Personal hygiene and physical training for women

by Anna M. Galbraith

EXERCISES FOR DEVELOPING THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE BODY

The following list of free exercises has been selected primarily for developing the lungs and chest and correcting deformities, such as round shoulders, stooping attitude, and beginning spinal curvature, when due only to muscular weakness and faulty attitude in standing, sitting, and walking.

Fig. 28.—Correct attitude in standing.

Fig. 30.—Correct attitude in walking. First position.

Fig. 31.—Correct attitude in walking. Second position.

Fig. 32.—Shoulder-blade exercise. First position.

Fig. 33.—Shoulder-blade exercise. Second position.

While each exercise calls into play many other muscles than the ones for whose development the exercise is given, the exercise is classed under the group for the region which it is especially designed to benefit.

Shoulder-blade Exercises (Fig. [32]).—First Position.—Stand erect, with the feet nearly together, and the palms of the hands brought together above the head in the manner shown in the figure.

Second Position (Fig. [33]).—Throw hands and forearms backward, keeping the arms on a line with the shoulders, the elbows bent, and turn the palms forward, as represented in the second position of the figure. Return to the first position, and repeat ten times. These exercises strengthen particularly the muscles between the shoulder-blades, whose function it is to hold the shoulders back.

The first point in taking each exercise is to learn the correct attitude before a mirror; after this has been mastered, the exercises should be taken with a considerable amount of rapidity and force, but not so forcibly that the collar-bone projects at its junction with the breast-bone. In throwing the hands and forearms back, the force of the motion should come at the elbows, not at the hands, and the shoulders should be carried as far back as possible.

Shoulder-blade Exercises, Number 2 (Fig. [34]).—Stand erect, with the feet nearly together, and with the hands clasped behind the neck, as seen in the figure. Then force the head and elbows strongly back. Relax, letting the elbows come forward. Repeat ten times.

It will be readily seen that these shoulder-blade movements are exercises for the arms and chest as well. The object being to raise and broaden the chest.

Respiratory Exercises (Figs. [35], [36], [37]).—First Position.—Stand with the feet nearly together, the chin down, the arms extended downward, with the backs of the hands touching, as shown in the figure.

Second Position.—The chin should be raised with the arms, so that in the second position the head is held erect.

Third Position.—The movements of the hands are carried upward still further and separated as shown in the figure. From this position the hands should be brought downward in the large sweep of a circle to the original position.

When these various movements have been accurately acquired, forcible respiratory movements should be added. Begin to inhale forcibly as the hands are raised, and hold the breath as long as possible while the hands are held above the head, and exhale forcibly while the arms are being brought down. These exercises bring into play the muscles of natural and forced respiration.

Exercises for Forward Projection of the Chest and Retraction of the Abdomen (Figs. 38, 39).—First Position.—Stand erect, with the arms behind the back, the hands resting in the small of the back, the fingers interlocked, and the palms facing backward.

Second Position.—Straighten the arms, turn the palms inward and then downward, and lastly out, all the while keeping the fingers interlocked. Roll the shoulders and arms into supination, and extend the neck, as in the attitude of the second position of the figure. Retain this position for a moment, then reverse slowly back into the first position.

When the fingers cannot be held in this position, start by holding a loop of cord in the hands, instead of interlocking the fingers.

This exercise is particularly valuable for projecting the chest forward, stretching the shortened ligaments, and drawing in the abdomen. Care should be taken to have the chin pressed backward when the arms are brought downward and turned outward.

Shoulder and Back Exercises (Figs. 40, 41).—First Position.—Stand erect, with the feet together, and both arms extended on a plane with the shoulders, so that in the first position the left arm is extended directly in front of the body and the right arm on the same plane directly behind the body. The arms must be held rigidly on the same plane.

Fig. 34.—Shoulder-blade exercise. Number 2.

Fig. 35.—Respiratory exercise. First position.

Fig. 36.—Respiratory exercise. Second position.

Fig. 37.—Respiratory exercise. Third position.

Fig. 38.—Exercise for forward projection of chest and retraction of abdomen. First position.

Fig. 39.—Exercise for forward projection of chest and retraction of abdomen. Second position.

Fig. 40.—Shoulder and back exercises. First position.

Fig. 41.—Shoulder and back exercises. Second position.

Fig. 42.—Leg exercises. First position.

Fig. 43.—Leg exercises. Second position.

Fig. 44.—Squatting exercises for muscles of spine and abdomen.

