Canada: the Empire of the North / Being the Romantic Story of the New Dominion's Growth from Colony to Kingdom

by Agnes C. Laut

THE EMPIRE OF THE NORTH

BEING THE ROMANTIC STORY OF THE
NEW DOMINION'S GROWTH FROM
COLONY TO KINGDOM

BY

AGNES C. LAUT

AUTHOR OF "THE CONQUEST OF THE GREAT NORTH-WEST"
"LORDS OF THE NORTH," ETC.

BOSTON AND LONDON
GINN AND COMPANY, PUBLISHERS
1909

COPYRIGHT, 1909, BY AGNES C. LAUT
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PREFACE

To re-create the shadowy figures of the heroic past, to clothe the dead once more in flesh and blood, to set the puppets of the play in life's great dramas again upon the stage of action,—frankly, this may not be formal history, but it is what makes the past most real to the present day. Pictures of men and women, of moving throngs and heroic episodes, stick faster in the mind than lists of governors and arguments on treaties. Such pictures may not be history, but they breathe life into the skeletons of the past.

Canada's past is more dramatic than any romance ever penned. The story of that past has been told many times and in many volumes, with far digressions on Louisiana and New England and the kingcraft of Europe. The trouble is, the story has not been told in one volume. Too much has been attempted. To include the story of New England wars and Louisiana's pioneer days, the story of Canada itself has been either cramped or crowded. To the eastern writer, Canada's history has been the record of French and English conflict. To him there has been practically no Canada west of the Great Lakes; and in order to tell the intrigue of European tricksters, very often the writer has been compelled to exclude the story of the Canadian people,—meaning by people the breadwinners, the toilers, rather than the governing classes. Similarly, to the western writer, Canada meant the Hudson's Bay Company. As for the Pacific coast, it has been almost ignored in any story of Canada.

Needless to say, a complete history of a country as vast as Canada, whose past in every section fairly teems with action, could not be crowded into one volume. To give even the story of Canada's most prominent episodes and actors is a matter of rigidly excluding the extraneous.

All that has been attempted here is such a story—story, not history—of the romance and adventure in Canada's nation building as will give the casual reader knowledge of the country's past, and how that past led along a trail of great heroism to the destiny of a Northern Empire. This volume is in no sense formal history. There will be found in it no such lists of governors with dates appended, of treaties with articles running to the fours and eights and tens, of battles grouped with dates, as have made Canadian history a nightmare to children.

It is only such a story as boys and girls may read, or the hurried business man on the train, who wants to know "what was doing" in the past; and it is mainly a story of men and women and things doing.

I have not given at the end of each chapter the list of authorities customary in formal history. At the same time it is hardly necessary to say I have dug most rigorously down to original sources for facts; and of secondary authorities, from Pierre Boucher, his Book, to modern reprints of Champlain and L'Escarbot, there are not any I have not consulted more or less. Especially am I indebted to the Documentary History of New York, sixteen volumes, bearing on early border wars; to Documents Relatifs à la Nouvelle France, Quebec; to the Canadian Archives since 1886; to the special historical issues of each of the eastern provinces; and to the monumental works of Dr. Kingsford. Nearly all the places described are from frequent visits or from living on the spot.

INTRODUCTION

"The Twentieth century belongs to Canada."

The prediction of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Premier of the Dominion, seems likely to have bigger fulfillment than Canadians themselves realize. What does it mean?

Canada stands at the same place in the world's history as England stood in the Golden Age of Queen Elizabeth—on the threshold of her future as a great nation. Her population is the same, about seven million. Her mental attitude is similar, that of a great awakening, a consciousness of new strength, an exuberance of energy biting on the bit to run the race; mellowed memory of hard-won battles against tremendous odds in the past; for the future, a golden vision opening on vistas too far to follow. They dreamed pretty big in the days of Queen Elizabeth, but they did n't dream big enough for what was to come; and they are dreaming pretty big up in Canada to-day, but it is hard to forecast the future when a nation the size of all Europe is setting out on the career of her world history.

To put it differently: Canada's position is very much the same to-day as the United States' a century ago. Her population is about seven million. The population of the United States was seven million in 1810. One was a strip of isolated settlements north and south along the Atlantic seaboard; the other, a string of provinces east and west along the waterways that ramify from the St. Lawrence. Both possessed and were flanked by vast unexploited territory the size of Russia; the United States by a Louisiana, Canada by the Great Northwest. What the Civil War did for the United States, Confederation did for the Canadian provinces—welded them into a nation. The parallel need not be carried farther. If the same development follows Confederation in Canada as followed the Civil War in the United States, the twentieth century will witness the birth and growth of a world power.

