A Text-book of Entomology / Including the Anatomy, Physiology, Embryology and Metamorphoses of Insects for Use in Agricultural and Technical Schools and Colleges as Well as by the Working Entomologist

by A. S. Packard

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
			PAGE
Position of Insects in the Animal Kingdom			[1]
Relations of Insects to Other Arthropoda			[2]
	The Crustacea		[4]
	The Merostomata		[5]
	The Trilobita		[5]
	The Arachnida		[6]
	Relations of Peripatus to insects		[9]
	Relation of Myriopods to insects		[11]
	Relations of the Symphyla to insects		[18]
	Diagnostic or essential characters of Symphyla		[22]
Insecta (Hexapoda)			[26]
	Diagnostic characters of insects		[26]
1. EXTERNAL ANATOMY
	a. Regions of the body		[27]
	b. The integument (exoskeleton)		[28]
		Chitin	[29]
	c. Mechanical origin and structure of the segments (somites, arthromeres, etc.)		[30]
	d. Mechanical origin of the limbs and of their jointed structure		[35]
The Head and its Appendages			[42]
	a. The head		[42]
		The labrum	[42]
		The epipharynx and labrum-epipharynx	[43]
		Attachment of the head to the trunk	[46]
		The basal or gular region of the head	[46]
		The occiput	[48]
		The tentorium	[49]
		Number of segments in the head	[50]
		The composition of the head in the Hymenoptera	[55]
	b. Appendages of the head		[57]
		The antennæ	[57]
		The mandibles	[59]
		The first maxillæ	[62]
		The second maxillæ	[68]
		The hypopharynx	[70]
		Does the hypopharynx represent a distinct segment?	[82]
The Thorax and its Appendages			[86]
	a. The thorax: its external anatomy		[86]
		The patagia	[89]
		The tegulæ	[89]
		The apodemes	[92]
		The acetabula	[94]
	b. The legs: their structure and functions		[95]
		Tenent hairs	[99]
		Why do insects have but six legs?	[100]
		Loss of limbs by disuse	[101]
	c. Locomotion (walking, climbing, and swimming)		[103]
		Mechanics of walking	[103]
		Locomotion on smooth surfaces	[111]
		Climbing	[116]
		The mode of swimming of insects	[116]
	d. The wings and their structure		[120]
		The veins	[121]
		The squamæ	[123]
		The halteres	[124]
		The thyridium	[124]
		The tegmina and hemelytra	[124]
		The elytra	[124]
	e. Development and mode of origin of the wings		[126]
		Embryonic development of the wings	[126]
		Evagination of the wing outside of the body	[132]
		Extension of the wing; drawing out of the tracheoles	[133]
	f. The primitive origin of the wings		[137]
		The development and structure of the tracheæ and veins of the wing	[144]
	g. Mechanism of flight		[148]
		Theory of insect flight	[150]
		Graber’s views as to the mechanism of the wings, flight, etc.	[153]
The Abdomen and its Appendages			[162]
	The median segment		[163]
	The cercopoda		[164]
	The ovipositor and sting		[167]
	The styles and genital claspers (Rhabdopoda)		[176]
	Velum penis		[181]
	The suranal plate		[181]
	The podical plates or paranal lobes		[182]
	The infra-anal lobe		[183]
	The egg-guide		[183]
The Armature of Insects: Setæ, Hairs, Scales, Tubercles, Etc.			[187]
	The cuticula		[187]
	Setæ		[188]
	Glandular hairs and spines		[190]
	Scales		[193]
	Development of the scales		[195]
	Spinules, hair-scales, hair-fields, and androconia		[197]
The Colors of Insects			[201]
	Optical colors		[201]
	Natural colors		[203]
	Chemical and physical nature of the pigment		[206]
	Ontogenetic and phylogenetic development of colors		[207]
2. INTERNAL ANATOMY
The Muscular System			[211]
	Musculature of a caterpillar		[213]
	Musculature of a beetle		[213]
	Minute structure of the muscles		[215]
	Muscular power of insects		[217]
The Nervous System			[222]
	a. The nervous system as a whole		[222]
	b. The brain		[226]
		The optic or procerebral segment	[231]
		Procerebral lobes	[232]
		The mushroom or stalked bodies	[233]
		Structure of the mushroom bodies	[234]
		The central body	[237]
		The antennal or olfactory lobes (Deutocerebrum)	[237]
		The œsophageal lobes (Tritocerebrum)	[237]
	c. Histological elements of the brain		[238]
	d. The visceral (sympathetic or stomatogastric) system		[238]
	e. The supraspinal cord		[240]
	f. Modifications of the brain in different orders of insects		[240]
	g. Functions of the nerve-centres and nerves		[243]
The Sensory Organs			[249]
	a. The eyes and insect vision		[249]
		The simple or single-lensed eye (ocellus)	[249]
		The compound or facetted eye (ommateum)	[250]
		The facet or cornea	[250]
		The crystalline lens or cone	[251]
		The pigment	[253]
		The basilar membrane	[253]
		The optic tract	[253]
		Origin of the facetted eye	[255]
		Mode of vision by single eyes or ocelli	[255]