Second Position.—By a circular movement, the position of the left arm is assumed by the right, and vice versa. During the entire movement the feet must be kept firmly planted on the floor, pivoting at the hips only, while making the continuous circular movement of the arms.

These movements consist in a torsion of the body around the axis of the spinal column, and to these can be added deep inspirations from left to right, with expirations from right to left. In addition to the effect on the circulation, the respiratory movements keep up the nutrition and efficiency of the lungs, which in old age undergo a kind of atrophy, and also maintain the elasticity of the chest-walls, which are apt to become stiff through disuse, and so interfere with the movements of the lungs and pleura.

Leg Exercises (Figs. 42, 43).—First Position.—Stand erect, with the hands resting on the hips and the legs crossed at the knees, with the right foot in front, as shown in the figure.

Second Position.—Swing the right leg outward and around back to about eighteen inches back of the left foot, as is shown in the second position. Then swing the right leg outward and around, back to the first position.

Reverse the position of the feet, and perform the same movements with the left leg. The weight of the body must always be thrown on the advanced leg, and perfect poise and balance should be maintained throughout the entire movement.

Leg exercises are useful for purposes of relieving the engorged veins of the fatigued leg, because the movements of such large masses of muscles as those of the legs and thighs demand large supplies of blood, and consequent quick action on the part of the heart to supply it, and this blood, pouring swiftly back to the lungs for purification, requires frequent and deeper inspirations on their part to effect the purification; leg exercises cause greater development of the chest than do arm exercises.

Squatting Exercises for Muscles of the Spine and Abdomen (Fig. [44]).—Stand erect, with the feet near together and the hands resting on the hips, rise upon the toes, then sink the body to the floor, bending the knees sharply, until the thighs and legs are doubled upon each other and the weight of the entire body is supported by the toes. The trunk must be maintained perfectly erect throughout the movement. Then return to the original position. Repeat ten times.

These exercises strengthen the muscles of the spine and abdomen, and aid in reducing superfluous abdominal fat. They also strengthen the ankles and increase the flexibility of the knee-joints.

Alternate Kneeling; Abdominal Exercise (Fig. [45]).—While these exercises also strengthen the muscles of the spine and legs, they are primarily abdominal exercises, and are given for the strengthening of the abdominal muscles and improving the circulation in the abdominal viscera.

First Position.—Kneel on the left knee, with the face directed forward, the right arm extended perpendicularly up at the side of the head, and the left hand resting on the hip. The head and entire trunk are then turned slowly to the left, the right arm all the while being held rigidly up at the side of the head, then returns slowly to the original position.

Second Position.—Kneel on the right knee, with the face looking directly forward, and the left hand extended above the head, and the right hand resting on the hip. The head and entire trunk are then turned slowly toward the right, and the position maintained for a moment, then return to the original position. Repeat five times for each leg.

These exercises strengthen the abdominal muscles, those at the side of the waist, and groins.

Balancing Exercises for Poise and Carriage (Fig. [46]).—These exercises, for maintaining the equilibrium of the body while it is poised upon the smallest possible base, are among the most difficult positions to maintain, requiring a high degree of coördination of movement. They are given to improve the poise and carriage of the body.

Fig. 45.—Alternate kneeling; abdominal exercise.

Fig. 46.—Balancing exercise for poise and carriage.

Fig. 47.—Balancing exercise for extending depth of chest. First position.

Fig. 48.—Balancing exercise for extending depth of chest. Second position.

Fig. 49.—Lateral trunk and waist exercise. First position.

Fig. 50.—Lateral trunk and waist exercise. Second position.

The position of the right foot in the figure is incorrect, since the object of the movement is to have the body balanced throughout on the toes only. Stand erect on the tiptoes, with the arms and hands extended at the sides and above the head, as shown in the figure; then walk in the same position, with the hands carried up perpendicularly at the sides of the head.

Further benefits in the carriage of the body may be obtained by carrying light weights upon the head while performing these exercises, as a light book.

These exercises, when properly performed, expand the chest and bring into play all the extensors of the back and elevators of the shoulders. They also round out the muscles of the throat and neck.

Balancing Exercises for Extending Depth of Chest (Figs. 47, 48).—First Position.—Stand erect, with the heels together and the hands resting on the hips. Straighten out the right arm, and extend it perpendicularly up at the side of the head, and at the same time carry the left leg outward and upward as far as possible, according to the pose assumed in the figure. Then lower the leg and arm, returning to the original position.

Second Position.—Stand erect, with the heels together and the hands resting on the hips, as in the first position. Then take the same movements with the left arm and right leg as were taken in the first position. The arm and leg should be raised and lowered simultaneously.