To no one has the future opening before Canada come as a greater surprise than to Canadians themselves. A few years ago such a claim as the Premier's would have been regarded as the effusions of the after-dinner speaker. While Canadian politicians were hoping for the honor of being accorded colonial place in the English Parliament, they suddenly awakened to find themselves a nation. They suddenly realized that history, and big history, too, was in the making. Instead of Canada being dependent on the Empire, the Empire's most far-seeing statesmen were looking to Canada for the strength of the British Empire. No longer is there a desire among Canadians for place in the Parliament at Westminster. With a new empire of their own to develop, equal in size to the whole of Europe, Canadian public men realize they have enough to do without taking a hand in European affairs.

As the different Canadian provinces came into Confederation they were like beads on a string a thousand miles apart. First were the Maritime Provinces, with western bounds touching the eastern bounds of Quebec, but in reality with the settlements of New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island separated from the settlements of Quebec by a thousand miles of untracked forest. Only the Ottawa River separated Quebec from Ontario, but one province was French, the other English, aliens to each other in religion, language, and customs. A thousand miles of rock-bound, winter-bound wastes lay between Ontario and the scattered settlement of Red River in Manitoba. Not an interest was in common between the little province of the middle west and her sisters to the east. Then prairie land came for a thousand miles, and mountains for six hundred miles, before reaching the Pacific province of British Columbia, more completely cut off from other parts of Canada than from Mexico or Panama. In fact, it would have been easier for British Columbia to trade with Mexico and Panama than with the rest of Canada.

To bind these far-separated patches of settlement, oases in a desert of wilds, into a nation was the object of the union known as Confederation. But a nation can live only as it trades what it draws from the soil. Naturally, the isolated provinces looked for trade to the United States, just across an invisible boundary. It seemed absurd that the Canadian provinces should try to trade with each other, a thousand miles apart, rather than with the United States, a stone's throw from the door of each province. But the United States erected a tariff wall that Canada could not climb. The struggling Dominion was thrown solely on herself, and set about the giant task of linking the provinces together, building railroads from Atlantic to Pacific, canals from tide water to the Great Lakes. In actual cash this cost Canada four hundred million dollars, not counting land grants and private subscriptions for stock, which would bring up the cost of binding the provinces together to a billion. This was a staggering burden for a country with smaller population than Greater New York—a burden as big as Japan and Russia assumed for their war; but, like war, the expenditure was a fight for national existence. Without the railroads and canals, the provinces could not have been bound together into a nation.

These were Canada's pioneer days, when she was spending more than she was earning, when she bound herself down to grinding poverty and big risks and hard tasks. It was a long pull, and a hard pull; but it was a pull altogether. That was Canada's seed time; this is her harvest. That was her night work, when she toiled, while other nations slept; now is the awakening, when the world sees what she was doing. Railroad man, farmer, miner, manufacturer, all had the same struggle, the big outlay of labor and money at first, the big risk and no profit, the long period of waiting.

Canada was laying her foundations of yesterday for the superstructure of prosperity to-day and to-morrow—the New Empire.

When one surveys the country as a whole, the facts are so big they are bewildering.

In the first place, the area of the Dominion is within a few thousand miles of as large as all Europe. To be more specific, you could spread the surface of Italy and Spain and Turkey and Greece and Austria over eastern Canada, and you would still have an area uncovered in the east alone bigger than the German Empire. England spread flat on the surface of Eastern Canada would just serve to cover the Maritime Provinces nicely, leaving uncovered Quebec, which is a third bigger than Germany; Ontario, which is bigger than France; and Labrador (Ungava), which is about the size of Austria.

In the west you could spread the British Isles out flat, and you would not cover Manitoba—with her new boundaries extending to Hudson Bay. It would take a country the size of France to cover the province of Saskatchewan, a country larger than Germany to cover Alberta, two countries the size of Germany to cover British Columbia and the Yukon, and there would still be left uncovered the northern half of the West—an area the size of European Russia.

No Old World monarch from William the Conqueror to Napoleon could boast of such a realm. People are fond of tracing ancestry back to feudal barons of the Middle Ages. What feudal baron of the Middle Ages, or Lord of the Outer Marches, was heir to such heritage as Canada may claim? Think of it! Combine all the feudatory domains of the Rhine and the Danube, you have not so vast an estate as a single western province. Or gather up all the estates of England's midland counties and eastern shires and borderlands, you have not enough land to fill one of Canada's inland seas,—Lake Superior.

If there were a population in eastern Canada equal to France,—and Quebec alone would support a population equal to France,—and in Manitoba equal to the British Isles, and in Saskatchewan equal to France, and in Alberta equal to Germany, and in British Columbia equal to Germany,—ignoring Yukon, Mackenzie River, Keewatin, and Labrador, taking only those parts of Canada where climate has been tested and lands surveyed,—Canada would support two hundred million people.

