I.—ITALIAN.
ALBANI, MATTHIAS, born at Botzen in the Tyrol, 1621, died there 1673. He adopted the Stainer model, and produced some very fine instruments.
ALBANI, MATTHIAS, son and pupil of the foregoing. He afterwards went to Cremona to study the art in the Amati school, and afterwards adopted that model with great success.
AMATI, ANDREAS, born about 1520, died about 1580. Founder of the Cremonese school. It is conjectured that he was a pupil of Gasparo da Salo. He adopted rather a small model, built rather high in the centre. Backs cut on the layers, deep golden varnish, and perfect finish, are the chief characteristics of this maker.
The tone is sweet and sympathetic, but lacks brilliancy; they are therefore valued more on account of their historical associations than as a musical medium.
AMATI, ANTONIUS and AMATI, HIERONYMUS, flourished 1570-1635. These two were sons of Andreas. They worked together it is presumed for some time, and produced many instruments of great beauty. The wood was well chosen and handsomely figured. The model selected was not quite so high as that adopted by the father. The f holes are of beautiful shape, and the backs are cut variously in the whole or slab. The purfling, which is of exquisite quality, is inserted with the utmost skill. The tone of the instruments made by this ancient firm is sweet and pure, but is deficient in power.
AMATI, NICOLAS, born 1596, died 1684. He was the son of Hieronymus, and the best artist of his family. His first efforts were simply copies of the firm last mentioned. His most celebrated fiddles are known as “Grand Amati’s.” He somewhat flattened the model of his father, and continued the arching nearer the sides, where it forms a sinking in round the edges. The f holes are exquisitely cut, and the corners are long and strongly pronounced. The wood chosen for the bellies has a fine even grain, and the backs are beautifully marked. The varnish used by Nicolas was deeper and richer than that used by the other members of the family.
The following is a facsimile of an authentic ticket of this great maker.
BERGONZI, CARLO, Cremona, flourished 1718-47. This maker was the best pupil of Stradivarius. He at first copied his great master, but subsequently started a model of his own; rather broad and heavy, and flat arching. The scroll is strongly pronounced and finely cut. The f holes, which are unusually long, are placed low in the body, and very near the purfling. The wood is carefully selected and the general workmanship is of superior finish; only equalled by Nicolas Amati or Stradivarius. The varnish used by Bergonzi was reddish brown, rather thickly applied.
BERGONZI, MICHAEL ANGELO, Cremona, 1720-60, son of Carlo, made good instruments, but they certainly suffer on comparison with those of his father. This maker had two sons called respectively Nicolaus, and Zosimo, who followed the same calling from 1739-65.
CAPPA, GIOFREDO, an early maker who worked in Cremona about 1590 to 1640. He was a pupil of Hieronymus and Antonius Amati, when those brothers were in partnership. In 1640 he proceeded to Piedmont and founded the school of Saluzzio, and formed there many good pupils. Cappa succeeded best in the manufacture of violoncellos.
GAGLIANO, ALLESSANDRO, born about 1640, died at Naples in 1725. He is said to have commenced operation in Cremona, working under Stradivarius. His instruments are flat in model, rather large, and generally of fairly good tone throughout. Varnish light yellow. The badly cut scrolls tend to mar the otherwise symmetrical proportions of this maker’s instruments. Label as follows:
GAGLIANO, GENNARO, son of Allessandro, born about 1695, died 1750. He is considered the best maker of the family, and his instruments are, as a consequence, much sought after. He exercised great care in the selection of his wood, and used a much finer varnish than either his father or brother Nicolas. Whether or not he was a prolific maker is uncertain, but instruments of his are rarely to be met with.
GAGLIANO, NICOLAS, another son of Allessandro, was born about 1665, died 1740. He was a finer workman than his father, paying more attention to the outward appearance of the instrument, the tone of which is pronounced very fine in his best examples. Besides violins he made a large number of violas and violoncellos. His tickets usually run: “Nicolaus Gagliano filius Alexandri fecit Neap.”
The remaining members of the family are: Ferdinando, born 1706, died 1781, eldest son of Nicolas; Guiseppe, died 1793; Giovanni, died 1806, also sons of Nicolas; Raffael and Antonio, sons of Giovanni. Antonio died in 1860. Label of Ferdinando:
GRANCINO, PAOLO, 1665-90, was instructed by and worked under Nicolas Amati. His instruments are of large model, light yellow varnish, large sound-holes, negligent purfling, and carelessly finished corners. The arching is flattish, and the scrolls coarse. The tone of his instruments, however, possess great power and is of good quality. Other members of the family worked in Milan.
