The shoes for saddlers (Park Hacks) should be light, short, and fitted snug to prevent forging, interfering and pulling of the shoes. The hoof-surface should cover the wall, white line and at least one-fourth of an inch of the margin of the sole. An average width of one inch is desirable. Both front and hind shoes should be fullered and concaved on the ground-surface (convex iron). The Front Shoe:—Length, should not project beyond the buttress more than one-eighth of an inch. Width, an inch at the middle on the branches, somewhat more at the toe, and less at the ends of the branches. Bevelling, outer border, base-narrow all around. The ends of the branches, and the heel-calks, in case they are used, are bevelled strongly downward and forward under the foot. The toe is rolled from the inner edge of the web, and provided with a strong central clip. Six nails are sufficient ([see Fig. 124]).

Fig. 124.

A right front shoe with forging calks;
suitable for a saddle-horse, or hunter
(convex iron).

The Hind Shoe:—Length, the shoe may project from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch behind the buttresses. The toe should be well rounded and somewhat blunt so that the horn of the toe will project beyond the shoe an amount equal to one-half the thickness of the wall. Width, somewhat less than the front shoe. The branches are of equal thickness, and should carry heel-calks whose height equals the thickness of the shoe. To guard against interfering the inside calk may be omitted and the inner branch thickened, fitted snug and bevelled strongly base-narrow. Clips are to be placed at inner and outer toes. Seven nails are sufficient.

The shoes for hunters do not differ materially from those suitable for Park Hacks. The hunter’s shoes are somewhat lighter, and to guard against injury to the feet by over-reaching and interfering, and against the shoes being pulled by stiff mire and by treading, the shoes must represent merely a prolongation of the hoofs, i.e., must be no longer and no wider than the hoofs themselves. The front shoe of narrow, convex iron is rolled at the toe and has a central toe-clip. Forging heel-calks are advisable.

The hind shoe is set back at the toe, carries inner and outer toe-clips, an outer heel-calk and an inner interfering branch. Seven nails.

Shoeing Runners.

Racing plates are intended solely to prevent excessive wear and breaking away of the wall, and to insure a secure foothold upon the ground. The shoes are made as light as possible, but they must not be so narrow and thin that they will bend or break. They are therefore made of steel, wide enough to cover the bearing-surface of the wall, white line, and an eighth of an inch of the sole. The ground-surface is divided into two sharp edge’s by a deep, clean, fullering continued entirely around the shoe. heel-calks are of no advantage. Front and hind shoes carry six nails. The last nails are well back in the quarters to prevent the spreading or bending of the light shoe. Front shoes are provided with central toe-clips; hind shoes carry inner and outer toe-clips and are set slightly under at the toe ([see Figs. 125], [126], [127], [128]). An average weight running plate for a medium-sized hoof is three to four ounces.

Fig. 125.

A fore running plate,
hoof-surface.

Fig. 126.

A fore running plate,
ground-surface.

Fig. 127.

A hind running plate,
hoof-surface.

Fig. 128.

A hind running plate,
ground-surface.

Shoeing Trotters and Pacers.

The shoes worn while the trotter or pacer is in training are somewhat heavier than those worn while racing. Training shoes will average 40 ounces to the set, while trotting and pacing plates weigh from 16 to 28 ounces to the set. Of the six fastest trotters during the last year (1912) the average weight of the front shoes was 6⅚ ounces, of the hind shoes 4 ounces. Of the seven swiftest pacers of the same year the front shoes averaged 5½ ounces, and the hind shoes 3⅝ ounces. In short, extreme speed at running, pacing or trotting demands as light a shoe as can be made, which will at the same time furnish a bearing for wall, white line and a narrow rim of the sole.

In style of shoes there is no marked difference between trotters and pacers—except in the hind shoes of pacers that cross-fire ([see “cross-firing,” p. 140]). Open shoes predominate. Bar-shoes are used, not to give frog pressure, but to stiffen and prevent spreading of the shoe, when after a few days’ wear it becomes thin at the toe. The average trotting and pacing plate is so thin that it would be weakened by fullering, so most of them are stamped (punched). Six nails are sufficient. Clips are seldom needed.

Pacers usually require a low circular grab or “rim” at the toe. This is set flush with the outer border, is about one-eighth of an inch high and is brazed on. Trotting plates are usually without toe-calks, though many are fullered across the toe (corrugated) to furnish a grip upon the ground.

On both trotting and pacing shoes the heel-calks should be low and sharp and should run straight forward so as not to retard the forward glide of the foot as it is set to earth heel first. The heel-calk serves chiefly to prevent the lateral twist of the foot as the horse takes the sharp turns of the track.

Freak shoes, toe-weights, side-weights, excessive length of hoof or toe, and other unscientific appliances and methods of shoeing speed horses are being gradually eliminated, and today the fastest are dressed and shod in accordance with the principles enunciated in this book.

Fitting Shoes to Heavy Draft-Horses.

What has been previously said concerning shoeing holds good here; however, the conditions of shoeing are somewhat different in heavy horses, and particularly with respect to hoofs which, without being clearly diseased, have been injured by shoeing. The entire operation requires more circumspection, because it is more difficult. In many cases one will find that the width that has been advised for the outer branch of the shoe at the quarter is not sufficient. Indeed, if a horse has wry feet, and there is unequal distribution of weight within the hoof, and we attempt in shoeing it to follow to the letter the directions given on preceding pages, we would be apt to favor the perpetuation of the defect. In such cases the slant of the wall at the quarters is of the greatest practical value to us in estimating the proper width for the shoe at this point.

Fig. 129.

Left hind shoe with a broad, base-wide
outer branch for draft-horses that stand
markedly base-narrow (close behind).