The figures are staggering, but they are not half so improbable as the actual facts of what has taken place in the United States. America's population was acquired against hard odds. There were no railroads when the movement to America began. The only ocean goers were sailboats of slow progress and great discomfort. In Europe was profound ignorance regarding America; to-day all is changed. Canada begins where the United States left off. The whole world is gridironed with railroads. Fast Atlantic liners offer greater comfort to the emigrant than he has known at home. Ignorance of America has given place to almost romantic glamour. Just when the free lands of the United States are exhausted and the government is putting up bars to keep out the immigrant, Canada is in a position to open her doors wide. Less than a fortieth of the entire West is inhabited. Of the Great Clay Belt of North Ontario only a patch on the southern edge is populated. The same may be said of the Great Forest Belt of Quebec. These facts are the magnet that will attract the immigrant to Canada. The United States wants no more immigrants.

And the movement to Canada has begun. To her shores are thronging the hosts of the Old World's dispossessed, in multitudes greater than any army that ever marched to conquest under Napoleon. When the history of America comes to be written in a hundred years, it will not be the record of a slaughter field with contending nations battling for the mastery, or generals wading to glory knee-deep in blood. It will be an account of the most wonderful race movement, the most wonderful experiment in democracy the world has known.

The people thronging to Canada for homes, who are to be her nation builders, are people crowded out of their home lands, who had n't room for the shoulder swing manhood and womanhood need to carve out honorable careers. Look at them in the streets of London, or Glasgow, or Dublin, or Berlin, these émigrés, as the French called their royalists, whom revolution drove from home, and I think the word émigré is a truer description of the newcomer to Canada than the word "emigrant." They are poor, they are desperately poor, so poor that a month's illness or a shut-down of the factory may push them from poverty to the abyss. They are thrifty, but can neither earn nor save enough to feel absolutely sure that the hollow-eyed specter of Want may not seize them by the throat. They are willing to work, so eager to work that at the docks and the factory gates they trample and jostle one another for the chance to work. They are the underpinnings, the underprops of an old system, these émigrés, by which the masses were expected to toil for the benefit of the classes.

"It's all the average man or woman is good for," says the Old Order, "just a day's wage representing bodily needs."

"Wait," says the New Order. "Give him room! Give him an opportunity! Give him a full stomach to pump blood to his muscles and life to his brain! Wait and see! If he fails then, let him drop to the bottom of the social pit without stop of poorhouse or help!"

A penniless immigrant boy arrives in New York. First he peddles peanuts, then he trades in a half-huckster way whatever comes to hand and earns profits. Presently he becomes a fur trader and invests his savings in real estate. Before that man dies, he has a monthly income equal to the yearly income of European kings. That man's name was John Jacob Astor.

Or a young Scotch boy comes out on a sailing vessel to Canada. For a score of years he is an obscure clerk at a distant trading post in Labrador. He comes out of the wilds to take a higher position as land commissioner. Presently he is backing railroad ventures of tremendous cost and tremendous risk. Within thirty years from the time he came out of the wilds penniless, that man possesses a fortune equal to the national income of European kingdoms. The man's name is Lord Strathcona.

Or a hard-working coal miner emigrates to Canada. The man has brains as well as hands. Other coal miners emigrate at the same time, but this man is as keen as a razor in foresight and care. From coal miner he becomes coal manager, from manager operator, from operator owner, and dies worth a fortune that the barons of the Middle Ages would have drenched their countries in blood to win. The man's name is James Dunsmuir.

Or it is a boy clerking in a departmental store. He emigrates. When he goes back to England it is to marry a lady in waiting to the Queen. He is now known as Lord Mount-Stephen.

What was the secret of the success? Ability in the first place, but in the second, opportunity; opportunity and room for shoulder swing to show what a man can do when keen ability and tireless energy have untrammeled freedom to do their best.

Examples of the émigrés' success could be multiplied. It is more than a mere material success; it is eternal proof that, given a fair chance and a square deal and shoulder swing, the boy born penniless can run the race and outstrip the boy born to power.

"Have you, then, no menial classes in Canada?" asked a member of the Old Order.

"No, I'm thankful to say," said I.

"Then who does the work?"

"The workers."

"But what's the difference?"

"Just this: your menial of the Old Country is the child of a menial, whose father before him was a menial, whose ancestors were in servile positions to other people back as far as you like to go,—to the time when men were serfs wearing an iron collar with the brand of the lord who owned them. With us no stigma is attached to work. Your menial expects to be a menial all his life. With our worker, just as sure as the sun rises and sets, if he continues to work and is no fool, he will rise to earn a competency, to improve himself, to own his own labor, to own his own home, to hire the labor of other men who are beginners as he once was himself."

"Then you have no social classes?"

