DETECTION OF ARSENIC.
It is frequently required, in chemical jurisprudence, to institute a search for arsenic in the remains of a deceased person, whose death is supposed to have been caused by the reception of a poison. Under these circumstances the poison is mixed with a mass of substances which would obscure its characteristic properties, and it becomes necessary, in order to accomplish its identification, to isolate it, and then, by decisive reactions, determine its character. Three methods exist which permit of this result; they are:
1st. The method used prior to Marsh's test.
2nd. Marsh's test.
3rd. A method more recent than Marsh's, proposed by M. Raspail.
METHOD USED PRIOR TO MARSH'S TEST.
Fig. 3.
The materials supposed to contain arsenic are boiled in water which has been rendered strongly alkaline by the addition of pure potassa. The fluid is then filtered, an excess of hydrochloric acid added, and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen conducted through it. If arsenic be present in the suspected fluid, it is soon precipitated as a yellow sulphide. In dilute solutions the formation of the precipitate fails to take place immediately, and only a yellow coloration of the fluid is perceptible; upon slightly boiling the solution, however, the precipitation of the sulphide is soon induced. The precipitate is collected on a filter, well washed with boiling water, and then removed, if present in a quantity sufficient to admit of this operation. It is next dissolved in ammonia,[B] and the solution so obtained subsequently evaporated to dryness on a watch-glass. The residue of sulphide of arsenic is placed in a tube closed at one end containing nitrate of potassa in a state of fusion: it is decomposed by this treatment into a mixture of sulphate and arsenate of potassa, the reaction being completed in about fifteen minutes. The mixture is now dissolved in water, and lime water added to the solution: a precipitate of arsenate of lime is formed, which is separated from the fluid by filtration, dried, mixed with charcoal, and introduced into a second tube. A few pieces of charcoal are then placed in the tube adjoining the mixture and exposed to a red heat, the part of the tube containing the arsenical compound being also heated. By this operation the arsenic acid is reduced to arsenic, which is deposited upon the cold portion of the tube in the form of a metallic mirror. This mirror is then identified by subsequent reactions. The method just described is no longer in use, although the precipitation of the arsenic by sulphuretted hydrogen is still often resorted to in its separation from the other metals with which it may be mixed. The destruction of the organic substances is, however, accomplished by means of chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid. To insure the complete precipitation of the arsenic, it is advisable to conduct sulphuretted hydrogen through the solution, at a temperature of 70° for twelve hours, and then allow the fluid to remain in a moderately warm place, until the odor of the gas is no longer perceptible, the vessel being simply covered with a piece of paper. The precipitate is next freed from the other metals possibly present, as directed in the general method of analysis, collected on a filter, and dissolved in ammonia. The ammoniacal solution is evaporated on a watch crystal, as previously described, and the residuary sulphide reduced to metallic arsenic. This reduction is effected by a process somewhat different from the one previously mentioned: the residue is fused, in a current of carbonic acid gas, with a mixture of carbonate of soda and cyanide of potassium. The apparatus employed is represented in Fig. 3: a, is an apparatus producing a constant supply of carbonic acid. Upon opening Mohr's clamp, g, the gas passes into the flask h, which contains sulphuric acid; it is then conducted, by means of the tube i, into the reduction tube k, which has an interior diameter of 8 mm. This tube is represented, in half size, in Fig 4.
Fig. 4.
The reduction is performed as follows: The sulphide of arsenic is ground in a small mortar, previously warmed, together with 12 parts of a mixture consisting of 3 parts of carbonate of soda and 1 part of cyanide of potassium, both salts being perfectly dry. The powder thus obtained is placed upon a piece of paper rolled in the form of a gutter, and introduced into the reduction tube. The latter is then turned half round its axis, so as to cause the mixture to fall in de without soiling the other parts of the tube. The paper is now withdrawn and the apparatus mounted. Upon opening the clamp g, and strongly heating the mixture by either the flame of a gas or an alcohol lamp, a mirror-like ring of metallic arsenic is deposited at h, if this poison be present in the substances under examination. When the coating is too minute to permit of perfect identification, it should be driven by heat to a thinner part of the tube; in this way it is rendered easily visible, being condensed upon a smaller space.
The above process possesses the advantage of not allowing arsenic to be confounded with any other body; it also permits of a quantitative estimation of the poison present. For this purpose, it is only necessary to previously weigh the watch-crystal, upon which the ammoniacal solution of sulphide of arsenic was evaporated, and to determine its increased weight after the evaporation; the difference of the two weighings multiplied by 0.8049, gives the corresponding weight of arsenious acid, and by 0.6098, the weight of the corresponding amount of metallic arsenic.
MARSH'S TEST.