When uniform setting down of the hoof and uniform wear of the shoe are desired, every point in the coronary band in the posterior half of the foot must receive support by the shoe. This applies particularly to the outer halves of hoofs that are extremely base-narrow. If, for example, the coronet of the outer quarter projects beyond the plantar border of the quarter, the outer branch of the shoe from the last nail-hole back must be kept so wide (full) that an imaginary perpendicular line dropped from the coronary band will just touch the outer border of the shoe. The inner branch, on the contrary, should follow the edge of the wall as closely as possible. Furthermore, the new shoe should be given more curve,—that is, made wider and fitted more full where the old shoe shows greatest wear. The principal thought should be to set the shoe, which should always be regarded as the base of support of the hoof, farther towards the more strongly worn side. Such a practice renders superfluous the wide-spread and popular custom of bending outward the outer quarter and heel-calk of hind shoes. From the manner in which a horse travels and the wear of the old shoe, we estimate the distance that the branches of the shoe should be set from the middle line of the hoof. If in following out this plan the bearing-surface of the outer quarter of the wall is not completely covered, the quarter will be pinched and squeezed inward; this should be prevented by a broader branch punched so deeply that the holes will fall upon the white line ([Fig. 129]).

When the shoer has satisfied himself that the shoe fulfils every requirement and fits perfectly, it is to be cooled, the holes opened with an oiled pritchel, and the shoe brightened with a file. In filing, all sharp edges should be removed. If a shoe is to be filed upon the outer border, to give it a neater appearance, the filing should be done lengthways of the shoe, and not crossways; of course, the shoe must not be bent by being improperly clamped in the vise.

It indicates much greater skill in making and fitting shoes when they look clean and finished with little or no filing.

In the preceding remarks I have insisted upon a horizontal bearing-surface for all shoes, with the single exception of shoes provided with the rolled toe (rolling motion). As far as I can judge from the literature of shoeing, and from what I have seen with my own eyes in many countries, this is the most wide-spread practice. In Germany, on the other hand, there is another method, followed in the military shoeing shops, which consists in placing the bearing-surface of the shoe as nearly as possible at right angles to the slant of the wall. According to this method the bearing-surface of the shoe, depending upon the direction of the wall (viewed from in front, from behind, and from the side), should incline more or less, now backward, now inward, now horizontal, and now outward. Shoes for wide hoofs are given a bearing-surface which inclines inward, while for narrow hoofs the shoes have a horizontal bearing-surface. Shoes for wry hoofs have a bearing-surface which inclines downward and inward for the slanting wall, and for the steeper wall a horizontal bearing-surface, which towards the end of the branch may incline slightly downward and outward. Besides, the bearing-surface of the ends of the branches, viewed from the side, has a backward and downward inclination. This method is practicable only in part.

I. Nailing the Shoe.

This is that act of horseshoeing by which the shoe is fastened to the hoof by special nails called hoof-nails or horseshoe-nails, which are driven through the shoe and horny wall.

At present there are hand-made and machine-made horseshoe-nails. Both kinds should be made of the best wrought iron. The nails must be slender, wedge-shaped, and twice as wide as they are thick. Thickness and length must be in proper relation to each other. We should never choose a nail which is longer than is absolutely necessary to hold the shoe; six to eight sizes are sufficient for all purposes.

The rough nails (hand-made), before being used, must undergo a special shaping to prepare them to pass through the wall easily and in the desired direction. This preparation is called shaping and bevelling. In doing this we should see to it that the nails are made smooth, and even, but are not hammered harder than is absolutely necessary, because the lighter one can hammer the nails the better they will be.

Fig. 130.

Hand-made
horseshoe-nails,
natural size,
for fullered shoes
(1, not bevelled).

Furthermore, we must give the nail that form which will insure its passing through the horn straight and not in a curve; with this object in view, the nail is to be slightly curved so that the side which is turned towards the frog in driving (inside) will be a little concave, the opposite side convex ([Figs. 130], [3], and [131, No. 10]), since it is known that a straight nail always passes through the horn in a curve, and not only does not long remain tight, but is quite likely to press upon and injure the soft tissues of the foot. ([See also, Nailing].)

At the point of the nail the bevel is to be so placed that it will form a short one-sided wedge with the slanting side directed from within to without ([Figs. 130, 3], and [131, d]). A short bevel is suitable for nails that are to be driven low, while a long bevel makes it possible to drive them high. The bevel should never form a hook; it must always be straight, should be sharp but not thin, and under no conditions incomplete (defective).

Fig. 131.

Machine-made horseshoe-nails (natural size) with a low, wide head for a fullered shoe. The last nail is shown from one border; the others from the inner face: a, head; b, neck; c, shank; d, bevel; e, point; f, inner face; g, outer face.

Machine-made nails, smooth, polished, bevelled, and ready for use, are, for many reasons, to be preferred to hand-made nails, though the latter are rather tougher ([see Fig. 131]).

Before the shoe is nailed on it should be cooled and again carefully examined by a competent shoer, who should then place it upon the hoof, where it should be critically observed to see whether it really fulfils every requirement of a properly-fitting shoe. Afterwards, the least fault or defect must be remedied, and then the work of nailing it begins. By nailing, the shoe is firmly and durably fastened to the hoof, in doing which the horn of the wall is spared so far as possible, the elasticity of the hoof borne always in mind, and wounding of the pododerm entirely avoided. The nails must in all cases penetrate the white line and pass through the wall in such a straight direction that they will appear neither too high nor too low upon its outer surface. In the first case there is considerable danger of pricking or close-nailing, and in the latter the nail-holes will tear out easily when the nails are being clinched.

Fig. 132.

Driving
hammer.

In driving a nail, it should be held in the fingers as long as possible in the direction in which it is desired that it shall pass through the horn. A nail should be driven cautiously, with attention to its sinking and sound, and yet with enough force so that at each stroke it will penetrate from one-fifth to one-fourth of an inch. The power required at each stroke will depend upon the hardness of the horn and the size of the nail. Fearless driving and timorous tapping should not be allowed.

Nails, which at a depth of five-eighths of an inch are still going soft, or which bend and give a dull sound, or cause pain, should be immediately withdrawn.