"Lots. The ups, who have succeeded; and the half-way ups, who are succeeding; and the beginners, who are going to succeed; and the downs, who never try. And as success doesn't necessarily mean money, but doing the best at whatever one tries, you can see that the ups and the halfway ups, and the beginners and the downs have each their own classes of special workers."

"That," she answered, "is not democracy; it is revolution." She was thinking of those Old World hard-and-fast divisions of society into royalty, aristocracy, commons, peasantry.

"It is not revolution," I explained. "It is rebirth! When you send your émigré out to us, he is a made-over man."

But it is not given to all émigré's to become great capitalists or great leaders. Some who have the opportunity have not the ability, and the majority would not, for all the rewards that greatness offers, choose careers that entail long years of nerve-wracking, unflagging labor. But on a minor scale the same process of making over takes place. One case will illustrate.

Some years before immigration to Canada had become general, two or three hundred Icelanders were landed in Winnipeg destitute. From some reason, which I have forgotten,—probably the quarantine of an immigrant,—the Icelanders could not be housed in the government immigration hall. They were absolutely without money, household goods, property of any sort except clothing, and that was scant, the men having but one suit of the poorest clothes, the women thin homespun dresses so worn one could see many of them had no underwear. The people represented the very dregs of poverty. Withdrawing to the vacant lots in the west end of Winnipeg,—at that time a mere town,—the newcomers slept for the first nights, herded in the rooms of an Icelander opulent enough to have rented a house. Those who could not gain admittance to this house slept under the high board sidewalks, then a feature of the new town. I remember as a child watching them sit on the high sidewalk till it was dark, then roll under. Fortunately it was summer, but it was useless for people in this condition to go bare to the prairie farm. To make land yield, you must have house and barns and stock and implements, and I doubt if these people had as much as a jackknife. I remember how two or three of the older women used to sit crying each night in despair till they disappeared in the crowded house, fourteen or twenty of them to a room. Within a week, the men were all at work sawing wood from door to door at a dollar and a half a cord the women out by the day washing at a dollar a day. Within a month they had earned enough to buy lumber and tar paper. Tar-papered shanties went up like mushrooms on the vacant lots. Before winter each family had bought a cow and chickens. I shall not betray confidence by telling where the cow and chickens slept. Those immigrants were not desirable neighbors. Other people moved hastily away from the region. Such a condition would not be tolerated now, when there are spacious immigration halls and sanitary inspectors to see that cows and people do not house under the same roof. What with work and peddling milk, by spring the people were able to move out on the free prairie farms. To-day those Icelanders own farms clear of debt, own stock that would be considered the possession of a capitalist in Iceland, and have money in the savings banks. Their sons and daughters have had university educations and have entered every avenue of life, farming, trading, practicing medicine, actually teaching English in English schools. Some are members of Parliament. It was a hard beginning, but it was a rebirth to a new life. They are now among the nation builders of the West.

But it would be a mistake to conclude that Canada's nation builders consisted entirely of poor people. The race movement has not been a leaderless mob. Princes, nobles, adventurers, soldiers of fortune, were the pathfinders who blazed the trail to Canada. Glory, pure and simple, was the aim that lured the first comers across the trackless seas. Adventurous young aristocrats, members of the Old Order, led the first nation builders to America, and, all unconscious of destiny, laid the foundations of the New Order. The story of their adventures and work is the history of Canada.

It is a new experience in the world's history, this race movement that has built up the United States and is now building up Canada. Other great race movements have been a tearing down of high places, the upward scramble of one class on the backs of the deposed class. Instead of leveling down, Canada's nation building is leveling up.

This, then, is the empire—the size of all the nations in Europe, bigger than Napoleon's wildest dreams of conquest—to which Canada has awakened.[1]

[1]COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF AREAS OF CANADA AND EUROPE

Canada . . 3,750,000 square miles Europe . . 3,797,410 square miles
Maritime Provinces Square Miles Square Miles
Nova Scotia . . . . . 20,600 England . . . . . 50,867
Prince Edward Island 2,000 Germany . . . . . 208,830
New Brunswick . . . . 28,200 France . . . . . 204,000
------ Italy . . . . . . 110,000
50,800 Spain . . . . . . 197,000
Quebec . . . . . . . . 347,350 Austria and Hungary 241,000
Ontario . . . . . . . . 222,000 Russia in Europe 2,000,000
Manitoba
Saskatchewan 204,000
Alberta . . . . . . . . 350,000
British Columbia . . . 383,000
Unorganized Territory of
Keewatin . . . . . . 756,000
Yukon . . . . . . . . 200,000
MacKenzie River and
Ungava . . . . . . 1,000,000

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF POPULATION IN CANADA
AND THE UNITED STATES

United States			Canada
In 1800	5,000,000		In 1881	4,300,000
" 1810	7,000,000		" 1891	5,000,000
" 1820	9,600,000		" 1901	5,500,000
" 1830	12,800,000		" 1906	6,500,000

