Higher Lessons in English: A work on English grammar and composition

by Alonzo Reed; Brainerd Kellogg

DEFINITIONS.

+A Noun is the name of anything+. [Footnote: Most common nouns are derived from roots that denote qualities. The root does not necessarily denote the most essential quality of the thing, only its most obtrusive quality. The sky, a shower, and scum, for instance, have this most noticeable feature; they are a cover, they hide, conceal. This the root +sku+ signifies, and sku is the main element in the words sky, shower (Saxon scu:r), and scum that name these objects, and in the adjective obscure.

A noun denoting at first only a single quality of its object comes gradually, by the association of this quality with the rest, to denote them all.

Herein proper nouns differ from common. However derived, as Smith is from the man's office of smoothing, or White from his color, the name soon ceases to denote quality, and becomes really meaningless.]

+A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual+.

+Remark+.—It may be well to note two classes of common nouns—collective and abstract. A +Collective Noun+ is the name of a number of things taken together; as, army, flock, mob, jury. An +Abstract Noun+ is the name of a quality, an action, a being, or a state; as, whiteness, beauty, wisdom, (the) singing, existence, (the) sleep.

+A Pronoun is a word used for a noun+. [Footnote: In our definition and general treatment of the pronoun, we have conformed to the traditional views of grammarians; but it may be well for the student to note that pronouns are something more than mere substitutes for nouns, and that their primary function is not to prevent the repetition of nouns.

1. Pronouns are not the names of things. They do not, like nouns, lay hold of qualities and name things by them. They seize upon relations that objects sustain to each other and denote the objects by these relations. I, you, and he denote their objects by the relations these objects sustain to the act of speaking; I denotes the speaker; you, the one spoken to; and he or she or it, the one spoken of. This and that denote their objects by the relative distance of these from the speaker; some and few and others indicate parts separated from the rest. Gestures could express all that many pronouns express.

2. It follows that pronouns are more general than nouns. Any person, or even an animal or a thing personified, may use I when referring to himself, you when referring to the one addressed, and he, she, it, and they when referring to the person or persons, the thing or things, spoken of—and all creatures and things, except the speaker and the one spoken to, fall into the last list. Some pronouns are so general, and hence so vague, in their denotement that they show the speaker's complete ignorance of the objects they denote. In, Who did it? Which of them did you see? the questioner is trying to find out the one for whom Who stands, and the person or thing that Which denotes. To what does it refer in, it rains; How is it with you?

3. Some pronouns stand for a phrase, a clause, or a sentence, going before or coming after. To be or not to be—that is the question. It is doubtful whether the North Pole will ever be reached. The sails turned, the corn was ground, after which the wind ceased. Ought you to go? I cannot answer that. In the first of these sentences, that stands for a phrase; in the last, for a sentence. It and which in the second and third sentences stand for clauses.

4. Which, retaining its office as connective, may as an adjective accompany its noun; as, I craved his forbearance a little longer, which forbearance he allowed me.]

+A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words and connects clauses+.

+An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked+.

+An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.

The simple personal pronouns are:—I, thou, you, he, she, and it.

The compound personal pronouns are:—Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, and itself.

The simple relative pronouns are:—Who, which, that, and what. [Footnote: As, in such sentences as this: Give such things as you can spare, may be treated as a relative pronoun. But by expanding the sentence as is seen to be a conjunctive adverb—Give such things as those are which you can spare.

But used after a negative is sometimes called a "negative relative" = that not; as, There is not a man here but would die for such a cause. When the sentence is expanded, but is found to be a preposition—There is not a man here but (= except) the one who would die, etc.]

The compound relative pronouns are:—

Whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, whatever or whatsoever.

The interrogative pronouns are:—

Who, which, and what.

Some of the more common adjective pronouns are:—

All, another, any, both, each, either, enough, few, former, latter, little, many, much, neither, none, one, other, same, several, such, that, these, this, those, whole, etc. [Footnote: The adjective pronouns this, that, these, and those are called +Demonstrative+ pronouns. All, any, both, each, either, many, one, other, etc. are called +Indefinite+ pronouns because they do not point out and particularize like the demonstratives. Each, either, and neither are also called +Distributives+.

But for the fact that such words as brave, good, etc. in the phrases the brave, the good, etc. describe—which pronouns never do—we might call them adjective pronouns. They may be treated as nouns, or as adjectives modifying nouns to be supplied.

Some adjectives preceded by the are abstract nouns; as, the grand, the sublime, the beautiful.]

The word, phrase, or clause in the place of which a pronoun is used is called an +Antecedent+.

+Direction+.—Point out the pronouns and their antecedents in these sentences:—

Jack was rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him. To lie is cowardly, and every boy should know it. Daniel and his companions were fed on pulse, which was to their advantage. To lie is to be a coward, which one should scorn to be. To sleep soundly, which is a blessing, is to repair and renew the body.