According to the size of the horse and his hoofs the nails should be driven from five-eighths to an inch and five-eighths high, and as even as possible. As soon as a nail is driven its point should be immediately bent down towards the shoe in order to prevent injuries. The heads of all the nails should then be gone over with a hammer and driven down solidly into the nail-holes, the hoof being meanwhile supported in the left hand. Pincers are then held under the bent nails and they are more sharply bent by light blows upon the nail-heads. The points of the nails are now nipped off near the hoof, the horn which has been thrown out just below the clinches by bending the nails down is removed with rasp or gouge, and the ends of the nails bent down still more, but not quite flush with the wall. This operation is called “clinching.” A clinching-block or a pair of ordinary blacksmith’s pincers is then placed under the end of the nail, now called a clinch, and by light blows (in doing this the nail must not bend within the wall) upon the head the clinch is turned closer to the surface of the wall; finally, with the front edge of the nail-hammer the clinch is hammered down flush with the wall. On the inner half of the wall the clinches should not be felt on stroking the wall with the fingers. The small amount of horn that projects beyond the shoe around the toe may be carefully rasped away in the direction in which the wall slants, but never higher than the clinches; finally, the sharp lower edge of the wall is to be removed by carrying the corner of the rasp around between the shoe and the horn.

A clinch is sufficiently long when it equals the width of the nail at that point.

It is of advantage to use a shoeing-bock or foot-stool in clinching the nails on the front hoofs. The hind hoofs may be clinched in the hands. Then the horse should be led out and again moved in order to see whether or not the new shoeing has actually accomplished what was desired. Finally, the entire hoof should be given a thin layer of hoof-salve.

K. Horseshoes More or Less Deficient
in the Desirable Qualities
Described on Pages 107-116.

Machine Shoes.

1. Machine Shoes of Wrought Iron.—They are half-finished and finished. Though machine shoes with few exceptions show no distinction between front and hind, or left and right, with correct punching for these different feet, but usually present one form in different sizes, yet, unfortunately, they are in high favor with horseshoers, because they may be used for both summer and winter and for bar-shoes.

Fig. 133.

A machine-made (drop-forged)
front shoe, ground-surface.

Fig. 134.

A machine-made toe-weight front
shoe for a harness horse, showing
ground-surface. Punching good.

For these reasons we cannot approve of machine shoes.

2. Finished Cast Shoes.—They are of four kinds,—ordinary cast shoes, cast shoes with rope buffer, cast shoes with fiber buffer, and cast shoes fenestrated to hold a rubber buffer. Ordinary cast shoes of correct form and proper punching designed by Grossbauer, of Vienna, are sold by Hannes’ Sons, of that city.

Fig. 135.

Fig. 136.

Fig. 137.

Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk fore shoe.
A, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface; C, profile.

Fig. 138.

Fig. 139.

Fig. 140.

Machine-made (drop-forged) multi-calk hind shoe.
A, ground-surface; B, hoof-surface; C, profile.

Rope Shoes.—These shoes have a groove on the ground-surface, in which rests a tarred rope, which greatly diminishes slipping on smooth pavement. For this reason alone they are extensively used in the large cities of Germany. Since the open rope shoe, when half worn out, will warp, the bar rope shoe is more satisfactory and more extensively used ([Figs. 141-144]).

Fig. 141.

Bar rope shoe with
bar bent forward.

Fig. 142.

The same with
bar bent backward.

Fig. 143.

The same with
beak-formed bar.

Fig. 144.

An open rope shoe.

Before fitting the shoe the rope must be removed. After the nails are driven it is laid in the groove and hammered into place. Rope shoes can seldom be fitted properly to hoofs other than those which are healthy and of regular shape.

Fiber Shoes.—These have a groove on the ground-surface into which layers of linen fiber belting have been tightly pressed. The fiber cannot be removed, and therefore the shoes cannot be heated, but must be fitted cold. The nail-holes are placed between the fiber and the outer border of the shoe, and are punched too light. The bearing surface of the shoe is unsupported, so that when the shoe is half worn out, it warps. There is no distinction between rights and lefts.

Rubber shoes have all the defects of fiber shoes, and one more. The hoof-surface is covered with canvas, which under normal and acute-angled hoofs wears through under the quarters and leads to loosening of the last nails.

L. Rubber Pads.

The increasing use of asphalt, tarvia and other hard, smooth and slippery materials for surfacing city streets and country highways has not only made travelling in flat and even in calked shoes precarious, but has aggravated all those injuries produced by concussion.

To prevent slipping and the injurious effects of concussion a great many shoes have been devised, in which are incorporated such materials as hemp rope, linen fibre, papier maché, cork, wood, bast, felt and rubber, but all fail in greater or lesser degree to meet practical requirements.

Rubber, though the most expensive of these materials, is the most resilient and takes the best grip on smooth pavement. A pad of rubber, wide enough to cover the branches of the frog alone, or the branches of the frog and the buttresses of the hoof, firmly cemented to a leather sole, constitutes the modern rubber pad ([Figs. 145], [146], [147]).

Fig. 145.

A light driving pad, gummed and stitched to a leather sole; seen from the ground-surface and in profile. Used with a seven-to ten-ounce short shoe. a, stitching; b, rubber bar under buttress and frog; c, leather sole.

The frog- and buttress-pad used with a short shoe is to be preferred to the earlier frog pad which takes a full shoe.

The advantages of rubber pads are:

1. They prevent slipping upon asphalt and other smooth, dry surfaces.

2. They diminish concussion, and are valuable in the prevention and treatment of sore heels, dry and moist corns, bruised sole, and incipient side-bone.

Fig. 146.

Air-cushion pad, seen from ground
surface and in profile. Suitable for
light harness horses.

Fig. 147.

A heavy bar-pad suitable for heavy
harness and draft-horses on pavement.
The short shoe may carry a toe-calk
of medium height.

3. They give frog pressure, develop the frog and tend to prevent contraction of the quarters and those lesions which may follow contraction, as corns, cracks of bars and quarters, laminitis of the quarters and thrush.

A rubber pad should not be used:

1. In contraction of one or both quarters, when the frog is too much shrunken to bear upon the pad.

2. In lameness from well developed side-bones.

3. In navicular bursitis (“navicular disease”).

4. In thrush, or canker of frog or sole.

Rubber pads, light, medium and heavy, are made in all sizes and are suitable for all classes of horses, from the light roadster to the heavy draft type. The short shoe with which they are used reaches the middle of the quarters. The pad surface (upper surface) of the ends of the branches should be bevelled to conform to the pad, and to hold it firmly against the frog and buttresses. The thickness of the shoe should equal two-thirds the thickness of the pad, so that when fitted one-third of the thickness of the pad shall project below the ground-surface of the shoe. The shoe should be provided with a strong toe-clip. With the heavy, thick pad of a draft-horse a low toe-calk may be used, but heel-calks should never be put on a short shoe. Pads are seldom necessary on the hind feet.

