FOOTNOTES
[1] Valentyn, “History of the Moluccas.”
[2] The population of the Residency of Samarang, which includes the city, is 1,020,275. Of these 5,162 are Europeans, 1,001,252 are natives, 11,441 are Chinese, 438 are Arabs, and 1,982 are from other Eastern nations. In these figures the military are not included.
[3] The population of the Residency of Surabaya, which also includes that of the city of the same name, is 1,278,600. Of these, 5,124 are Europeans, 1,261,271 are natives, 7,603 are Chinese, 1,477 are Arabs, and 3,125 are from other Eastern nations.
[4] Crawfurd’s Dict. Ind. Arch.
[5] Crawfurd’s Dict. Ind. Arch., “Hindustan.”
[6] For the history of the culture-system and government in the Netherlands India, consult Money’s “Java.”
[7] During 1865 the government sold 250,000 piculs (16,666 tons) of sugar, but the total exported from Java was two million piculs.
[8] Our word sugar comes from the Arabic sakar, and that from the Sanscrit sarkara, thus indicating in its name how it first came to be known to Europeans.
[9] Mr. Crawfurd states that it is a similar product made from the sap of the Palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliformis), and not the sugar of the cane, that forms the saccharine consumption of tropical Asia, i. e., among the Cochin-Chinese, the Siamese, the Burmese, and the inhabitants of Southern India, including the Telinga nation who introduced Hinduism and Sanscrit names among these people, and probably were the first to teach them how to obtain sugar from the sap of palm-trees.
[10] The prices obtained for it are established as follows: On Madura and the north coast of Java, 6.92 guilders; on the south coast, 5.92 gl.; at Bencoolen, Padang, and Priaman, on the west coast of Sumatra, 6.66¾ gl.; Ayar Bangis and Natal, 6 gl.; Palembang, 5.10 gl.; Banca, 6.72 gl.; Bandyermassin, 6.66 gl.; Sambas and Pontianak, 5.10 gl.
[11] Of this number 27,105 are Europeans; 13,704,535 are natives; 156,192 are Chinese; 6,764 are Arabs; and 22,772 are from other Eastern nations. See [Appendix B].
[12] For a list of the number of ships that arrived during 1864, their tonnage, and the countries from which they came, see [Appendix E].
[13] Albinos are occasionally found among these animals. For a long time previous to 1840 there was a famous “white deer” on the coast at Antju, in the vicinity of Batavia. Many attempts were made to shoot it, and these invariably proved so unsuccessful, that the natives, finding they had an opportunity to give way to their insatiable love for the marvellous, were all fully convinced that this animal was invulnerable. It was, however, shot at last, and proved to be of a gray, rather than a pure white. In 1845 a young one of a pure white color was caught at Macassar.
[14] Jão de Barros, who wrote a classical history of the regions discovered and conquered by the Portuguese in the East, was born in 1496, and died in 1570. He never visited the Indies, but carefully and faithfully compiled his descriptions from the official records, which were all intrusted to his care, in 1532. The first decade of his work was published in 1552, the second in 1553, the third in 1563, and the fourth after his death. He was, therefore, a contemporary of most of the early navigators whose history he narrates.
[15] Diogo de Cauto, who wrote the “Asia Portuguesa,” was born in Lisbon in 1542, and died at Goa, the Portuguese capital of India, in 1616, at the age of seventy-four. It is believed that he went to India at the age of fourteen, and, after having lived there in the army ten years, returned to Portugal, but soon after went back, and continued there till his death. It is probable that he never visited any part of the archipelago himself, but obtained from others the information he gives us.
[16] The early kings of Macassar boasted that they descended from the Tormanurong, who, according to their legends, had this miraculous history as given in Pinkerton’s “Voyages,” vol. ii., p. 216. In the earliest times, it happened that a beautiful woman, adorned with a chain of gold, descended from heaven, and was acknowledged by the Macassars as their queen. Upon hearing of the appearance on earth of this celestial beauty, the King of Bantam made a long voyage to that land, and sought her hand in marriage, though he had before wedded a princess of Bontain. His suit was granted, and a son was begotten in this marriage, who was two or three years old before he was born, so that he could both walk and talk immediately after his birth, but he was very much distorted in shape. When he was grown up, he broke the chain of gold which his mother had brought from heaven into two pieces, after which she, together with her husband, vanished in a moment, taking with her one half the chain, and leaving the other half and the empire to her son. This chain, which the Macassars say is sometimes heavy and sometimes light, at one time dark colored and at another bright, was ever afterward one of the regalia of the kings until it was lost in a great revolution.