		Mode of vision by facetted eyes	[256]
		The principal use of the facetted eye to perceive the movements of animals	[259]
		How far can insects see?	[260]
		Relation of sight to the color of eyes	[260]
		The color sense of insects	[260]
	b. The organs of smell		[264]
		Historical sketch of our knowledge of the organs of smell	[264]
		Physiological experiments	[268]
		Relation of insects to smelling substances before and after the loss of their antennæ	[269]
		Experiments on the use of the antennæ in seeking for food	[270]
		Experiments testing the influence of the antennæ of the males in seeking the females	[270]
		Structure of the organs of smell in insects	[271]
	c. The organs of taste		[281]
		Structure of the taste organs	[282]
		Distribution in different orders of insects	[282]
		Experimental proof	[286]
	d. The organs of hearing		[287]
		The ears or tympanal and chordotonal sense-organs of Orthoptera and other insects	[288]
		Antennal auditory hairs	[292]
		Special sense-organs in the wings and halteres	[293]
	e. The sounds of insects		[293]
The Digestive Canal and its Appendages			[297]
	a. The digestive canal		[302]
		The œsophagus	[303]
		The crop or ingluvies	[303]
		The “sucking stomach” or food-reservoir	[305]
		The fore-stomach or proventriculus	[306]
		The œsophageal valve	[311]
		Proventricular valvule	[313]
		The peritrophic membrane	[313]
		The mid-intestine	[314]
		Histology of the mid-intestine	[316]
		The hind-intestine	[316]
		Large intestine	[316]
		The ileum	[317]
		The gastro-ileal folds	[317]
		The colon	[317]
		The rectum	[318]
		The vent (anus)	[319]
		Histology of the digestive canal	[320]
	b. Digestion in insects		[324]
		The mechanism of secretion	[326]
		Absorbent cells	[328]
The Glandular and Excretory Appendages of the Digestive Canal			[331]
	a. The salivary glands		[331]
	b. The silk or spinning glands, and the spinning apparatus		[339]
		The process of spinning	[340]
		How the thread is drawn out	[343]
		Appendages of the silk-gland (Filippi’s glands)	[345]
	c. The cæcal appendages		[347]
	d. The excretory system (urinary or Malpighian tubes)		[348]
		Primitive number of tubes	[353]
	e. Poison-glands		[357]
	f. Adhesive or cement-glands		[360]
	g. The wax-glands		[361]
	h. “Honey-dew” or wax-glands of Aphids		[364]
	i. Dermal glands in general		[365]
Defensive or Repugnatorial Scent-Glands			[368]
	Eversible coxal glands		[369]
	Fœtid glands of Orthoptera		[369]
	Anal glands of beetles		[372]
	The blood as a repellent fluid		[374]
	Eversible glands of caddis-worms and caterpillars		[375]
	The osmeterium in Papilio larvæ		[377]
	Dorsal and lateral eversible metameric sacs in other larvæ		[377]
	Distribution of repugnatorial or alluring scent-glands in insects		[382]
The Alluring or Scent-Glands			[391]
The Organs of Circulation			[397]
	a. The heart		[397]
		The propulsatory apparatus	[401]
		The supraspinal vessel	[403]
		The aorta	[404]
		The pericardial cells	[405]
		Pulsatile organs of the legs	[405]
	b. The blood		[407]
		The leucocytes	[407]
	c. The circulation of the blood		[409]
		Effects of poisons on the pulsations	[412]
The Blood Tissue			[419]
	a. The fat-body		[419]
	b. The pericardial fat-body or pericardial cells		[420]
		Leucocytes or phagocytes in connection with the pericardial cells	[421]
	c. The œnocytes		[423]
	d. The phosphorescent organs		[424]
		Physiology of the phosphorescence	[426]
The Respiratory System			[430]
	a. The tracheæ		[431]
		Distribution of the tracheæ	[432]
	b. The spiracles or stigmata		[437]
		The position and number of pairs of stigmata	[439]
		The closing apparatus of the stigma	[441]
	c. Morphology and homologies of the tracheal system		[442]
	d. The spiral threads or tænidia		[444]
	e. Origin of the tracheæ and of the “spiral thread”		[447]
		Internal, hair-like bodies	[451]
	f. The mechanism of respiration and the respiratory movements of insects		[451]
	g. The air-sacs		[456]
		The use of the air-sacs	[457]
	h. The closed or partly closed tracheal system		[459]
	i. The rectal, tracheal gills, and rectal respiration of larval Odonata and other insects		[463]
	j. Tracheal gills of the larvæ of insects		[466]
		Blood-gills	[475]
	k. Tracheal gills of adult insects		[476]
The Organs of Reproduction			[485]
	a. The male organs of reproduction		[494]
		The testes	[495]
		The seminal ducts	[496]
		The ejaculatory duct	[497]
		The accessory glands	[497]
		The spermatozoa	[497]
		Formation of the spermatozoön	[498]
	b. The female organs of reproduction		[500]
		The ovaries and the ovarian tubes	[500]
		Origin of incipient eggs in the germ of the testes	[504]