CHAPTER IV.
SHOEING HORSES THAT FORGE AND INTERFERE.

A. Forging.

Forging is that defect of the horse’s gait by reason of which, at a trot, he strikes the ends of the branches or the under surface of the front shoe with the toe of the hind shoe or hoof of the same side. Forging in a pacer is termed “cross-firing” and consists in striking the inner quarter, or the under surface of the inner branch of a front shoe with the toe of the diagonal hind shoe or hoof.

Forging is unpleasant to hear and dangerous to the horse. It is liable to wound the heels of the forefeet, damages the toes or the coronet of the hind hoofs, and often pulls off the front shoes.

Fig. 148.

Right front shoe with concave ground-surface
(“convex iron”) to prevent “forging.”

Fig. 149.

Right hind shoe with lateral toe-clips
to prevent “clicking” and the various
injuries due to forging.

Causes.—1. Faulty conformation; for example, horses that stand considerably higher at the croup than at the withers; horses with long legs and short bodies; horses that “stand under” in front and behind. 2. Using horses on heavy ground, unskilful driving, allowing a long-necked, heavy-headed horse to carry his head too low; riding without holding a horse to his work by feeling his mouth and pressing the knees against his sides. 3. Fatigue frequently leads to forging, even in horses that are well built and properly shod. It may also occur in the act of vaulting over an obstacle. 4. Poor shoeing, especially too long toes upon the front and hind hoofs, and too long front shoes.

The aim of the shoer should be to facilitate the quick and easy “breaking over” of the front foot, so that it may get away before it is overtaken by the hind foot. The toe of the front hoof should be fairly short and rolled; the quarters spared. The front shoe should be light, rolled at the toe and no longer and no wider than the hoof. The ends of the branches of a flat shoe, and also the heel-calks, in case they are needed to elevate a heel that is too low, should be bevelled from the hoof-surface of the shoe downward and forward under the foot. Such short heel-calks, bevelled to prevent forging, are called “forging calks.” If the horse continues to forge between the branches and against the ground-surface of the shoe, concaving this surface will prove advantageous (convex iron). The form of the front shoes of horses that forge should represent merely a prolongation of the hoof.

The “breaking over” of the hind foot should be delayed by sparing the toe and lowering the quarters, but not sufficiently to break the foot-axis too far backward. The hind shoe is to be squared at the toe and the lower edge of the shoe in the region of the toe well rounded; instead of a toe-clip, two side-clips are to be drawn up and the shoe so fitted that at least three-fourths of the thickness of the wall of the toe, with the edge well rounded, will extend forward beyond the shoe. Should the toe of the hoof be short it may be raised either by a low toe-calk set one-fourth of an inch back from the edge of the shoe, or by thinning the shoe from the toe to the ends of the branches. The branches of a flat hind shoe should extend somewhat farther back of the buttresses than under normal conditions, to trail upon the ground just before the hoof alights, and acting as a brake, to bring the hoof to earth ([Fig. 150]).

Fig. 150.

Hind shoe with swelled toe to slow the breaking over. Often efficient when the hoof is too short at the toe: a, long branches to trail and bring the foot to earth; b, outer toe clip; c, toe squared and set under to prevent injury to front hoof, and to deaden the sound of forging.

“Cross-firing” is most apt to occur and is most dangerous at extreme speed. Then, when the inner branch of the hind shoe strikes the inner heel, quarter or shoe of the diagonal front foot, both feet are in the air,—the fore foot is approaching the middle of its stride, while the offending hind foot is in the last third of its flight. The standing position that favors cross-firing is the base-wide (toe-wide) in front, and the base-narrow (toe-narrow) behind. With this direction of limbs the flight of the fore feet is forward and inward during the first half of their stride, while the flight of the hind feet is forward and inward during the second half of their stride ([see Figs. 72], [73], [75]).

The problem is, therefore, so to pare and shoe a base-wide fore foot that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during the first half of its stride, and to so pare and shoe a base-narrow hind foot that it will break over nearer the centre of the toe and thus execute less of an inward swing during the second half of its stride. Neither a toe-wide nor a toe-narrow foot can be made to break over the exact centre of the toe, and yet it is possible by dressing the hoof and by shoeing to shift the breaking over point nearer to the centre of the toe, and by doing so, to alter slightly the lines of flight of the feet.

Dressing and shoeing the front foot: The hoof should be relatively low from the middle of the toe around to and including the outer buttress. If the inner half of the wall is deficient in length it must be raised above the outer half by applying a shoe which is thinner in its outer than in its inner branch. The inner toe should be left long.

Fig. 151.

Left hind hoof of a toe-narrow
pacer, shod to prevent cross-firing: a,
dotted line indicating outer border of the hoof;
b, long bent outer branch; c, short,
thin inner branch; d, inner wall extending
beyond the shoe; f, line from which inner
branch is feather-edged. The shoe is of even
thickness from b to f at inner
toe; but from latter point to c diminishes
to a feather edge.

Fig. 152.

Front view of hoof and shoe
depicted in Fig. 151: a, outer branch
fitted very full and bevelled base-wide;
b, inner branch diminishing in thickness
from inner toe c, to its termination at
the inner quarter. Designed to favor “breaking
over” near centre of the toe, and to widen the gait.

The shoe should be light, without heel-calks, but may carry a low, curved grab (“grab,” is a low, straight or curved, toe-or heel-calk on a racing plate) running from the second inner toe nail to the centre of the toe. The inner branch is to be fitted flush with the wall from the centre of the toe back to the quarter, back of which point it gradually extends beyond the wall, i.e., is fitted full; and terminates well back of the buttress. This inner branch should be from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer branch. The long inner branch, full at the quarter, is desirable, but must be covered by a quarter-boot, which a cross-firer should always wear.

The outer branch should be fitted snug and terminate at the buttress. From the centre of the toe to the end of the branch the ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border.

Dressing and shoeing the hind foot: The hoof should be relatively low from the centre of the toe around to and including the inner buttress. If the outer half of the hoof is deficient in length, it must be raised above the inner half by applying a shoe with a thin inner branch. The inner branch may terminate in a knife-edge midway between toe and heel ([Figs. 151] and [152]).

