BACTERIAL EXAMINATION OF WATERS.
Every large filter-plant should have arrangements for the systematic bacterial examination of the water before and after filtration, especially where the raw water is subject to serious pollution. Such examinations need not be excessively expensive, and they will not only show the efficiency of the plant as a whole, but may be made to show the relative efficiencies of the separate filters, the relative efficiencies at different parts of the periods of operation, the effect of cold weather, etc., and will then be a substantial aid to the superintendent in always securing good effluents at the minimum cost.
In addition a complete record of the bacteria in the water at different times may aid in determining definitely whether the water was connected with outbreaks of disease. Thus if an outbreak of disease of any kind were preceded at a certain interval by a great increase in the number of bacteria,—as has been the case, for example, with the typhoid epidemics at Altona and Berlin (see Appendices II and VII),—a presumption would arise that they might have been connected with each other, and each time it was repeated the presumption would be strengthened, while, on the other hand, outbreaks occurring while the bacteria remained constantly low would tend to discredit such a theory.
Bacterial investigations inaugurated after an epidemic is recognized, as has frequently been done, seldom lead to results of value, both because the local normal bacterial conditions are generally unknown at the commencement of the investigation, and because the most important time, the time of infection, is already long past before the first samples are taken. The fact that such sporadic activities have led to few definite results should throw no discredit upon continued observations, which have repeatedly proved of inestimable value.
Considerable misconception of the use of bacterial examinations exists. The simple bacterial count ordinarily used, and of which I am now speaking, does not and cannot show whether a water contains disease-germs or not. I object to the Chicago water, not so much because a glass of it contains a hundred thousand bacteria more or less, as because I am convinced, by a study of its source in connection with the city’s death-rate, that it actually carries disease-germs which prove injurious to thousands of those who drink it. Now the fact being admitted that the water is injurious to health, variations in the numbers of bacteria in the water drawn from different intakes and at different times probably correspond roughly with varying proportions of fresh sewage, and indicate roughly the relative dangers from the use of the respective waters. If filters should be introduced, the numbers of bacteria in the effluents under various conditions would be an index of the respective efficiencies of filtration, and would serve to detect poor work, and would probably suggest the measures necessary for better results.
I would suggest the desirability of such investigations where mechanical filters are used, quite as much as in connection with slow filtration; and it would also be most desirable in the case of many water-supplies which are not filtered at all. Such continued observations have been made at Berlin since 1884; at London since 1886; at Boston and Lawrence since 1888; and recently at a large number of places, including Chicago, where observations by the city were commenced in 1894. They are now required by the German Government in the case of all filtered public water-supplies in Germany, without regard to the source of the raw water. The German standard requires that the effluent from each single filter, as well as the mixed effluent and raw water, shall be examined daily, making at some works 10 to 30 samples daily. This amount of work, however, can usually be done by a single man; and when a laboratory is once started, the cost of examining 20 samples a day will not be much greater than if only 20 a week are taken. In England and at some of the Continental works drawing their waters from but slightly polluted sources, much smaller numbers of samples are examined.
The question whether the examinations should be made under the direction of the water-works company or department, or by an independent body—as, for instance, by the Board of Health—will depend upon local conditions. The former arrangement gives the superintendent of the filters the best chance to study their action, as he can himself control the collection of samples in connection with the operation of the filters, and arrange them to throw light upon the points he wishes to investigate; while examination by a separate authority affords perhaps greater protection against the possible carelessness or dishonesty of water-works officials. An arrangement being adopted in many cases in Germany is to have a bacterial laboratory at the works which is under the control of the superintendent, and in which the very numerous compulsory observations are made, while the Board of Health causes to be examined from time to time by its own representatives, who have no connection with the water-works, samples taken to check the water-works figures, as well as to show the character of the water delivered.
It seems quite desirable to have a man whose principal business is to make these examinations; as in case he also has numerous other duties, the examinations may be found to have been neglected at some time when they are most wanted. Such a man should have had thorough training in the principles of bacterial manipulation, but it is quite unnecessary that he should be an expert bacteriologist, especially if a competent bacteriologist is retained for consultation in cases of doubt or difficulty.
CHAPTER VII.
INTERMITTENT FILTRATION.