It will be noticed that for twenty years Canada's population becomes almost stagnant. The reason for this will be found as the story of Canada is related. If she keeps up the increase at the pace she has now set, or at the rate the United States' population went ahead during the same period of industrial development, the results can be forecast from the following table:

United States in 1840	17,000,000
" " " 1850	23,000,000
" " " 1860	31,000,000
" " " 1870	38,000,000
" " " 1880	50,000,000
" " " 1890	63,000,000
" " " 1900	85,000,000

A few years ago, when talking to a leading editor of Canada, I chanced to say that I did not think Canadians had at that time awakened to their future. The editor answered that he was afraid I had contracted the American disease of "bounce" through living in the United States; to which I retorted that if Canadians could catch the same disease and accomplish as much by it in the twentieth century as Americans had in the nineteenth, it would be a good thing for the country. It is wonderful to have witnessed the complete face-about of Canadian public opinion in the short space of six years, this editor shouting as loud as any of his exuberant brethren. Still, as the outlook in Canadian affairs may be regarded as flamboyant, it is worth while quoting the comment of the most critical and conservative newspaper in the world,—the London Times. The Times says: "Without doubt the expansion of Canada is the greatest political event in the British Empire to-day. The empire is face to face with development which makes it impossible for indefinite maintenance of the present constitutional arrangements."

Regarding the Iceland immigrants, to whom reference is made, I recently met in London a famed traveler, who was in Iceland when the people were setting out for Canada, Mrs. Alec. Tweedie. She explains in her book how these people were absolutely poverty-stricken when they left Iceland. In fact, the sufferings endured the first year in Winnipeg were mild compared to their privations in Iceland before they sailed.

The explanations of Canada's hard times from Confederation to 1898—say from 1871, when all the provinces had really gone into Confederation, to 1897, when the Yukon boom poured gold into the country—can be figured out. Of a population of 3,000,000, four fifths need not be counted as taxpayers, as they include women, children, clerks, farmers' help, domestic help,—classes who pay no taxes but the indirect duty on clothes they wear and food they eat. This practically means that the billion-dollar burden of making the ideal of Confederation into a reality by building railroads and canals was borne by 600,000 people, which means again a large quota per man to the public treasury. People forget that you can't take more out of the public treasury than you put into it, that it is n't like an artesian well, self-supplied, and the truth is, at this period Canadians were paying more into the public treasury than they could afford,—more than the investment was bringing them in.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER		PAGE
I.	[FROM 1000 TO 1600]	1
II.	[FROM 1600 TO 1607 ]	23
III.	[FROM 1607 TO 1635 ]	41
IV.	[FROM 1635 TO 1666 ]	61
V.	[FROM 1635 TO 1650]	71
VI.	[FROM 1650 TO 1672 ]	94
VII.	[FROM 1672 TO 1688]	117
VIII.	[FROM 1679 TO 1713]	143
IX.	[FROM 1686 TO 1698 ]	161
X.	[FROM 1698 TO 1713]	189
XI.	[FROM 1713 TO 1755]	205
XII.	[FROM 1756 TO 1763]	241
XIII.	[FROM 1763 TO 1812]	276
XIV.	[FROM 1812 TO 1820 ]	318
XV.	[FROM 1812 TO 1846]	380
XVI.	[FROM 1820 TO 1867]	410
	[INDEX]	439

ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAPS

	Page
[MAP OF WESTERN CANADA]	Frontispiece
[ VIKING SHIP RECENTLY DISCOVERED ] After a photograph of the Viking Ship at Sandefjord, Norway.	2
[ MAP SHOWING DIVISION OF THE NEW WORLD BETWEEN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL ]	3
[ A TYPICAL "HOLE IN THE WALL" AT "KITTY VIDDY," NEAR ST. JOHN'S, NEWFOUNDLAND ] From a photograph.	4
[ SEBASTIAN CABOT ] After the portrait attributed to Holbein.	5
[ JACQUES CARTIER ] After the portrait at St. Malo, France, with signature.	8
[ WHERE THE FISHER HAMLETS NOW NESTLE, NEWFOUNDLAND ] From a photograph.	9
[ ANCIENT HOCHELAGA ] After a cut in the third volume of Ramusio's Raccolta, Venice, 1565.	15
[ THE "DAUPHIN MAP" OF CANADA, CIRCA 1543, SHOWING CARTIER'S DISCOVERIES ]	21
[ QUEEN ELIZABETH ] After the ermine portrait in Hatfield House, with signature.	25
[ THE BOYHOOD OF GILBERT AND RALEIGH ] From the painting by Sir John Millais.	26
[ SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT ] After the print in Holland's Herwologia-Anglica, 1620.	27
[ SIR WALTER RALEIGH ] After the portrait in the possession of the Duchess of Dorset.	29
[ AT EASTERN ENTRANCE TO HUDSON STRAITS ] From a photograph by Dominion Geological Survey.	31
[ HUDSON COAT OF ARMS ] From Lenox Collection, New York City.	32
[ THE FANTASTIC ROCKS OF GASPÉ ] From a photograph.	33
[ SAMUEL DE CHAMPLAIN ] After the Moncornet portrait, with signature.	34
[ PORT ROYAL OR ANNAPOLIS BASIN, 1609 ] From Lescarbot's map.	36
[ BUILDINGS ON STE. CROIX ISLAND ] From Les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain, Paris, 1613.	38
[ PORT ROYAL ] From the same.	43
[ TADOUSSAC ] From the same.	45
[ DEFEAT OF THE IROQUOIS ] From the same.	47
[ THE ONONDAGA FORT ] From the same.	55
[ VIEW OF QUEBEC ] From the same.	56
[ QUEBEC ] From the same.	59
[ SIR WILLIAM ALEXANDER ] After an engraved portrait by Marshall.	62
[ MAP SHOWING LA TOUR'S POSSESSIONS IN ACADIA ]	64
[ CARDINAL RICHELIEU ] After the portrait by Philippe de Champaigne	66
[ MAP OF ANNAPOLIS BASIN ]	69
[ MADAME DE LA PELTRIE ] After a picture in the Ursuline Convent, Quebec.	73
[ PIERRE LE JEUNE ] From an engraving in Winsor's America, after an old print.	80
[ GEORGIAN BAY ] From a photograph by A. G. Alexander.	84
[ BRÉBEUF ] From a bust in silver at Quebec.	89
[ REMNANTS OF WALLS OF FORT ST. MARY ON CHRISTIAN ISLAND IN 1891 ] After a photograph reproduced in Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records.	91
[ MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES, SHOWING THE TERRITORY OF THE JESUIT HURON MISSIONS ] Bellin's map, 1744.	92
[ A CANADIAN ON SNOWSHOES ] From La Potherie's Histoire de l'Amerique Septentrionale, Paris, 1753.	96
[ SAUSON'S MAP, 1656 ]	99
[ TITLE-PAGE—JESUIT RELATION OF 1662-1663 ]	111
[ THE JESUIT MAP OF LAKE SUPERIOR ] From the Relation, of 1670-1671.	112
[ CHARLES II ] After the miniature portrait by Cooper, with signature.	114
[ PLAN OF MONTREAL IN 1672 ] From Quebec Historical Society Papers and Records.	119
[ LA SALLE'S HOUSE NEAR MONTREAL ] From a photograph.	120
[ KITCHEN, CHÂTEAU DE RAMEZAY, MONTREAL ] From a photograph.	120
[ LAVAL ] After the portrait in Laval University, Quebec.	122
[ A MAP IN THE RELATION OF 1662-1663 ]	126
[ GALINÉE'S MAP OF THE GREAT LAKES, 1669 ]	129
[ ROBERT DE LA SALLE ] After an engraved portrait said to be preserved in the Bibliothèque de Rouen, with signature.	135
[ OLD PLAN OF FORT FRONTENAC ] From Mémoirs sur le Canada, Quebec, 1873.	136
[ THE BUILDING OF THE GRIFFON ] From Father Hennepin's Nouvelle Découverte, Amsterdam, 1704.	138
[ PRINCE RUPERT ] After the painting by Sir P. Lely.	145
[ MAP OF HUDSON BAY ]	147
[ CONTEMPORARY FRENCH MAP OF HUDSON BAY AND VICINITY ] From La Potherie's Histoire de l'Amerique Septentrionale.	155
[ LE MOYNE D'IBERVILLE ] After a portrait in Margry's Découvertes Établissemens.	157
[ FORT FRONTENAC AND THE ADJACENT COUNTRY ] From The London Magazine, 1758.	164
[ WILLIAM OF ORANGE ] After the portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller, with signature.	166
[ QUEBEC, 1689 ] From La Potherie's Histoire de l'Amérique Septentrionale.	172