The inner branch is to be fitted snug from the centre of the toe to its end, and its ground-surface should be bevelled from the inner edge of the web to a knife-edge at the outer border.

The outer branch is to be fitted very full from the outside toe to the end. This branch should extend well behind the buttress, and in well-marked base-narrow hoofs should be turned outward in order to support the overhanging coronet of the quarter. The outer border should be bevelled base-wide, and the nail-holes punched coarse, i.e., far in from the outer border ([Figs. 151] and [152]). The outer branch may carry a small heel-calk.

B. Interfering.

A horse “interferes” when a hoof in motion strikes the opposite supporting leg. Interfering is apt to produce injuries, either of the coronary band of the inner half of the foot or of the fetlock-joint, or (in fore-limbs) of the cannon, even as high up as the knee. Lameness frequently accompanies such injuries.

The causes of interfering lie either in the shoeing (of the foot that strikes, as well as of the foot which is struck), in the position of the limbs, or in the use of the animal. Horses that have the correct standing position do not interfere when they are properly shod; base-wide horses interfere sometimes; horses base-narrow down to the fetlock and toe-wide below that point interfere very frequently. Traces of unequal length, weariness, and shoeing at too long intervals favor interfering.

In attempting to lessen or remove interfering, the horse must be most carefully examined with respect to the position of his limbs, his gait, and his shoeing, in the manner described on pages 90 to 92.

Fig. 153.

A right front shoe with nailless and narrow inner branch for a base-wide hoof. Suitable for horses that strike anywhere from inner toe back to the quarter.

If the cause is found to be the twisted position of a shoe, too wide hoofs, raised clinches, etc., nothing need be done further than to correct the shoeing; but if a faulty position of the limbs is the cause, we must ascertain the exact part of the hoof that does the striking, diminish the size of the hoof at that point, regulate the entire plantar surface of the hoof, make the shoe straight along the region that strikes,—that is, without curve,—and so fit it to the foot that one-third of the thickness of the wall will extend beyond the shoe. Where interfering is so pronounced as to produce serious injuries, we use a shoe with no nails in the inner branch (“dropped-crease” shoe) ([Figs. 153], [156], [157]).

Fig. 154.

Left hind shoe with interfering
branch (ground-surface), for
base-narrow standing position.

Fig. 155.

The same (hoof-surface).

Fig. 156.

Left hind interfering shoe without nail-holes in inner
branch (“dropped-crease” shoe): a, side-clip.

Fig. 157.

Right hind shoe for toe-cutters. The dotted lines
indicate the distance that the wall projects
beyond the shoe: a, side-clip.

The so-called interfering shoes ([Figs. 154] and [155]) are worthy of recommendation only for hoofs of the base-narrow position. The interfering branch, whose greater thickness raises the inner wall, which is often too low, is to be so shaped and directed that the hoof will project somewhat beyond it. This interfering branch must be made and shaped in accordance with each individual case. The holes in the interfering branch should be punched somewhat finer (nearer the edge) than usual. Interfering shoes in which the nail-holes, with the exception of the inner toe nail-hole, are placed in the outer branch, are called “dropped-crease interfering shoes” ([Fig. 156]). Such shoes are not recommended for hind hoofs that are decidedly toe-wide (toe-cutters); in such cases better results will be obtained by using a shoe, either with or without heel-calks, whose inner branch is straight and without nails along the striking region, and is fitted wide (full) at the quarter. The inner branch should be from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch longer than the outer. The inner heel-calk should be higher than the outer, and the end of the outer branch should be as base-narrow as it can be made (fitted close) ([Fig. 157]). In order to prevent shifting of an interfering shoe, a side-clip should be drawn up on the outer branch (a).

There is no manner of shoeing that will prevent interfering which is caused by improper harnessing, crooked hitching, or weariness. The simpler and the lighter the shoes the less will horses interfere.

CHAPTER V.
WINTER SHOEING.

All shoes whose ground-surface is provided with contrivances to prevent slipping upon snow and ice are called winter shoes.

Fig. 158.

An ice-nail,
frost-nail.

These various contrivances are produced by several processes called “methods of sharpening.” All methods may be gathered into two groups,—namely, practical sharp-shoeing and impractical. Only the first will be considered.

The durability of sharpened shoes depends partly upon whether they are made of steel or iron, and partly upon the nature of the ground in winter. If the ground is continuously covered with a thick layer of snow, whatever method of sharpening is followed, the shoes stay sharp; if, however, the winter is open, changeable, with more bare ice than snow, no method of sharpening, whatever it may be, will last long; the shoes will not stay sharp.

For these reasons no method of sharpening which fulfils all conditions satisfactorily has yet been discovered.

The simplest and at the same time the least durable method of sharpening is: 1. That by means of ice-nails or frost-nails ([Fig. 158]). One or two nails are drawn from each branch of the shoe and replaced with ice-nails.

2. Sharp Toe- and Heel-Calks.—The outer calk is split and a small steel wedge welded in. It is then laid upon the edge of the anvil, indented and sharpened from within to without in such a manner that the calk shall be thin from the branch to the ground, and the outer surface shall be in the same vertical plane as the outer edge. If a calk is narrow from its base to its end, and at the same time without flaw, it does not need a sharp cutting edge. The inner calk should never be sharpened except the ground be very slippery. The cutting edge of this inner calk stands at right angles to the length of the branch, and its outer corner should then be rounded to prevent its injuring the opposite foot ([Figs. 159], [160]).

Fig. 159.

Fig. 160.

Outer and inner heel-calks sharpened.

For horses used for heavy draft purposes a toe-calk is welded to the shoe and sharpened. For this purpose we use only steel (toe-steel), which is easily welded to the shoe and remains firm. Toe-calks and steeled heel-calks are tempered, in order, as much as possible, to lengthen their period of durability. This method of sharpening is the oldest and most wide-spread, and is employed on the shoes of all horses of which we require more than light service.

Fig. 161.

Left fore-hoof sharp-shod: a, toe-calk bevelled from in front; b, outer heel-calk directed lengthwise with the branch; c, inner heel-calk, half sharp and directed transversely to direction of the branch.