		The bursa copulatrix	[505]
		The spermatheca	[506]
		The colleterial glands	[506]
		The vagina or uterus	[507]
		Signs of copulation in insects	[507]
PART II. EMBRYOLOGY OF INSECTS
	a. The egg		[515]
		Mode of deposition	[518]
		Vitality of eggs	[520]
		Appearance and structure of the ripe egg	[520]
		The egg-shell and yolk-membrane	[520]
		The micropyle	[522]
		Internal structure of the egg	[524]
	b. Maturation or ripening of the egg		[525]
	c. Fertilization of the egg		[525]
	d. Division and formation of the blastoderm		[526]
	e. Formation of the first rudiments of the embryo and of the embryonic membranes		[531]
		Formation of the embryonic membranes	[532]
		The gastrula stage	[535]
		Division of the embryo or primitive band into body-segments	[536]
		Differences between the invaginated and overgrown primitive band	[538]
		Revolution of the embryo where the primitive band is invaginated	[540]
	f. Formation of the external form of the body		[542]
		Origin of the body-segments	[542]
		The procephalic lobes	[544]
		Fore-intestine (stomodæum) and hind-intestine (proctodæum), labrum	[547]
		Completion of the head	[548]
	g. The appendages		[548]
		The cephalic appendages	[548]
		The thoracic appendages	[550]
		The abdominal appendages	[550]
		Appendages of the first abdominal segment (pleuropodia)	[551]
		Are the abdominal legs of Lepidoptera and phytophagous Hymenoptera true limbs?	[552]
		The tracheæ	[553]
	h. Nervous system		[554]
		Completion of the definite form of the body	[555]
	i. Dorsal closure and involution of the embryonic membranes		[556]
	j. Formation of the germ-layers		[558]
	k. Farther development of the mesoderm; formation of the body-cavity		[563]
	l. Formation of organs		[566]
		The nervous system	[566]
		Development of the brain	[567]
		Development of the eyes	[567]
		Intestinal canal and glands	[569]
		The salivary glands	[570]
		The urinary tubes	[572]
		The heart	[572]
		The blood-corpuscles	[574]
		Musculature; connective tissue; fat-body	[574]
		The reproductive organs	[575]
		Development of the male germinal glands	[579]
	m. Length of embryonic life		[582]
	n. The process of hatching		[583]
		The hatching spines	[585]
PART III. THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS
	a. The nymph as distinguished from the larval stage		[593]
	b. Stages or stadia of metamorphosis		[594]
	c. Ametabolous and metabolous stages		[594]
The Larva			[599]
	a. The Campodea-form type of larva		[600]
	b. The eruciform type of larva		[602]
	c. Growth and increase in size of the larva		[608]
	d. The process of moulting		[609]
		The number of moults in insects of different orders	[615]
		Reproduction of lost limbs	[619]
		Formation of the cocoon	[619]
		Sanitary conditions observed by the honey-bee larva, and admission of air within the cocoon	[623]
The Pupa State			[625]
	a. The pupa considered in reference to its adaptation to its surroundings and its relation to phylogeny		[631]
	b. Mode of escape of the pupa from its cocoon		[632]
	c. The cremaster		[636]
		Mode of formation of the cremaster and suspension of the chrysalis in butterflies	[637]
Formation of the Pupa and Imago in the Holometabolous Insects (the Diptera excepted)			[640]
	a. The Lepidoptera		[642]
		The changes in the head and mouth-parts	[646]
		The change in the internal organs	[647]
		The wings	[654]
		Development of the feet and of the cephalic appendages	[654]
		Embryonic cells and the phagocytes	[655]
		Formation of the femur and of the tibia; transformation of the tarsus	[656]
		The antennæ	[657]
		Maxillæ and labial palpi	[658]
		Process of pupation	[660]
	b. The Hymenoptera		[661]
		Ocular or oculo-cephalic buds	[665]
		The antennal buds	[665]
		The buds of the buccal appendages	[665]
		The buds of the ovipositor	[665]
Development of the Imago in the Diptera			[666]
	a. Development of the outer body-form		[668]
		Formation of the imago in Corethra	[668]
		Formation of the imago in Culex	[670]
		Formation of the imago in Chironomus	[671]
		Formation of the imago in Muscidæ	[673]
	b. Development of the internal organs of the imago		[678]
		The hypodermis	[678]
		The muscles	[680]
		The digestive canal	[681]
		The tracheal system	[683]
		The nervous system	[684]
		The fat-body	[685]
		Definitive fate of the leucocytes	[685]
		The post-embryonic changes and imaginal buds in the Pupipara (Melophagus)	[686]
	c. General summary		[687]
Hypermetamorphism			[688]
Summary of the Facts and Suggestions as to the Causes of Metamorphism			[705]
	Theoretical conclusions; causes of metamorphosis		[708]

TEXT-BOOK OF ENTOMOLOGY