GRANCINO, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, a good maker of the same school, probably a son of Paolo. Label as follows:
GUADAGNINI, LORENZO, Placentia, 1695-1760. This maker worked for several years with Stradivarius, whose instruments he copied with more or less success. The wood chosen was generally of fine quality, and the workmanship is evidence that the maker fabricated his instruments with extreme care. The tone of a genuine Lorenzo is most brilliant in the upper register, but somewhat weak in the lower. They are much sought after by performers where the possession of a Cremona of the first order is unattainable. The varnish used was a rich amber or yellowish red of fine quality. A ticket of this maker is as follows:
GUADAGNINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA, was a brother of Lorenzo. He made some really good instruments, dividing his attention between the Stradivari and the Amati models. Giambattista was a son of Lorenzo, and reputed pupil of Stradivarius. He afterwards went to Piacenza and subsequently settled in Turin. His instruments are also much prized. Guiseppe, son of Giovanni, worked successively in Milan, Como and Parma. Other members of the same family also made violins, but little appears to be known of them or of their works.
GUARNERIUS, ANDREAS, born about 1626, died 1698.
The founder of this celebrated family of violin makers was a pupil of Nicolas Amati. His instruments are estimable for good workmanship somewhat in the style of the Amati, although marked by certain peculiar details, by which indeed they are recognised. His varnish is either golden yellow or brownish red. Andreas left two sons, Peter and Joseph.
Ticket as follows:
GUARNERIUS, GIUSEPPE, usually called “Joseph,” son of Andreas, born 1666, died about 1739. Although he may have been a pupil of Andreas, he has not followed his model. Some say he followed Stradivarius, whose contemporary he was, and subsequently followed his cousin, also called Joseph, of whom we shall speak presently. He has consequently varied both in his patterns and in the details of manufacture; but his instruments are of good quality and much esteemed, and are more elegant in form than those of his father. The colour of his varnish is a brilliant red.
A ticket of his reads:
GUARNERIUS, JOSEPH ANTHONY, the most renowned of this family, was born in 1683 and died about 1745; his period of activity dating from 1725. According to M. Fétis, his father was John Baptist Guarnerius, who was a brother of Andreas.
He is usually known by the surname of “del Jesù,” because many of his labels bear this device.
Most authorities agree in dividing his working career into four periods. His first attempts were not marked by any characteristic sign of originality, except in the indifferent choice of material, form and in the varnish. In the second period, his instruments are found to be made with care; the wood used for the sides and back being of excellent quality, and cut on the quarter (sur maille); the deal of the belly has been well chosen; the varnish of fine complexion and elastic quality. The pattern is small, but of beautiful outline. The arching is slightly elevated and falls off towards the purfling in a graceful curve. M. Fétis in his criticism of these instruments, points out an obvious defect, namely, the too great thickness of the wood, especially in the backs, which tends to impede the freedom of vibration, and consequently the brilliance of sound. In the third or grand period of his career, Joseph Guarnerius, says the same authority, presents a still more surprising variety in the forms of his instruments. During this period he produced instruments of large pattern, made of excellent wood cut (sur maille); and conformably to the best conditions possible, in respect to arching and degrees of thickness. A beautiful varnish of a lovely orange shade, remarkable for its fineness and elasticity, protect these excellent instruments, which are considered equal to the most beautiful productions of Anthony Stradivarius. We now arrive at the fourth period, which, it is sad to observe, forms a striking contrast to the glorious third. Here we have evidence of a lamentable falling off. The master seems to have worked carelessly, the wood is poor, as is the varnish.
Reports have been handed down to account for this apparent degeneration of talent, but as it is impossible to verify the same, it can serve no good purpose to here relate them. It only remains to be said, concerning this great master, that he has built up a reputation that is not likely to suffer by mere rumour.
Paganini possessed one of the finest examples of a del Jesù, which was presented to him by a M. Livron, a French merchant of Leghorn. At his death, 27th May, 1840, Paganini bequeathed it to his native town, Genoa, where it is preserved in a glass case in the museum.
GUARNERIUS, PIETRO, Cremona, eldest son of Andreas, born 1655, and lived to an advanced age. His first productions, which are of flat model, are dated from Cremona, but later on he established himself at Mantua, where he manufactured a great quantity of instruments of undoubted merit, but have the fault of too high an arching, and some there are wanting in brilliancy of tone. His tickets usually run:
This maker had a nephew also called Pietro, who worked at Mantua from about 1725 to 1740, and subsequently in Venice till about 1755. He was a pupil of his uncle, but his work is less esteemed.