Hoofs are easily damaged or even ruined by frequently repeated sharpening of the shoes, because every time this is done the shoes must be removed and replaced.

3. Shoeing with Screw Heel-Calks.—Any ordinary flat shoe not too thin and narrow at the ends of the branches can be changed to a shoe with screw heel-calks by punching holes in the ends of the branches and cutting a thread in them.

Fig. 162.

Ground-surface of the end of
a branch of shoe, showing (a)
hole and counter-sinking
for a screw-calk
(one-half natural size).

The screw heel-calk holes are made either by punching or boring. The punching is done by means of an almost cylindrical hammer-punch, afterwards finishing the holes by driving through them a round punch which tapers from the middle towards both ends. On the ground-surface of the shoe the hole is moderately counter-sunk ([Fig. 162, a]), so that after the thread has been cut and the calk screwed into place the shoulder of the latter will rest on the counter-sinking.

At present nearly all screw-calks are made by machinery, either of iron or toe-steel. The former is too soft and therefore not sufficiently durable; the latter, however, is quite durable when the calk is properly hardened (tempered) by heating to a cherry-red, sticking the head of the calk as far as the tap into a bed of moist sand, and allowing it to slowly cool.

The chief requirements of a good screw-calk are, further, a clean, deep, but not too coarse thread, and but one size of thread and tap for all calks, so that every calk will fit in every shoe. A calk whose tap measures one half-inch (12.7 millimetres) (Whitworth) in diameter is sufficient for the heaviest shoes. The tap which is used to cut the thread in the holes for the screw-calks must be about ¹/₁₂₅ of an inch thicker than the head of the calk. In the German army the calks have a tap fifteen thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter. The coachman should be given four calks (sharp and blunt) for each shoe, and a small screw-calk key for placing and removing them. Screw toe-calks are also used, yet they require special security to prevent their becoming loose. Experimentation with the screw toe-calks, though not yet entirely satisfactory, cannot be said to have ended.

The advantages of shoes provided with good screw heel-calks are so manifold that they deserve marked preference over shoes sharpened by the ordinary methods. The common objections urged against screw-calks,—namely, that they loosen and are lost, or break off, are not worthy of serious consideration, since these evils are merely the result of unskilful workmanship and poor material. Shoes with screw heel-calks are the best shoes for winter, especially for horses that have to work hard and continuously.

Fig. 163.

Sharp screw-calks with Whitworth
thread (half-inch, natural size).

Fig. 164.

Whitworth tap (half-inch,
half natural size).

Balling with snow is prevented by using shoes narrow in the web and concave upon the ground-surface (convex iron), and thoroughly oiling the sole and frog. Sole-pads of felt, leather, or straw serve the same purpose. Balling with snow is best prevented by a rubber sole-and-frog pad, or by a “stopping” of a patent hoof cement known in Germany as “huflederkitt.”

4. Shoeing with Peg-Calks.—The calks are merely stuck into the calk-holes, hence their name. Round and square peg-calks are used, but the former are better than the latter.

The inventor of round peg-calks is Judson, an American. The shoes differ in no respect from the ordinary flat shoes. It is necessary that the tap of the calk have a moderately conical form, and exactly fit into the calk-hole of the shoe. The taper of the calk-tap is correct if for every ten thirty-seconds of an inch in length it increases or diminishes one-thirty-second of an inch in diameter (equal to one inch in every ten inches of length).

Fig. 165.

Sharp peg-calk
(cog):
a, the tap;
b, the head.

Fig. 166.

Blunt
peg-calk:
a, the tap;
b, the head.

Fig. 167.

Lower
part of
the reamer.

Although the calk-holes may be punched in a hot shoe, yet boring and reaming them is much better, because by this method a more perfect fit can be secured. For this purpose we require a drill (a spiral drill is the best) whose diameter is exactly the same as that of the small end of the calk-tap ([Figs. 165, c], and [166, c]). After the shoe has been fitted to the hoof, the provisional holes are drilled and afterwards reamed out from the ground-surface of the shoe with the reamer shown in [Fig. 167]. Since the tap of the reamer corresponds exactly in size to the tap of the calk, it is evident that the latter must exactly fit and be tight. The wire edge that is raised around the hole is removed with a file, and the edge then smoothed by introducing the reamer a second time. The calks are made of rolled round steel, which has the thickness of the tap-end of the calk. For this purpose we require a calk-mould or matrix, in which one or more holes have been finished with a reamer. A piece of rod steel is heated at the end for a distance nearly twice the length of the calk, is swaged, thrust into the matrix, then broken off, and back-set. This will give a blunt peg-calk. If a sharp calk is desired, the upper part of the head of the calk is sharpened in the ordinary manner, although this is accomplished most easily by using a pair of tongs with short jaws that are hollowed upon the inside for seizing the tap of the calk.

Before the shoes are nailed on, the normal punch should be oiled and driven into the calk-holes, and the calks passed into the holes to see that they fit perfectly.

The calks are driven into place after the shoes are nailed to the hoofs. A light blow is sufficient to fasten a calk, yet a necessary precaution is first to remove every trace of oil from the calks and calk-holes. The first calk driven into place must be held with the hand while the second is being driven, otherwise it will either spring from the calk-hole or be loosened so that it will soon afterwards be lost.

To remove such a calk we strike its head from different sides with a hammer, stone, or other hard object until it becomes loose, when a rather hard blow upon the shoe causes it to spring out. Calks which have worn down are seized by a pair of sharp nippers and loosened by blows upon the shoe. Since a calk which is firm soon rusts and is then very difficult to remove, it is recommended that all calks be removed every night.

The advantages of peg-calks over screw-calks are: 1. They do not break off. 2. They are easier to make and simpler to use. 3. They are cheaper.

Disadvantages.—1. Peg-calks are sometimes lost, even when properly made and most carefully introduced. This evil happens much less frequently when the calks are put in by the maker (horseshoer) than when they are stuck in by the coachman, attendant, rider, or other person. When calks are lost on the way from the shop, it is usually due to some fault in the calk-holes or in the calks, although when the feet are balled with snow the calks are easily lost, because they do not then touch the ground.