Marsh's test is based upon the reduction of arsenious and arsenic acids by nascent hydrogen, and the subsequent transformation of these bodies into water and arsenetted hydrogen, a compound from which the arsenic can be readily isolated. When pure hydrogen is generated in a flask having two openings, one of which is provided with a perforated cork through which a safety-tube passes, the other with a tube bent at a right angle and drawn out to a small point at the free extremity, the evolved gas, if ignited, burns with a pale non-luminous flame. The air should be completely expelled from the apparatus before igniting the gas. Upon bringing a cold porcelain saucer in contact with the point of the flame, only water is formed. If, however, a small quantity of a solution containing arsenious or arsenic acids is introduced into the apparatus by means of the safety-tube, arsenetted hydrogen is produced. This gas burns with a bright flame, yielding fumes of arsenious acid. In case a large amount of the poison is present, it can be recognized by the appearance of the flame, and by inclining a glass tube towards it upon which a portion of the arsenious acid becomes deposited. These indications are, however, not distinguishable in presence of only a small amount of arsenic, and the following distinctive properties of the gas should be verified:
1st. At an elevated temperature it is decomposed into its two constituent elements.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
2nd. The combustibility of the constituents differs: the arsenic being less combustible than the hydrogen, begins to burn only after the complete consumption of the latter body has taken place. For this reason the flame (Fig. 5) is composed of a dark portion O and a luminous portion I, which surrounds the first. The maximum temperature exists in O at the point of union of the two parts of the flame. Owing to an insufficient supply of oxygen, the complete combustion of the arsenic in this part of the flame is impossible, and if it be intersected by the cold surface A B, that body is deposited as a brown spot, possessing a metallic lustre. The metallic deposit originates, therefore, from the decomposition of the arsenetted hydrogen by heat and from its incomplete combustion. If the spot is not large, it fails to exhibit a metallic lustre; an experienced chemist, however, will be able to identify it by the aid of proper tests. Spots are sometimes obtained when the substance under examination does not contain the least trace of arsenic. These may be caused by antimony or by a portion of the zinc salt in the generating flask being carried over by the gaseous current. This difficulty is remedied by giving the apparatus the form represented in Fig. 6. A is the flask in which the gas is generated. The delivery-tube I connects with a second tube H, filled with asbestus or cotton; this is united by means of a cork with a third tube C, made of Bohemian glass. The latter tube is quite long, and terminates in a jet at its free end, enclosed in tin-foil;[C] it passes through the sheet-iron furnace R, supported upon G. The screen D protects the portion D E of the tube C from the heat. The gas disengaged is ignited at E and the porcelain dish P is held by the hand in contact with the flame. The apparatus being mounted, zinc, water and some sulphuric acid are placed in the generating flask,[D] and the solution containing arsenious acid added: the evolution of gas commences immediately. The tube H serves to retain any liquids that may be held suspended. The gas then passes through the part C D of the tube C, which is heated by placing a few live coals upon the furnace R. The greater portion of the arsenetted hydrogen is decomposed here, and is deposited on the cold part of the tube, in a mirror-like ring. The small quantity of gas that escapes decomposition, if ignited at E, produces a metallic spot on the dish P. In order to determine that the spots are due to the presence of arsenic, and not produced by antimony, the following tests should be applied:
1. The color of the spots is distinctive: arsenical spots are brown and exhibit a metallic lustre, whereas those originating from antimony possess a black color, especially near their border. This difference is, however, not perceptible when the deposits have a large surface.
2. If the mirror be arsenical, it is readily volatilized from one part of the tube to another, when the latter is heated, and a current of hydrogen, or carbonic acid gas made to pass through it. Spots that are due to the presence of antimony are much less volatile.
3. If the tube is held in an inclined position so that a current of air traverses it, and the part containing the arsenical mirror heated, the arsenic oxidizes and arsenious acid is sublimed and deposited higher up in the tube in the form of a ring, which exhibits octahedral crystals when examined with a magnifying glass. This ring should be further tested as follows:
a. If it is dissolved in a drop of hydrochloric acid and a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen added, a yellow precipitate of sulphide of arsenic is formed. This compound is soluble in ammonia and in alkaline sulphides, but insoluble in hydrochloric acid.
b. If the ring is dissolved in pure water and an ammoniacal solution of sulphate of copper added, a beautiful green precipitate ("Scheele's green"), consisting of arsenite of copper, is produced.
4. When produced by arsenic the spots are soluble in nitric acid, and upon evaporating the solution so obtained to dryness, a residue of arsenic acid, which is easily soluble in water, remains. If an ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver is added to the aqueous solution of the residue, a brick-red precipitate is produced. Spots consisting of antimony give, when treated with nitric acid, a residue of an intermediate oxide, insoluble in water.
5. Upon treating the spots with a drop of solution of sulphide of ammonium, the sulphide of the metal present is formed: if sulphide of arsenic is produced its properties, as enumerated above, can be recognized. It may be added that the sulphide of antimony formed is soluble in hydrochloric acid, and possesses an orange red color, whereas sulphide of arsenic is yellow.
6. When spots originating from arsenic are treated with a solution of hypochlorite of soda (prepared by passing chlorine into solution of carbonate of soda), they are immediately dissolved; if, on the other hand, they are produced by antimony, they remain unaltered by this treatment.
Such are the properties exhibited by soluble compounds of arsenic when treated by Marsh's process; the following precautions are, however, necessary when this test is made use of in medico-legal examinations.