By intermittent nitration is understood that filtration in which the filtering material is systematically and adequately ventilated, and where the water during the course of filtration is brought in contact with air in the pores of the sand. In continuous filtration, which alone has been previously considered, the air is driven out of the sand as completely as possible before the commencement of filtration, and the sand is kept continuously covered with water until the sand becomes clogged and a draining, with an incidental aeration, is necessary to allow the filter to be scraped and again put in service.
In intermittent filtration, on the other hand, water is taken over the top of the drained sand and settles into it, coming in contact with the air in the pores of the sand, and passes freely through to the bottom when the water-level is kept well down. After a limited time the application of water is stopped, and the filter is allowed to again drain and become thoroughly aerated preparatory to receiving another dose of water.
This system of treating water was suggested by the unequalled purification of sewage effected by a similar treatment. It has been investigated at the Lawrence Experiment Station, and applied to the construction of a filter for the city of Lawrence, both of which are due to the indefatigable energy of Hiram F. Mills, C.E.
In its operation intermittent differs from continuous filtration in that the straining action is less perfect, because the filters yield no water while being aerated, and must therefore filter at a greater velocity when in use to yield the same quantity of water in a given time, and also on account of the mechanical disturbance which is almost invariably caused by the application of the water; but, on the other hand, the oxidizing powers of the filter, or the tendency to nitrify and destroy the organic matters, are stronger, and in addition, if the rate is not too high, the bacteria die more rapidly in the thoroughly aerated sand than is the case with ordinary filters.
It was found at Lawrence in connection with sewage filters that when nitrification was actively taking place the numbers of bacteria were much lower than under opposite conditions, and it was thought that nitrification in itself might cause the death of the bacteria. Later experiments, however, with pure cultures of bacteria of various kinds applied to intermittent filters with water to which ammonia and salts suitable for nitrification were added, showed that bacteria of all the species tried were able to pass the filter in the presence of nitrification, producing at least one thousand times as much nitrates as could result in any case of water-filtration, as freely as was the case when the ammonia was not added and there was but little nitrification. These results showed conclusively that nitrification in itself is not an important factor in bacterial removal, although nitrification and bacterial purification do to some extent go together; perhaps in part because the nitrification destroys the food of the bacteria and so starves them out, but probably much more because the conditions of aeration, temperature, etc., which favor nitrification also favor equally, and even in its absence, the death of the bacteria.
The rate at which water must pass through an intermittent filter is, on account of the intervals of rest, considerably greater than that required to give a corresponding total yield from a continuous filter, and its straining effect is reduced to an extent comparable to this increase in rate; and if other conditions did not come in, the bacterial efficiency of an intermittent filter would remain below that of a continuous one.
As a matter of fact the bacterial efficiency has usually been found to be less with intermittent filters at the Lawrence Experiment Station, when they have been run at rates such as are commonly used for continuous filters in Europe, say from one and one half to two million gallons and upwards per acre daily. With lower rates, and especially with rather fine materials, the bacterial efficiency is much greater; but it may be doubted whether it would ever be greater than that of a continuous filter with the same filtering material and the same total yield per acre. The number of bacteria coming from the underdrains is apparently generally less, and with very high summer temperatures much less, than in continuous filters, and this often gives an apparent bacterial superiority to the intermittent filters.
The effluents from intermittent often contain less slightly organic matter than those from continuous filters; but, on the other hand, hardly any water proposed for a public water-supply has organic matter enough to be of any sanitary significance whatever, apart from the living bodies which often accompany it; and if the latter are removed by straining or otherwise, we can safely disregard the organic matters. In addition, the water filtered will in a great majority of cases have enough air dissolved in itself to produce whatever oxidation there is time for in the few hours required for it to pass the filter, and it is only at very low rates of filtration that intermittent filters produce effluents of greater chemical purity than by the ordinary process. The yellow-brown coloring matter present in so many waters appears to be quite incapable of rapid nitrification; and where it is to some extent removed by filtration, the action is dependent upon other and but imperfectly understood causes which seem to act equally in continuous and intermittent filters.
The peculiarities of construction involved by this method of filtration will be best illustrated by a discussion of the Lawrence city filter designed by Hiram F. Mills, C.E., which is the only filter in existence upon this plan.[30]