2. The removal of the calks often involves many difficulties, since they are apt to rust into place if not removed daily, and when worn down so far that they cannot be grasped with the pincers are almost impossible to remove. By hammering upon the calks and shoe many horses are rendered not only restive, but sensitive in the feet.

3. If horses are used without the calks, a wire edge forms around the hole on the bottom of the shoe, which interferes with the placing of the calk and lessens its security.

The hollow peg-calk ([Fig. 168]), made by Branscheid & Philippi, of Remscheid, has considerable merit. It holds exceedingly well, and is very durable. It is furnished in three sizes,—Nos. 12, 13, and 14,—of twenty-seven, thirty-one, and thirty-four millimetres length, and twelve, thirteen, and fourteen millimetres diameter at the end of the tap.

A punch is furnished which, when driven up to its head in the holes of the heated shoe, insures a proper width and shape of the hole and an accurately fitting calk.

Fig. 168.

Hollow-spring peg-calk,
No. 12.

Fig. 169.

Peg-puller.

The calks may be removed by an extractor ([Fig. 169]) having at one end a thread which is screwed into a corresponding thread on the inside of the hollow calk, when by a few hammer blows on the shoe the calk loosens. To prevent the calk becoming choked with dirt, a piece of cork is thrust into the hollow. It may be easily removed by means of the corkscrew at the other end of the extractor.

5. Shoeing with Peg Toe-Calks.—These are an invention of considerable worth, especially for heavy draft in hilly country. They render better service on hind than on front shoes.

Peg toe-calks with a single tap are simpler and preferable to those with two taps. Every known contrivance to prevent the occasional loss of the peg toe-calk is impractical.

The shoe for a peg toe-calk should be of good tough material and without a flaw. The toe of the shoe should be about one-twelfth to one-tenth of an inch thicker than the branches.

The hole for the peg toe-calk, whatsoever its shape may be, must be smooth and uniform, with clean, true corners. Semi-circular holes should present the convex side towards the toe.

Before punching, draw up the toe-clip. A punch-plate with a good-sized hole, and a tap which will fit into the square hole in the anvil will facilitate the work. The punch-plate when in position should be flush with the front edge of the anvil. Place the toe of the shoe, hoof surface upward, over the hole of the punch-plate, and drive a hole with a punch-hammer which is perceptibly thinner than the model punch. Now turn the shoe over, punch back from the ground-surface, and then file away the wire edge which the punch has raised on the ground-surface. Next, take a hand-punch, the end of which should just enter the hole, punch through from the ground-surface, and correct any bulging by dressing lightly over the horn of the anvil. Finally, use the model punch to give the hole the exact size and smoothness.

Should the hole in the toe of the shoe enlarge in time, as sometimes occurs, then back-set when necessary on removing the shoe. Backsetting is easiest with the half-round hole, because the curved side, being turned forward, runs approximately parallel to the outer border of the toe of the shoe.

Fig. 170.

Cross-section of different forms of peg toe-calk taps.

A good serviceable peg toe-calk must possess the following characteristics:

1. The tap must be of such shape as not to turn; therefore, not round.

2. The tap must be cone-shaped, and diminish in diameter about one-thirty-second of an inch for each one-fourth of an inch of its length from base to apex. If the tap has less taper it will enlarge the hole in the shoe till the head of the calk comes into contact with the shoe, when the calk will loosen and drop out.

3. The tap must be full-formed and smooth.

4. It must fit air-tight in the toe, and a single hammer-blow should be sufficient to fix it securely.

5. The head of the toe-calk must not rest on the shoe; a space of one-sixteenth of an inch should intervene.

While a shoer of average mechanical ability can make a faultless peg toe-calk, it is not profitable to do so while good machine-made calks are to be had very cheap.

Fig. 171.

Chisel toe-calk. (Doring.) No. 1
from the firm of Branscheid &
Philippi, of Remscheid.

Fig. 172.

Shovel toe-calk.

Fig. 173.

Peg toe-calk shoeing after
Fisher-Renker, of Dresden.

Fig. 174.

Peg-calk (shovel-calk) after
Kunze-Klotzsche-Königswald,
of Dresden.

The best forms in use are the quadrangular heads, with oval, half-round ([Figs. 171] and [172]), and with two taps ([Figs. 173] and [174]).

In several European countries the peg toe-calks with half-round tap and with two round taps are in use. To make good peg toe-calk shoes and fit the calks properly requires more than ordinary knowledge and skill. Poor work does much harm. Therefore, work carefully and get well paid for it.

6. Removable Heel-Calks that do not Require Sharpening.—The undeniable fact that all chisel-shaped or pyramid-shaped sharp calks become dull in time, and must then either be sharpened or replaced by new calks, renders shoeing not only costly, but injurious to the hoofs and annoying to the owner. This drawback is most pronounced in large cities, where the snow never lies long upon the streets, and the horse just sharp-shod is soon obliged to travel upon bare pavements. Attempts have been made to lessen this annoyance by the use of calks that do not require sharpening, and yet which will prevent slipping even after they have been used for a long time upon bare pavements. It cannot be denied that such calks have considerable value, and, except when the ground is covered with ice, many of these calks render excellent service. Just as the ordinary sharp calks are satisfactory and very durable outside of the large cities, so now for the first time a few of these recently invented sharp calks seem to be worthy of recommendation for city use. The following are the best:

Fig. 175.

Screw-calk with H-formed
cross-section.

Fig. 176.

Screw-calk with +-formed
cross-section.

1. Screw-calks and peg-calks with H-shaped cross-section ([Fig. 175]).

2. Screw-calks with +-shaped cross-section ([Fig. 176]).

3. Screw- and peg-calks with O-shaped cross-section ([Fig. 176]).

4. Screw- and peg-calks with S-shaped cross-section.

5. Angle-calks ([Fig. 177]).

6. Screw- and peg-calks with rubber foot-pad.

7. Screw-calks with Y star-shaped cross-section ([Fig. 178]).

8. Hollow wedge-calks ([Fig. 179]).

9. Perforated screw-calks ([Fig. 180]).

Fig. 177.

Corner calk.

Fig. 178.

Star calk.

Fig. 179.

Hollow calk.

Fig. 180.

Perforated calk.

There is no doubt that the grip that these calks take upon the ground and their durability depend upon the diameter and the arrangement of their surfaces of friction. From all experiments made thus far it is shown that those calks which have narrow and comparatively few surfaces of friction are the least durable.