[17] Odoardo Barbosa (in Spanish, Balbosa) was a gentleman of Lisbon, who travelled in the East during his youth. From his writings it appears probable that he visited Malacca before it was conquered by the Portuguese in 1511. His work appeared in 1516. In 1519 he joined Magellan, and was treacherously murdered by the natives of Zebu, one of the Philippines, in 1521, four days after the great navigator, whom he accompanied, had suffered a like fate.
[18] Mr. Wallace estimated the value of the goods carried there from Macassar alone at 200,000 guilders (80,000 dollars), and those brought from other places at 50,000 guilders (20,000 dollars) more.
[19] The name of this island comes from the Portuguese word flor, a flower; plural, floris.
[20] The Rajah of Sangir, a village from twelve to fifteen miles southeast of the volcano, was an eye-witness of this fearful phenomenon, and thus describes it: “About 7 P. M., on the 10th of April, three distinct columns of flame burst forth, near the top of Tomboro Mountain, all of them apparently within the verge of the crater; and, after ascending separately to a very great height, their tops united in the air in a troubled, confused manner. In a short time the whole mountain next Sangir appeared like a body of liquid fire, extending itself in every direction. The fire and columns of flame continued to rage with unabated fury until the darkness, caused by the quantity of falling matter, obscured it at about 8 P. M. Stones at this time fell very thick at Sangir, some of them as large as a man’s two fists, but generally not larger than walnuts. Between 9 and 10 P. M. ashes began to fall; and soon after, a violent whirlwind ensued, which blew down nearly every house in the village of Sangir, carrying their tops and light parts along with it. In that part of the district of Sangir adjoining Tomboro, its effects were much more violent, tearing up by the roots the largest trees, and carrying them into the air, together with men, houses, cattle, and whatever else came within its influence. The sea rose nearly twelve feet higher than it had ever been known to do before, and completely spoiled the only small spots of rice-lands in Sangir, sweeping away houses and every thing within its reach.”
[21] “Native Races of the East Indian Archipelago, Papuans,” by George Windsor Earl, M. R. A. S. London, 1853.
[22] Possibly the “spots,” of which Mr. Earl speaks, may have been caused by some disease, for spots of a lighter hue than the general color of the body are often seen among all Malays. Both the straight-haired Malaysians and the frizzled-haired Melanesians have the odd custom of rubbing lime into their hair, which gives it a dull-yellowish or reddish tinge. Mr. Earl, however, states that he has seen one native whose hair was naturally red, a kind of partial albinoism.
[23] Mr. Jukes remarks, and I believe, most correctly, that “if the term ‘jura kalk’ is applied lithologically to these tertiary rocks, it is to a certain extent applicable, as they have a concretionary and oölitic structure. If, however, it is meant to have a chronological meaning, it is either incorrectly applied, or the formation is incorrectly extended on the map to the neighborhood of Kupang.”
[24] “Voyage of the Dourga in 1825 and 1826,” by Captain Kloff, translated by G. W. Earl.
[25] A paal, the unit of measure on land in the East Indian Archipelago, is fifteen sixteenths of a statute mile.
[26] The Dutch name for this tree and its fruit is cacao. Our word chocolate comes from the Spanish “chocolate,” which was a mixture of the fruit of this tree with Indian corn. These were ground up together, and some honey was usually added. After sugar-cane was introduced, that was also added to neutralize the bitter qualities of the cocoa.
[27] This name must not be confounded with that of the cocoa-nut-tree, or Cocos nucifera, which is a palm. The word cocoa is supposed to have been derived from the Portuguese word macoco or macaco, a monkey, and to have been applied to the cocoa-nut palm, from a fancied resemblance between the end of the shell, where the three black scars occur, and the face of a monkey.
[28] Francis Valentyn, the author of the most comprehensive and accurate history and description of the Dutch possessions in all the East, was a Lutheran clergyman. He was born at Dordrecht, about the year 1660. In 1686 he arrived at Data via as a minister, and having resided some time at Japara, near Samarang, he was transferred to Amboina, the future field of his ministry and literary labors. After a residence of twelve years in the Spice Islands, he was obliged to return home on account of ill-health. Having remained in Holland for eleven years, he sailed a second time for India in 1705. Arriving at Java, he remained on that island for two years, and then proceeded to the Spice Islands, where he resided for seven years, and in 1714 he returned again to Holland. Immediately after his arrival he devoted himself to arranging his copious notes for publication. His first volume was published in 1724; this was followed by seven others, all fully illustrated, the last appearing in 1726. They embrace a complete description and history of all the Dutch possessions from the Cape of Good Hope to Japan. The date of the death of this eminent man is not known, but he must have been in his sixty-sixth year when he finished his great work.