[ FRENCH SOLDIER OF THE PERIOD ] After a cut in Massachusetts Archives, Documents collected in France, 111, 3.	174
[ SIR WILLIAM PHIPS ] After an accepted likeness reproduced in Winsor's America.	176
[ COUNT FRONTENAC ] From the statue by Hébert at Quebec.	178
[ CASTLE ST. LOUIS ] After a cut in Hawkins' Pictures of Quebec, Quebec, 1834.	180
[ ATTACK ON QUEBEC, 1690 ] From La Hontan's Mémoires, 1709.	181
[ CASTLE ST. LOUIS, QUEBEC ] From Sulte's Canadiens Français, viii.	183
[ PLAN OF QUEBEC ] From Franquelin, 1683.	184
[ LANDING OF IBERVILLE'S MEN AT PORT NELSON ] From La Potherie's Histoire de l'Amérique Septentrionale.	186
[ CAPTURE OF FORT NELSON BY THE FRENCH ] From the same.	187
[ CONTEMPORARY MAP, 1689 ] From La Hontan.	191
[ HERTEL DE ROUVILLE ] After a portrait in Daniel's Nos Gloires Nationales.	193
[ CONTEMPORARY PLAN OF PORT ROYAL BASIN ] From Bellin's map, 1744.	199
[ PAUL MASCARENE ] After a portrait in Savary's edition of Calnek's Annapolis.	201
[ LA VÉRENDRYE'S FORTS AND THE RIVER OF THE WEST ] After Jeffery's map, 1762.	207
[ MAP PUBLISHED IN PARIS IN 1752 SHOWING THE SUPPOSED SEA OF THE WEST ] From the Mémoire presented to the Academy of Sciences at Paris by Buache, August, 1752.	209
[ MAP SHOWING THE SUPPOSED SEA OF THE WEST, WITH APPROACHES TO THE MISSISSIPPI AND GREAT LAKES, PARIS, 1755 ] From the same.	211
[ WILLIAM PEPPERRELL ] After the portrait by Smibert.	217
[ RUINS OF THE FORTIFICATIONS AT LOUISBURG ] From a recent photograph.	219
[ CONTEMPORARY PLAN OF THE ATTACK ON LOUISBURG ] After a plan reproduced in Winsor's America.	221
[ FORT HALIFAX, 1755 (Restoration) ]	222
[ CONTEMPORARY VIEW OF OSWEGO ] From Smith's History of the Province of New York.	223
[ GOVERNOR DINWIDDIE OF VIRGINIA ] After a portrait by Ramsay.	225
[ TITLE-PAGE OF WASHINGTON'S JOURNAL ]	227
[ A SKETCH OF THE FIELD OF BATTLE AT BRADDOCK'S DEFEAT ] From a contemporary manuscript in the Library of Harvard University.	229
[ PLAN OF FORT BEAUSEJOUR ] From Mante's History of the Late War in North America.	230
[ GENERAL MONCKTON ] After a mezzotint in the Library of the American Antiquarian Society.	232
[ GENERAL JOHN WINSLOW ] After the portrait in Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Massachusetts.	234
[ MAP OF ACADIA AND THE ADJACENT ISLANDS, 1755 ]	237
[ SIR WILLIAM JOHNSON ] After the portrait by Adams.	238
[ MAP OF THE REGION OF LAKE GEORGE ] From Documentary History of New York.	239
[ RUINS OF CHÂTEAU BIGOT ] From a photograph by Captain Wurtelle.	245
[ PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS, OTTAWA ] From a photograph.	246
[ QUEBEC, CHÂTEAU FRONTENAC AND THE CITADEL ] From a photograph.	246
[ THE EARL OF LOUDON ] After the portrait by Ramsay.	249
[ BOSCAWEN ] After the portrait by Reynolds.	253
[ THE SIEGE OF LOUISBURG, 1758 ] From a picture in the Lenox Collection, New York Public Library.	255
[ AMHERST ] After the portrait by Reynolds.	257
[ THE COUNTRY ROUND TICONDEROGA ] From Documentary History of New York.	259
[ GENERAL JAMES WOLFE ] After the engraved portrait by Houstin.	261
[ BOUGAINVILLE ] After a cut in Bounechose's Montcalm.	263
[ THE SITE OF QUEBEC AND THE GROUND OCCUPIED DURING THE SIEGE OF 1759 ] After a plan in The Universal Magazine, London, December, 1859.	265
[ LOUIS JOSEPH, MARQUIS DE MONTCALM ] After the portrait in the possession of his descendants.	268
[ DEATH OF WOLFE ] From the painting by West.	272
[ MAJOR ROBERT ROGERS ] After a mezzotint by an unknown engraver. Published in London, October 1, 1776	277
[ NORTH AMERICA AT THE CLOSE OF THE FRENCH WARS, 1763 ]	278
[ GENERAL MURRAY, FIRST GOVERNOR OF QUEBEC ] After the portrait by Ramsay.	280
[ SETTLEMENTS ON THE DETROIT RIVER ] From Parkman's Conspiracy of Pontiac.	283
[ BOUQUET ] After the portrait by West.	289
[ RETURN OF THE ENGLISH CAPTIVES ] After the painting by West.	291
[ MONTREAL ] After a print in the New York Public Library.	293
[ SAMUEL HEARNE ] After an engraving published in 1796.	297
[ GENERAL RICHARD MONTGOMERY ] After the painting by Chappel.	301
[ MAP OF QUEBEC DURING THE SIEGE OF CONGRESS TROOPS ]	303
[ SIR GUY CARLETON ] After an engraving in The Political Magazine, June, 1782.	307