Fig. 181.

Universal screw-calk key with tap.

Fig. 182.

Felber’s hand-vise to secure the hoof from
twisting while changing the screw-calks.

To introduce and remove the calks we use a calk key or wrench. For the shop, the ordinary fork key ([Fig. 181]), the jaws of which are tempered, is recommended. It fits all calks.

CHAPTER VI.
HOOF NURTURE.

Hoof nurture comprises all those measures which are employed to keep hoofs healthy, elastic, and serviceable.

A. Care of Unshod Hoofs.

The care of the hoofs of colts is of special importance. Abundant exercise upon dry ground which is not too stony is most beneficial. Such exercise will cause the hoofs to wear gradually, and it will only be necessary from time to time to observe whether the wear is taking place uniformly, and if not, to correct the uneven wear with the rasp.

Fig. 183.

Twisted left front long pastern of colt, viewed from the upper articular surface. The lower end has been twisted toward the left: a, transverse axis of lower articular surface; b, transverse axis of the upper articular surface.

If colts are reared in the stable, the horn continuing to grow down does not undergo sufficient wear, and changes in form of the hoof, and even permanent distortions of the bones of the foot gradually occur. The wall becomes too long and bends or sometimes separates from the sole and keraphyllous layer. Weak quarters bend (curl) inward and encroach upon the space occupied by the frog (contracted feet of colts). The toe becomes too long, and this gives rise to too steep a position of the pastern and causes an insecure and diffident gait; therefore the hoofs must be shortened from time to time. The in-curved quarters should be removed with the hoof-knife, and the outer edge of the plantar border of the wall well rounded with the rasp. In the base-wide and base-narrow standing positions the outer and inner walls respectively become relatively long and induce the colt to assume a still more abnormal position. The young and pliant pasterns may thus become permanently twisted and distorted ([see Figs. 183] and [184]). In a hoof that is becoming awry, restoring to the wall its proper level with relation to the position of the limb will not only be invaluable in ultimately producing a good hoof, but will improve the faulty position of the limb. In exceptional cases, where the plantar border of some section of the wall gives evidence of too rapid wear, the application of a tip or of a half-shoe may be of benefit. Furthermore, we should attempt to secure greater cleanliness by frequently and thoroughly washing the hoofs and bedding with plenty of good straw.

Fig. 184.

Left front long pastern of a colt showing compression shortening of outer half: a, transverse axis of upper articulation; b, transverse axis of coronary joint, not parallel to upper axis.

Too early shoeing of young horses is very injurious; it hinders the development of the hoofs, and, furthermore, young horses when shod are frequently seriously overworked and prematurely ruined. Moderate work in the fields does not injure young horses, but for such service they do not require shoes.

The unshod hoofs of older horses should be periodically rounded with a rasp and the length of the walls regulated when, by reason of a lack of exercise, proper wear has not taken place.

B. Care of Shod Hoofs.

Shod hoofs are exposed to many more injuries than are unshod hoofs, because shoeing itself, although absolutely necessary to render horses continuously serviceable upon hard streets, is injurious to the hoof, since it to a greater or less extent prevents the physiological movements of the different parts of the foot, interferes with the circulation of the blood in the foot, slows the growth of the horn, and brings about a gradual shrinking of the entire hoof.

In addition, there are the injurious consequences of stabulation. These are prevention of free movement, uncleanliness due to bad floors and filthy bedding,—as, for example, peat moss and soiled straw,—and dryness.

Continuous standing always contributes to contraction of the hoofs, and this evil is greatly favored by dryness, which more particularly affects the front hoofs. The hind hoofs receive sufficient moisture from the animal’s manure. Poor floors, particularly those that are uneven, tire the limbs. Accumulation of manure and the careless use of stationary sole-pads induce thrush of the frog.

The object of hoof nurture is to lessen or entirely remove all these injurious consequences of shoeing and stabulation. It comprises, therefore, not only the proper shortening of the hoofs every five to six weeks, but careful attention to cleanliness and moisture. Both are insured by dry straw and daily picking out and washing the hoofs. Such measures will prevent thrush in the hind feet. If front hoofs are washed once a day, sufficient moisture will penetrate the horn to give it that degree of suppleness (elasticity) which is possessed by an unshod hoof, and which contributes to a proper expansion of the hoof when the body-weight is placed upon it. In order to prevent a hoof from again drying out, the entire hoof should receive a thorough application of an oil or ointment (hoof-salve). The object of greasing the horn is to prevent evaporation of the moisture that has penetrated the horn. Specially compounded hoof-salves are not necessary. Melted horse-grease, pork-fat, or any other fat that is not rancid is sufficient. Cosmoline is an excellent hoof-salve.

Abundant but not excessive exercise is more necessary than anything else to the preservation of the health of the hoof. It aids the circulation of blood within the foot, and, therefore, the growth of the horn. Horses which perform hard, regular work have, as a rule, better hoofs than those which stand the greater part of the time in the stable. Poulticing hoofs with clay, bran, linseed-meal, or white-rock, or standing them in water is unnecessary if they have had proper care, but will sometimes be of benefit when the hoofs have been neglected, and especially so for front hoofs. The latter are more exposed to drying influences, and the shoes prevent the moistening process by keeping the hoofs partially or completely removed from contact with the earth. Oiling alone is not sufficient to soften horn, but must always be preceded by permeation of the horn with water. Oiling without first cleansing the hoof is useless, because this soon produces a greasy crust underneath which the horn is crisp and brittle.

The surest sign of cleanliness of a hoof is the appearance of the natural color of the horn, the latter appearing translucent even after the hoof-ointment has been applied; therefore, blackened hoof-ointments should not be used. When hoofs are exposed to too much moisture (muddy roads, melting snow, etc.) an addition of wax or common yellow rosin to the hoof-ointment is recommended to prevent too great softening of the horn. No hoof-ointment has any direct influence upon the growth of the horn.

Inasmuch as it is a fact that the very best shoeing injures the hoof, it is advisable to allow horses to go barefoot whenever it is possible. This applies especially to horses that from any cause are thrown out of service, presupposing, of course, that the nature of the hoofs will allow them to go barefoot.