1. If small white gritty particles, resembling arsenious acid, are discovered in the stomach or intestines, they are directly introduced into Marsh's apparatus. When this is not the case, the destruction of the organic matter is indispensable even though, instead of the organs themselves, the contents of the alimentary canal are taken. In the latter instance, the solids are separated from the fluids present by filtration, the solution evaporated to dryness and the residue united with the solid portion; the organic matter is then destroyed by one of the methods previously described. In the special case of arsenic, the separation of the poison from the accompanying organic materials can be accomplished by a process not yet mentioned which may prove to be of service. The suspected substances are distilled with common salt and concentrated sulphuric acid. By this operation the arsenic is converted into a volatile chloride which distils over. The poison is isolated by treating this compound with water, by which it is decomposed into hydrochloric and arsenious acids. We must give preference, however, to the method by means of chlorate of potassa and hydrochloric acid.
2. The solution having been obtained in a condition suitable for examination, the air is completely expelled from the apparatus by allowing the gas to evolve for some time, and the suspected fluid then introduced into the generating flask. Danger of explosion would be incurred were the gas ignited when mixed with air.[E]
3. It is indispensable, in applying this test, to have a second apparatus in which only the reagents necessary to generate hydrogen are placed: in this way, if no spots are now produced by the use of the second apparatus, it is certain that those obtained when the first apparatus is employed do not originate from impurities present in the reagents used.
It has come under the author's observation, however, that a sheet of zinc sometimes contains arsenic in one part and not in another; in fact, the shavings of this metal, as purchased for laboratory use, are often taken from lots previously collected, and may therefore have been prepared from several different sheets. If this be the case, it is supposable that the zinc used in the second apparatus may be free from arsenic, whereas the metal with which the suspected solution is brought in contact may contain this poison; serious danger would then exist of finding indications of the presence of arsenic in materials that did not originally contain a trace of the metal. In order to obviate this important objection, which might possibly place a human life in jeopardy, we propose the following modifications: Pure mercury is distilled and its absolute purity established. As the metal is a fluid and is therefore homogeneous, it is evident if one portion be found pure, the entire mass is so. Sodium is then fused under oil of naphtha, in order to cause the complete admixture of its particles, and the purity of the fused metal in regard to arsenic tested. An amalgam is next prepared by uniting the mercury and sodium. This is eminently adapted to toxicological investigations: in order to generate a supply of very pure hydrogen, it is only necessary to place the amalgam in water kept slightly acid by the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid, by means of which the disengagement of gas is rendered more energetic.[F]
It should be borne in mind that the solution introduced into Marsh's apparatus must not contain organic substances, and that, in case their destruction has been accomplished by means of nitric acid all traces of this compound are to be removed. The sulphuric acid used should also be completely freed from nitrous vapors. According to M. Blondeau, nascent hydrogen in the presence of nitrous compounds converts the acids of arsenic not into arsenetted hydrogen (As H3), but into the solid arsenide of hydrogen (As4 H2). This latter compound, upon which pure nascent hydrogen has no effect, is transformed into gaseous arsenetted hydrogen by the simultaneous action of nascent hydrogen and organic substances. These facts are of the greatest importance, for they might possibly cause a loss of arsenic when it is present, as well as determine its discovery when it is absent.
The first case is supposable: should traces of nitric acid remain in the solution, the arsenic would be transformed into solid arsenide of hydrogen and its detection rendered impossible. The second case may also occur: if the zinc placed in the apparatus contains arsenic, and the sulphuric acid used contains nitrous compounds, the evolved gas will fail to exhibit any evidence of the presence of arsenic, owing to the formation of the solid arsenide of hydrogen. Upon adding the suspected solution, which, perchance, may still contain organic substances, this arsenide is converted into arsenetted hydrogen, and the presence of arsenic will be detected, although the solution under examination was originally free from this metal.
RASPAIL'S METHOD.
M. Raspail suggests the following method for detecting arsenic: The surface of a brass plate is rasped by filing. In this condition the plate may be regarded as an innumerable quantity of voltaic elements, formed by the juxtaposition of the molecules of zinc and copper. The suspected materials are boiled with caustic potassa, the solution filtered, a drop of the filtrate placed upon the brass plate, and a drop of chlorine water added. If the plate is then allowed to stand for a moment and the substance under examination contains arsenic, a mirror-like spot is soon deposited upon its surface. In order to avoid confounding this deposit with those produced by other metals, the substitution of granulated brass for the plate is in some cases advisable. The granulated metal is dipped successively in the suspected solution and in chlorine water. The granules retain a small quantity of the solutions and, owing to the action of the chlorine water, become covered with metallic spots, if arsenic be present. They are then dried, placed in a tube closed at one end, and exposed to the heat of an alcohol lamp. In case the spots are arsenical, the metal volatilizes and condenses in a ring upon the cold part of the tube, which is submitted to the tests previously described.
This method can hardly be of great service, inasmuch as it extracts the poison from but a very small portion of the solution containing it: we have not, however, personally tested its merits.[G]