[ BENEDICT ARNOLD ] After the portrait by Tate.	309
[ GENERAL HALDIMAND ] After the portrait by Reynolds.	311
[ JOSEPH BRANT ] After the portrait by Ames.	315
[ LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR SIMCOE ] After an engraving in Scadding's Toronto of Old.	316
[ CAPTAIN COOK ] After the portrait by Dauce.	320
[ FORT CHURCHILL AS IT WAS IN 1777 ] After a print in the European Magazine, June, 1797.	320
[ TOTEM POLES, BRITISH COLUMBIA ] From a photograph.	320
[ CAPTAIN GEORGE VANCOUVER ] After the portrait by Abbott.	322
[ NOOTKA SOUND ] From an engraving in Vancouver's Journal.	323
[ FORT CHIPPEWYAN, ATHABASCA LAKE ] From a recent photograph.	325
[ ALEXANDER MACKENZIE ] After the portrait by Lawrence.	327
[ CAUSE OF A PORTAGE ] From a photograph.	329
[ SIMON FRASER ] From a likeness in Morice's The History of the Northern Interior of British Columbia.	331
[ ASTORIA IN 1813 ] From a cut in Franchere's Narrative of a Voyage.	332
[ MAP OF WEST COAST, SHOWING THE OGDEN AND ROSS EXPLORATIONS ] From Laut's Conquest of the Great North West.	332
[ GENERAL SIR JAMES HENRY CRAIG, GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA, 1807-1811 ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	336
[ WILLIAM HULL ] After the portrait by Stuart, with autograph.	338
[ MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE MILITARY OPERATIONS ON THE DETROIT RIVER ]	340
[ MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE MILITARY OPERATIONS ON THE NIAGARA FRONTIER ]	342
[ GENERAL BROCK ] After a portrait in the possession of J. A. Macdonell Esq., Alexandria, Ontario.	345
[ BROCK MONUMENT, QUEENSTON HEIGHTS ] From a photograph.	347
[ YORK (TORONTO) HARBOR ] From Bouchette's British Dominions in North America.	351
[ FITZGIBBONS ] After a photograph reproduced in Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1900.	357
[ LAURA SECORD ] From Ontario Historical Society Papers and Records.	361
[ TWO VIEWS OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE ] From prints published in 1815	364
[ TECUMSEH ] After the drawing by Pierre Le Drie.	366
[ DE SALABERRY ] After a portrait in Fannings Taylor's Portraits of British Americans.	368
[ SIR GORDON DRUMMOND ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	371
[ MONUMENT AT LUNDY'S LANE ] From a photograph.	375
[ SELKIRK ] From Ontario Archives Collection.	381
[ NELSON AND HAYES RIVERS ] From a map in Robson's Hudson Bay.	384
[ FORT GARRY, RED RIVER SETTLEMENT ] From Ross' Red River Settlement.	387
[ FORT DOUGLAS ] After an old engraving.	388
[ SKETCH OF THE CITY OF WINNIPEG, SHOWING THE SITES OF THE EARLY FORTS ] From Manitoba Historical Society	391
[ RED RIVER SETTLEMENT, 1816-1820 ] After a map in Amos' Report of the Trials Relative to the Destruction of the Earl of Selkirk's Settlement.	392
[ MONUMENT TO COMMEMORATE THE MASSACRE OF SEVEN OAKS ] After a sketch.	397
[ TRACKING ON ATHABASCA RIVER ] From a photograph.	401
[ PLANS OF YORK AND PRINCE OF WALES FORTS ] From a plate in Robson's Hudson Bay.	405
[ SIR GEORGE SIMPSON, GOVERNOR OF HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY, 1820 ]	406
[ JOHN MCLOUGHLIN ] After a likeness in Laut's Conquest of the Great Northwest.	408
[ SIR JOHN SHERBROOKE, GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA, 1816-1818 ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	413
[ THE FOURTH DUKE OF RICHMOND, GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA, 1818-1819 ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	419
[ WILLIAM LYON MACKENZIE ] After a likeness in Lindsey's Life and Times of Mackenzie.	421
[ ALLAN McNAB ] After the portrait in the Speaker's Chambers, Ottawa.	423
[ LOUIS J. PAPINEAU ] After a likeness in Fannings Taylor's British Americans.	428
[ SIR JOHN COLBORNE, GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA, 1838-1841 ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	430
[ LORD DURHAM, SPECIAL COMMISSIONER TO CANADA, 1838 ] After an engraving at Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario.	432
[ JOHN A. MACDONALD ] From a photograph.	435
[ FATHERS OF CONFEDERATION, 1867 ] From the painting by Hariss.	436