[29] According to official statements, the total yield from 1675 to 1854 was 100,034,036 Amsterdam pounds.
[30] De Cauto, who visited these islands in 1540, says: “The Persians call the clove calafur, and speaking on this matter, with permission of the physicians, it appears to us that the carofilum of the Latin is corrupted from the calafur of the Moors (Arabs), for they have some resemblance. And as this drug passed into Europe through the hands of the Moors with the name calafur, it appears the Europeans did not change it. The Castilians (Spaniards) called cloves gilope, because they came from the island of Gilolo (probably one of the chief sources of this article at that time). The people of the Moluccas call them chanqué. The Brahmin physicians first called them lavanga, but afterward gave them the Moorish name. Generally all nations give them a name of their own, as we have done; for the first of us (the Portuguese) that reached these islands (the Moluccas), taking them in their hands, and observing their resemblance to iron nails, called them cravo, by which they are now so well known in the world.”
[31] In 1855 the population of the islands east of Amboina was thus divided, and so little change has occurred that these figures closely represent the relative numbers of each class at the present time:
| Islands. | Mestizoes. | Burgers. | Villagers. | Slaves. | Total. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Christians. | Mohammedans. | |||||
| Haruku | 88 | 288 | 3,204 | 3,544 | 64 | 7,188 |
| Saparua | 162 | 2,912 | 7,340 | 1,154 | 97 | 11,665 |
| Nusalaut | 4 | 63 | 3,386 | 26 | 3,479 | |
[32] In 1854 the western part that is included in the residency of Hila was supposed to contain a population of two thousand four hundred and sixty-eight; the middle peninsula and the bay visited on this voyage, twenty-four thousand one hundred and ninety-four; the northern coast under Wahai, forty thousand nine hundred and twenty-five; and, in the great area east of Elpaputi Bay, it was supposed that there dwelt between twenty-one and twenty-two thousand; making a total of eighty-nine thousand and eighty-seven, about ninety thousand; but Dr. Bleeker, who gives these figures, thinks there are half as many more people among the mountains, and that the whole population of the island should be put down at one hundred and fifty thousand. He gives the population of these islands for 1855 in round numbers as follows:
| Amboina | 29,500 |
| Haruku | 7,900 |
| Buru | 9,200 |
| Amblau | 1,000 |
| Bonoa | 1,500 |
| Nusalaut | 3,500 |
| Manipa | 700 |
| Saparua | 11,600 |
| Ceram | 150,000 |
| Total | 214,200 |
These figures may be regarded as good estimates of the population at the present time.
[33] This name Alfura, in Dutch Alfoera, is also written Alfora, Alafora, Arafura, and Halafora. Mr. Crawford finds that it is composed of the Arabic articles alor, el, and the preposition fora, without; and was simply a general denomination given by the Portuguese when they were supreme in the Moluccas to all the native inhabitants who were without the pale of their authority.
[34] This Gunong Api most not be confounded with another similar volcano of the same name north of Wetta, and still another near the western end of Sumbawa, at the northern entrance to the Sapi Strait.
[35] De Barros, in Crawfurd’s “Dictionary of the India Islands.”
[36] Subsequently I learned that two of them were still living when he reached France.
[37] From Valentyn and later writers we learn that eruptions have occurred in the following years: 1586, 1598, 1609, 1615, 1632, 1690, 1696, 1712, 1765, 1775, 1778, 1820, and 1824.
[38] Heavy earthquakes, without eruptions, have occurred in 1629, 1683, 1710, 1767, 1816, and 1852.
[39] In this case the facts that the water in the roads did not pour out into the sea, and that the “flood” did not come until half an hour after the shock had occurred, indicate that this wave had its origin elsewhere, and that there is no need of supposing, as in accounting for the great wave of 1852, that any part of the group was raised or depressed.
[40] Mr. Crawford thinks this is a corruption of burungdewata, which in Malay means “birds of God.”
[41] Vide Ramusio, vol. i., p. 376, in Crawford’s “Dictionary of the India Islands.”
[42] In the same length of time Mr. A. R. Wallace collected sixty-six species on this island.
[43] A similar cause produces the rainless district of Peru, but there the prevailing wind throughout the year, at least in the upper strata of the atmosphere, is from the southeast.