LANDOLPHUS, CARLO, Milan, 1750-1775, reputed pupil of Guarnerius. This maker was decidedly original in his pattern. Although his instruments are not characteristic of great beauty as regards outline, they possess a very pleasing tone. He is one of the last of the old Italian school, consequently his instruments are rapidly increasing in value. The most striking point observable in his work is the extremely weak and small scroll. He left a number of instruments unpurfled and otherwise in an unfinished state. Those with the light red varnish are considered the best. He also made some violoncellos of small size. Ticket:
MAGGINI, GIOVANNI PAOLO, born 1580, died about 1640. This distinguished maker is the second representative of the Brescian school, and reputed pupil of Gasparo da Salo. According to recent researches, Maggini was born in Botticino Sera, a small village not far from Brescia.
Maggini’s instruments are in general of large pattern; their proportions are similar to those of Gasparo da Salo, and the style of workmanship almost identical. The swell or arching is decided, and reaches almost to the edges. The sides or ribs are narrow; the bellies very strong and of good quality, the backs generally thin, with the wood cut on the layers. The varnish, which is remarkable for its delicacy, is of a yellowish light brown colour; sometimes, however, he used a brownish red varnish. In either case it is of excellent quality. The extended dimensions, and the proportion of the arching relative to the various thicknesses of the wood, impart to most of these instruments a superb, grave and melancholy tone.
Another characteristic of this master’s productions is found in his ornamentation. He generally affected a double row of purfling and various other decorations, and although Maggini was not alone in this respect, he appears to be the last maker who relinquished the practice of introducing any ornate addition, which, anterior to his period, was considered so essential to the finish of an instrument.
Maggini is credited with being the first maker who paid any real attention to the inside of the instrument, having, it is said, introduced the side linings and corner blocks, which have ever since been a sine qua non of construction.
De Beriot, the great violinist, was an admirer of Maggini’s violins.
Tickets of this celebrated maker are not dated. The following is a copy of one:
MONTAGNANA, DOMINIC, Cremona and Venice, 1700-1740. He was probably a pupil of Nicolas Amati, whose model he at first copied, but subsequently modified this for one of his own, of a somewhat large pattern. The scroll is larger and more powerful than that of his reputed master and in the sound holes he also differs. As regards the arching and outline, the Amati type is at once apparent. The varnish is superb, and of golden brown transparency. The wood chosen is always the very finest, and the workmanship is all that can be desired. He also made some very fine violoncellos. His best instruments, which are of great rarity, are dated from Venice.
RUGERI, FRANCESCO (Ruger or Ruggeri), Cremona, 1670-1720. This excellent maker was a pupil and follower of Nicolas Amati (some writers say Hieronymus). His instruments are much sought after, and, as a consequence, are extensively copied and passed off as genuine. His varnish is generally dark golden brown.
RUGERI, GIAM-BATTISTA, supposed to be a brother of the foregoing, pupil of Amati, born at Cremona, 1660. He subsequently went to Brescia, where he worked from about 1670 to the end of the century. Ticket:
SALO, GASPARO DA (or Gasparo di Bertolotti), born 1542, died 1612. This is the earliest maker of whom any reliable record is extant. He is said to have been born at Salo in Lombardy, and afterwards to have settled in Brescia. Gasparo is generally credited with the honour of inventing or producing violins in their present shape. He seems to have devoted his early period to the manufacture of lutes and viols, and subsequently to have turned his attention to the violin, which he greatly improved, thereby founding the Brescian school of violin makers; the earliest known. The violins of Gasparo which have now become very scarce, do not, it is true, exhibit that indication of finish so observable in the instruments produced by his reputed pupil, Maggini, but his model is excellent and the tone good, being somewhat analogous to that of the tenor. The fact that Gasparo never dated his labels, makes it difficult to determine with certainty the exact period of his activity.
