+DEFINITIONS+.

+Comparison is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.+ [Footnote: Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison.]

+The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality.+

+The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality.

+The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.

+RULE.—Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative+.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

+RULE I.—Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, fine, finer; love, loving.

+Exceptions.+—The e is retained (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a or o; as, peaceable, changeable; (2) after o; as, hoeing; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word; as, singeing, dyeing.

+RULE II.—-Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix net beginning with i; as,+ witty, wittier; dry, dried.

Exceptions.—-Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, lady's, the Marys, the Henrys.

+RULE III.—In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, hot, hotter; begin, beginning.

Exceptions.—X, k, and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plural.

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most. This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one.

+Remark+.—More beautiful, most beautiful, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections er and est are added.

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and least[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon superlative ending +st+ is in most and least; and the Saxon comparative ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in less—changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the r in more.

When it was forgotten that less is a comparative, er was added, and we have the double comparative lesser—in use to-day.

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, worser, most boldest. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times.]; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees.

Direction.—From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain:—

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above.

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior.

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred.

+Direction+.—Correct the following:—

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest.

Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding er and est, and some by prefixing more and most.

+Direction+.—Compare the following:—

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison.

+Direction+.—Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs:—

Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

Pos. Comp. Superlative. (Aft),* after, aftmost or aftermost. Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst. Ill | Far, farther, fartherest or fathermost Fore, former, foremost or first. (Forth), further, furtherest or furthermost. Good, better, best. Hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost. (In), inner, inmost or innermost. Late, later or latest or latter last. Little,+ less or least. lesser, Many or more, most. Much, Near, nearer nearest or next. Old, older or oldest or elder, eldest. (Out), outer or outmost or utter, outermost; utmost or uttermost. Under, ——, undermost. (Up), upper, upmost or uppermost. Top, ——, topmost.

[Footnote *: The words inclosed in curves are adverbs—the adjectives following having no positive form.]

[Footnote +: For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, smaller and smallest are substituted; as, little boy, smaller boy, smallest boy.]

Adverbs Irregularly Compared.

Pos. Comp. Superlative.

Badly,| worse, worst.
Ill, |
Far, farther, farthest,
Forth, further, furthest.
Little, less, least,
Much, more, most.
Well, better, best.

TO THE TEACHER.—We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs.

Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from
Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65.

Model for Written Parsing.—All the dewy glades are still.

CLASSIFICATION. | MODIFICATION. |SYNTAX —————————-|———————-|————————————————— Adjectives.| Kind. | Deg. of Comp. | All | Def. | ——— | Modifier of glades. the | " | ——— | " " " dewy | Des. | Pos. | " " " still | " | " | Completes are and modifies glades.

* * * * *

LESSON 128.

CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.

+Caution+.—In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself. [Footnote: A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different conditions; as, The star is brighter to-night; The grass is greener to-day.]

+Remark+.—The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally followed by than. [Footnote: The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together as, He is no better than other men; It contains more than all the others combined.]

+Direction+.—Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:—

1. London is larger than any city in Europe.

+Correction+.—The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, London is larger than any other city in Europe, or, London is the largest city in Europe.

2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4. There is no metal so useful as iron.

(A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.)

5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion.

+Caution+.—In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison, or the term introduced by of, include the former.

+Remarks+.—The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by of.

Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things; as, This is the best of the two. But in such cases usage largely favors the comparative; as, This is the better of the two.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution and the Remarks, and correct these errors:—

1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings.

+Correction+.—Of (= belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging to a group of kings, and other excludes him from this group—a contradiction in terms. It should be, Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew kings, or Solomon was wiser than any other Hebrew king.

2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satisfactory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inexcusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions.

(He was not one of his own companions.)

5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6. John is the oldest of any boy in his class.

+Caution+.—Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different degrees.[Footnote: Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers; as, My chiefest entertainment.—Sheridan. The chiefest prize.—Byron. Divinest Melan- choly.—Milton. Extremest hell.—Whittier. Most perfect harmony—Longfellow. Less perfect imitations.—Macaulay. The extension of these exceptional forms should not be encouraged.]

+Direction+.—Correct these errors:—

1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more perpendicular.

+Correction+.—Draw that line perpendicular, or more nearly perpendicular.

4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That form of expression is more preferable.

+Caution+.—When an adjective denoting one, or an adjective denoting more than one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number.

+Remark+.—A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular noun to form a compound adjective; as, a ten-foot pole (not a ten-feet pole), a three-cent stamp.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors:—

1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fifteen foot square; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs.

Miscellaneous.

1. He was more active than any other of his companions.

+Correction+.—As he is not one of his companions, other is unnecessary.

2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier.

(This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the second
Remark in this Lesson.)

4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was willing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the most entire confidence in him. 9. This is the more preferable form. 10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America? 11. He writes better than any boy in his class.

GENERAL REVIEW.

TO THE TEACHER.—See suggestions to the teacher, page 255.

Scheme for the Adjective.

(The numbers refer to Lessons.)

ADJECTIVE.
Uses.
Modifier (12).
Attribute Complement (29, 30).
Objective Complement (31).
Classes.
Descriptive (89-91).
Definitive (89-91).
Modification.—Comparison.
Pos. Deg. |
Comp. " + 127, 128.
Sup. " |

Questions on the Adjective.

1. Define the adjective and its classes.—Lesson 89.

2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison.—Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison.—Lesson 127.

4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adjectives.—Lessons 90, 91.

5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of comparative and superlative forms.—Lesson 128.

Scheme for the Adverb.

Questions on the Adverb.

1. Define the adverb and its classes.—Lesson 92.

2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. —Lesson 127.

3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of adverbs. —Lesson 93.

* * * * *

LESSON 129.

MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB.

VOICE.

+Introductory Hints+.—He picked a rose. A rose was picked by him. The same thing is here told in two ways. The first verb, picked, shows that the subject names the actor; the second verb, was picked, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different forms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called +Voice+. The first form is in the +Active Voice+; the second is in the +Passive Voice+.

The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is unknown, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent; as, The ship was wrecked; Money is coined.