+Remark+.—When the interrogatives who, which, and what introduce indirect questions, it is not always easy to distinguish them from relatives whose antecedents are omitted. For example—I found who called and what he wanted; I saw what was done. The first sentence does not mean, I found the person who called and the thing that he wanted. "Who called" and "what he wanted" here suggest questions—questions referred to but not directly asked. I saw what was done = I saw the thing that was done. No question is suggested.

It should be remembered that which and what may also be interrogative adjectives; as, Which side won? What news have you?

+Direction+.—Analyze these sentences, and parse all the pronouns:—

1. Who steals my purse steals trash. 2. I myself know who stole my purse. 3. They knew whose house was robbed. 4. He heard what was said. 5. You have guessed which belongs to me. 6. Whom the gods would destroy they first make mad. 7. What was said, and who said it? 8. It is not known to whom the honor belongs. 9. She saw one of them, but she cannot positively tell which. 10. Whatever is done must be done quickly.

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LESSON 86.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS.

TO THE TEACHER.—In the recitation of all Lessons containing errors for correction, the pupils' books should be closed, and the examples should be read by you. To insure care in preparation, and close attention in the class, read some of the examples in their correct form. Require specific reasons.

+Caution+.—Avoid he, it, they, or any other pronoun when its reference to an antecedent would not be clear. Repeat the noun instead, quote the speaker's exact words, or recast the sentence.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and relieve these sentences of their ambiguity:—

+Model+.—The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave him, he would die = The lad cannot leave his father; for, if he should leave his father, his father would die. Lysias promised his father never to abandon his friends = Lysias gave his father this promise: "I will never abandon your (or my) friends."

1. Dr. Prideaux says that, when he took his commentary to the bookseller,
he told him it was a dry subject.
2. He said to his friend that, if he did not feel better soon, he thought
he had better go home.

(This sentence may have four meanings. Give them all, using what you may suppose were the speaker's words.)

3. A tried to see B in the crowd, but could not because he was so short. 4. Charles's duplicity was fully made known to Cromwell by a letter of his to his wife, which he intercepted. 5. The farmer told the lawyer that his bull had gored his ox, and that it was but fair that he should pay him for his loss.

+Caution+.—Do not use pronouns needlessly.

+Direction+.—Write, these sentences, omitting needless pronouns:—

1. It isn't true what he said. 2. The father he died, the mother she followed, and the children they were taken sick. 3. The cat it mewed, and the dogs they barked, and the man he shouted. 4. Let every one turn from his or her evil ways. 5. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave himself up to the English.

+Caution+.—In addressing a person, do not, in the same sentence, use the two styles of the pronoun.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. Thou art sad, have you heard bad news? 2. You cannot always have thy way. 3. Bestow thou upon us your blessing. 4. Love thyself last, and others will love you.

+Caution+.—The pronoun them should not be used for the adjective those, nor the pronoun what for the conjunction that. [Footnote: What properly introduces a noun clause expressing a direct or an indirect question, but a declarative noun clause is introduced by the conjunction that. But may be placed before this conjunction to give a negative force to the noun clause.

This use of but requires careful discrimination. For example—"I have no fear that he will do it"; "I have no fear but that he will do it." The former indicates certainty that he will not do it, and the latter certainty that he will do it. "No one doubts but that he will do it" is incorrect, for it contains three negatives—no, doubts, and but. Two negatives may be used to affirm, but not three. The intended meaning is, "No one doubts that he will do it," or "No one believes but that he will do it," or "Every one believes that he will do it."

But what, for but that or but, is also incorrectly used to connect an adverb clause; as, "He is not so bad but what he might be worse." For this office of but or but that in an adverb clause, see Lesson 109, fourth "Example" of the uses of but.]

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. Hand me them things. 2. Who knows but what we may fail? 3. I cannot believe but what I shall see them men again. 4. We ought to have a great regard for them that are wise and good.

+Caution+.—The relative who should always represent persons; which, brute animals and inanimate things; that, persons, animals, and things; and what, things. The antecedent of what should not be expressed.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. Those which say so are mistaken. 2. He has some friends which I know. 3. He told that what he knew. 4. The dog who was called Fido went mad. 5. The lion whom they were exhibiting broke loose. 6. All what he saw he described. 7. The horse whom Alexander rode was named Bucephalus.

+Direction+.—Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions.

LESSON 87.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS—CONTINUED.

+Caution+.—Several connected relative clauses relating to the same antecedent require the same relative pronoun.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. It was Joseph that was sold into Egypt, who became governor of the land, and which saved his father and brothers from famine. 2. He who lives, that moves, and who has his being in God should not forget him. 3. This is the horse which started first, and that reached the stand last. 4. The man that fell overboard, and who was drowned was the first mate.

+Caution+.—When the relative clause is not restrictive, [Footnote: See
Lesson 61.] who or which, and not that, is generally used.

+Example+.—Water, which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen, covers three-fourths of the earth's surface.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air, that is a compound of oxygen. and nitrogen. 2. Longfellow, that is the most popular American poet, has written beautiful prose. 3. Time, that is a precious gift, should not be wasted. 4. Man, that is born of woman, is of few days and full of trouble.

+Caution+.—The relative that [Footnote: That is almost always restrictive. However desirable it may seem to confine who and which to unrestrictive clauses, they are not confined to them in actual practice.