Facsimile label as follows:
SERAPHIN, SANCTUS (Santo Seraphino), 1710-1748, worked in Venice, and is considered one of the most careful and painstaking makers of the Italian school. His wood is beautifully figured and well selected. His purfling is excellent, and he used a fine brilliant varnish. He usually branded his instruments near the button. Ticket as follows:
STORIONI, LORENZO, Cremona, 1780-1798. The last of the old Cremonese school. He sometimes copied Joseph “del Jesù,” at others, he followed his own originality. His instruments exhibit great variation; notably in the position of the sound holes, which he never placed twice alike. He used a poor varnish which clearly indicates the change of process which was then taking place. Although these instruments are far from being graceful in outline or beautiful in appearance, they are capable of producing a good tone; in fact, in Italy a good Storioni is highly spoken of. This maker does not appear to have made many violas or violoncellos. Ticket:
STRADIVARIUS, ANTONIO, the king of fiddle makers, born at Cremona, 1644, died 1737. This great master was an apprentice in the workshop of Nicolas Amati. At the age of twenty-three years he produced some violins, the exact reproductions of his master, and into which it is said he placed the labels of Nicolas. In the year 1670 he signed his instruments with his own name. From that date, until about 1690, he produced but few instruments, and it is conjectured, that during this period of twenty years, his labours and researches were more in the nature of experiments than of commercial enterprise.
From the year 1690 the individuality of Stradivarius began to assert itself. It was then that he began to give greater amplitude to his model. He reduced the high arching hitherto prevailing, and determined with much nicety the various thicknesses of wood, but he still retained many of the chief characteristics of his master. The productions of this period are called “Long Strads.” From 1700 to 1725 Stradivarius was in the full lustre of his fame. During this period he made those masterpieces known as the “Grand Pattern.” “He no longer felt his way, but being certain of all that he did, he carried his manufacture, even to the minutest details, to the highest possible finish, especially with regard to the varnish, the quality of which is fine and extremely supple.”
“The workmanship of the interior of the instrument displays no less perfection; all is there finished with the greatest care. The degrees of thickness are adjusted in a rational manner, and are remarkable for a precision which could not have been attained except by long study and experiment. The back, the belly, and all the parts of which the instrument is composed, are in a perfectly harmonious relation. It was, doubtless, repeated trials and diligent observations, which also led Stradivarius, throughout this period of his productive career, to make the blocks and sides of his violins of willow, the specific lightness of which surpasses that of every other wood. In short, everything had been foreseen, calculated, and determined with certainty, in these admirable instruments. The bar alone is too weak, in consequence of the gradual rise in the pitch, from the beginning of the eighteenth century; the inevitable result of which has been a considerable increase of tension, and a much greater pressure exercised on the belly. Hence the necessity has arisen for re-barring all the old violins and violoncellos.” Such is Fétis’s description of this grand period.
From 1725 to 1730, Stradivarius produced fewer instruments than he had previously done in the same period of time. Although they are very good, the workmanship no longer displays the same perfection. The arching becomes more rounded, which tends to impair the clearness of the sound, and the varnish is brown.
After the year 1730, the master exhibits a decided falling off. Stradivarius, in his eighty-sixth year, still, however, continued at his bench, assisted by his two sons, Omobono and Francisco, and his pupil, Carlo Bergonzi, who partially, if not wholly, kept the business going. Stradivarius signed many of his instruments as having been made simply under his direction. After the death of this great maker, many instruments which remained unfinished in his workshop were completed by his sons. Most of these instruments bear the father’s name.
Stradivarius died at the great age of ninety-three years, and he was buried in the Cathedral of Cremona.
Facsimile of a written ticket:
Facsimile of a printed ticket:
STRADIVARIUS, FRANCISCO, Cremona, born 1671, died 1743. STRADIVARIUS, OMOBONO, born 1679, died 1742. These two were sons and pupils of the great Stradivarius, and the only members who followed their father’s calling, with whom they worked until his death; the father during the latter period of his life, signing the instruments “sub disciplinâ Antonii Stradivarius.” After the death of their illustrious father, they each worked on their own account. Francisco is reputed to have manufactured some good violins from 1725 to 1740; his brother chiefly occupying himself in repairing. The productions, however, of these two brothers sink into insignificance when compared with those of their renowned father.
TECHLER, DAVID, Rome, 1680-1740. He is said by some to be a pupil of Stainer, from the fact that he produced instruments of that type. He first worked at Salzburg, then at Venice, and finally at Rome, where he gained much experience. Instruments of this latter city are of the Italian model. His work proves him to have been a careful and studious maker. The varnish is usually deep yellow. Label:
TESTORE, CARLO GUISEPPE, Cremona. Flourished 1690-1720. He produced instruments of good quality both as regards finish and tone; his model being Guarnerius. His instruments are eagerly sought after by those who desire to become possessed of a good old Italian instrument, but are unwilling or unable to give a fancy price. These instruments are, however, gradually rising in value.
TESTORE, CARLO ANTONIO, Milan, 1730, and TESTORE, PAOLO ANTONIO, Milan, 1740, sons of Carlo Guiseppe. They made excellent instruments after the model of their father, and the tone is good. Paolo frequently left his instruments unpurfled.