[44] This date is corroborated by Pigafetta, who wrote in 1521, and remarks in regard to this point: “Hardly fifty years have elapsed since the Moors (Arabs) conquered (converted) Malucco (the Moluccas), and dwelt there. Previously these islands were peopled with Gentiles (i. e., heathen) only.”
[45] Vide Pigafetta in Crawfurd’s “Dict. India Islands.”
[46] He has since been canonized, and is worthily considered by his people a model of piety and devotion to the missionary cause.
[47] Mr. A. R. Wallace, who has travelled more widely than any other naturalist over the region where these magnificent birds are found, gives the following complete list of the species now known, and the places they inhabit: Arru Islands, P. apoda and P. regia; Misol, P. regia and P. magnifica; Wagiu, P. rubra; Salwatti, P. regia, P. magnifica, Epimachus albus, and Sericulus aureus; coast regions of New Guinea generally, Epimachus albus, and Sericulus aureus; central and mountainous regions of the northern peninsula of New Guinea, Lophorina superba, Parotia sexsetacea, Astrapia nigra, Epimachus magnus, Craspedophora magnifica, and probably Diphylloides Wilsonii and Paradigalla carunculata.
[48] This number is divided according to nationalities as follows: Europeans, 550; natives, 102,423; Chinese, 1,434; Arabs, 11.
[49] Crawfurd’s “Dictionary of the India Islands.”
[50] For an accurate representation of these rings, see the drawings of concretionary structure in Dana’s “Manual of Geology,” p. 99, fig. 85.
[51] I had little idea, when the above was written, that this ship was no other than the Hartford, made so famous by Admiral Farragut’s brave and successful assault on the forts below Mobile, and that Rear-Admiral H. H. Bell, then commanding our Asiatic squadron, was on board; and that during that same year (1866) it would be my privilege to meet him, and receive from him and the other officers of our United States ships so much kind assistance in making long voyages on the coasts of China, Corea, and Japan.
[52] Vide Max Müller’s “Lectures on the Science of Language,” First Course, p. 224.
[53] Queen Elizabeth’s letter is as follows: “We for them” (the East India Company) “do promise, that in no time hereafter you shall have cause to repent thereof, but rather to rejoice much, for their dealing shall be true and their conversation sure, and we hope that they will give such good proof thereof that this beginning shall be a perpetual confirmation of love betwixt our subjects in both parts, by carrying from us such things and merchandise as you have need of there. So that your highness shall be very well served, and better contented, than you have heretofore been with the Portugals and Spaniards, our enemies, who only and none else of these regions have frequented those your and the other kingdoms of the East, not suffering that the other natives should do it, pretending themselves to be monarchs and absolute lords of all those kingdoms and provinces, as their own conquest and inheritance, as appears by their lofty titles in their writings. The contrary whereof hath very lately appeared unto us. That your highness, and your royal family, fathers and grandfathers, have, by the grace of God, and their valor, known, not only to defend your own kingdoms, but also to give war unto the Portugals in the land which they possess, as namely: in Malacca, in the year of human redemption, 1575, under the conduct of your valliant Captain Ragamacota (Rajah makuta) with their great loss and the perpetual honor of your highness’ crown and kingdom. And now, if your highness shall be pleased to accept unto your favor and grace and under your royal protection and defence, these our subjects, that they may freely do their business now and continue yearly hereafter, this bearer, who goeth chief of the fleet of four ships, hath order, with your highness’ license, to leave certain factors with a settled house or factory in your kingdom, until the going thither of another fleet, which shall go thither on the return of this—which left factors shall learn the language and customs of your subjects, whereby the better and more lovingly to converse with them.”
[54] For a detailed list of the quantities exported each year, and the average price, see [Appendix D].
[55] Vide Marsden’s “History of Sumatra,” p. 322 et seq.
[56] While this work is going to the press, the specimens referred to have all arrived in perfect order, though the ship that brought them was obliged to put in twice in distress, having one time been nearly dismasted by a cyclone, that kept her on her beam ends for eight hours.
[57] This accords with Van Dijk’s statement, that while the purity of English coals is represented by 81.08, that of the Orange-Nassau mines in Borneo would be represented by 98.46, and this by 69.47.
[58] The total population of this residency is estimated at 527,050, of which 132 are Europeans; about 522,345 natives; 2,790 Chinese; 1,716 Arabs; and 67 from other Eastern nations.
[59] The population of the island is 54,389. Of these, 110 are Europeans; 37,070 natives; 17,097 Chinese, and 56 Arabs.
[60] ‘Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London.’