The wide use of who and which in restrictive clauses is not accounted for by saying that they occur after this, these, those, and that, and hence are used to avoid disagreeable repetitions of sounds. This may frequently be the reason for employing who and which in restrictive clauses; but usage authorizes us to affirm (1) that who and which stand in such clauses oftener without, than with, this, these, those, or that preceding them, and (2) that they so stand oftener than that itself does. Especially may this be said of which.] should be used instead of who or which (1) when the antecedent names both persons and things; (2) when that would prevent ambiguity; and (3) when it would sound better than who or which, e. g., after that, same, very, all, the interrogative who, the indefinite it, and adjectives expressing quality in the highest degree.

+Example+.—He lived near a pond that was a nuisance. (That relates to pond—the pond was a nuisance. Which might have, for its antecedent, pond, or the whole clause He lived near a pond; and so its use here would be ambiguous.)

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. The wisest men who ever lived made mistakes. 2. The chief material which is used now in building is brick. 3. Who who saw him did not pity him? 4. He is the very man whom we want. 5. He is the same who he has ever been. 6. He sent his boy to a school which did him good. 7. All who knew him respected him. 8. It was not I who did it. 9. That man that you just met is my friend.

+Caution+.—The relative clause should be placed as near as possible to the word which it modifies.

+Direction+.—Correct these errors:—

1. The pupil will receive a reward from his teacher who is diligent. 2. Her hair hung in ringlets, which was dark and glossy. 3. A dog was found in the street that wore a brass collar. 4. A purse was picked up by a boy that was made of leather. 5. Claudius was canonized among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of man. 6. He should not keep a horse that cannot ride.

+Caution+.—When this and that, these and those, the one and the other refer to things previously mentioned, this and these refer to the last mentioned, and that and those to the first mentioned; the one refers to the first mentioned, and the other to the last mentioned. When there is danger of obscurity, repeat the nouns.

+Examples+.—High and tall are synonyms: this may be used in speaking of what grows—a tree; that, in speaking of what does not grow—a mountain. Homer was a genius; Virgil, an artist: in the one we most admire the man; in the other, the work.

+Direction+.—Study the Caution, and correct these errors:—

1. Talent speaks learnedly at the bar; tact, triumphantly: this is
complimented by the bench; that gets the fees.
2. Charles XII. and Peter the Great were sovereigns: the one was loved by
his people; the other was hated.
3. The selfish and the benevolent are found in every community; these are
shunned, while those are sought after.

+Direction+.—Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these five Cautions.

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LESSON 88.

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS—CONTINUED.

Miscellaneous Errors.

+Direction+.—Give the Cautions which these sentences violate, and correct the errors:—

1. He who does all which he can does enough. 2. John's father died before he was born. 3. Whales are the largest animals which swim. 4. Boys who study hard, and that study wisely make progress. 5. There are miners that live below ground, and who seldom see the light. 6. He did that what was right. 7. General Lee, that served under Washington, had been a British officer. 8. A man should sit down and count the cost who is about to build a house. 9. They need no spectacles that are blind. 10. They buy no books who are not able to read. 11. Cotton, that is a plant, is woven into cloth. 12. Do you know that gentleman that is speaking? 13. There is no book which, when we look through it sharply, we cannot find mistakes in it. 14. The reporter which said that was deceived. 15. The diamond, that is pure carbon, is a brilliant gem. 16. The brakemen and the cattle which were on the train were killed. 17. Reputation and character do not mean the same thing: the one denotes what we are; the other, what we are thought to be. 18. Kosciusko having come to this country, he aided us in our Revolutionary struggle. 19. What pleased me much, and which was spoken of by others, was the general appearance of the class. 20. There are many boys whose fathers and mothers died when they were infants. 21. Witness said that his wife's father came to his house, and he ordered him out, but he refused to go. 22. Shall you be able to sell them boots? 23. I don't know but what I may. 24. Beer and wine are favorite drinks abroad: the one is made from grapes; the other, from barley. 25. There is one marked difference between shiners and trout; these have scales, and those have not. 26. They know little of men, who reason thus. 27. Help thyself, and Heaven will help you.

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LESSON 89.

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.

+Introductory Hints+.—You learned in Lesson 12 that, in the sentences Ripe apples are healthful, Unripe apples are hurtful, the adjectives ripe and unripe limit, or narrow, the application of apples by describing, or by expressing certain qualities of the fruit. You learned also that the, this, an, no, some, and many limit, or narrow, the application of any noun which they modify, as apple or apples, by pointing out the particular fruit, by numbering it, or by denoting the quantity of it.

Adjectives which limit by expressing quality are called +Descriptive Adjectives+; and those which limit by pointing out, numbering, or denoting quantity are called +Definitive Adjectives+.

Adjectives modifying a noun do not limit, or narrow, its application (1) when they denote qualities that always belong to the thing named; as, yellow gold, the good God, the blue sky; or (2) when they are attribute complements, denoting qualities asserted by the verb; as, The fields were green; The ground was dry and hard.