All these exercises increase the vertical diameters of the chest, and strengthen the muscles of ordinary and forced respiration.

These movements also relieve the engorged veins of fatigued legs.

Lateral Trunk and Waist Exercises (Figs. 49, 50).—First Position.—Stand with the feet nearly together and the arms extended above the head; the arms are relaxed at the wrists and elbows, so that a slightly curved line is formed, as is shown in the figure. First sway to the left, bending at the waist line as far as possible, and return to the original position.

Second Position.—The attitude is the same as in the first position; sway to the left in the same manner.

These exercises strengthen the muscles on the sides of the abdomen and the lower part of the back, and are an excellent means to reduce the size of the waist in case of corpulency.

Exercises for the Muscles of the Back (Fig. [51]).—These exercises may be taken lying prone on the floor, with the feet caught under any piece of furniture which is strong and low enough to act as a cross-bar, as a lounge or dressing case. No one but an athlete could take this exercise without having the feet held down.

The feet should be held firmly down, and the hands may be at the sides or clasped behind the waist; the body is then slowly raised and carried backward to the half-sitting posture, then gradually lowered to the original position. These movements should be taken slowly and not repeated more than five times in the beginning.

In case of stooping or round shoulders, the hands should be clasped at the back of the neck instead of at the waist.

Raise the head and extend the spine, pressing the elbows backward. This exercise is a severe one on the extensors of the back and the rotators of the shoulders.

Exercises for the Muscles of the Abdomen (Fig. [52]).—Lie supine on the floor, with the feet firmly fixed under a cross bar, or a piece of furniture which will answer this purpose, and the hands resting on the hips, as shown in the figure; slowly raise the body to the upright position, maintain for a moment, and return to the first position.

This and the preceding exercise are both excellent for strengthening the abdominal muscles and reducing an excessive accumulation of fat in case of obesity of this region.

Fig. 51.—Exercises for muscles of back.

Fig. 52.—Exercises for muscles of abdomen.

Fig. 53.—Swimming exercises: for back, thighs, and abdomen. First position.

Fig. 54.—Swimming exercises: for back, thighs, and abdomen. Second position.

Fig. 55.—Rope-pulling exercises: for back, chest, waist, legs, and arms. First position.

Fig. 56.—Rope-pulling exercises: for back, chest, waist, legs, and arms. Second position.

Fig. 57.—Exercises in lateral trunk flexions: for shoulders, chest, hips, and legs. First position.

Swimming Exercises: for Back, Thighs, and Abdomen (Figs. 53, 54).—First Position.—The movements given here are those for the breast-stroke in swimming. Stand with the feet about eighteen inches apart, with the right foot advanced and the right leg straight; the weight is thrown on the left leg, and the arms bent at right angles, ready for the beginning of the stroke, as shown in the pose.

Second Position.—Shoot the arms directly forward, incline the whole body forward, straighten the left leg, and throw the weight on the right, which should be bent, as shown in the second pose. Then sweep the hands and arms outward in a horizontal plane, until the arms, trunk, and legs are brought into the original position.

Then take the same exercises, reversing the positions of the right and left legs.

In taking these exercises the arms, body, and legs must work simultaneously. Special stress must be placed on the alternate flexion and extension of the front and rear leg and the inclination of the body forward with each stroke.

While these exercises strengthen the muscles of the arms, shoulders, and chest, they are especially intended for the extensor muscles of the back and thighs and muscles of the abdomen.

Rope-pulling Exercises: for Back, Chest, Waist, Legs, and Arms (Figs. 55, 56).—First Position.—Stand with the feet about eighteen inches apart, the arms extended out in front of the body and well out from the sides; the right foot is advanced, and the weight rests mainly on the right leg.

Second Position.—Clinch the hands tightly, as though grasping a rope, and sway to the left side, at the same time straightening the right leg; bend the left knee, and pull the hands toward the waist, as though pulling the rope in; then extend the arms and return to the first position.

Repeat the exercise with the position of the legs reversed.

The arms must be extended well out from the sides, bending at the waist-line, so as to increase the reach, and the swaying back and forth must be done with perfect regularity.

This is a good all-around exercise, as it brings into play and strengthens the adductors of the thighs, calves, and extensors of the legs, the broad muscles of the back, the muscles of the chest, waist, and the flexors and extensors of the arms.

Exercises in Lateral Trunk Flexions: for Shoulders, Chest, Hips, and Legs (Figs. 57, 58).—First Position.—Stand with the feet eighteen inches apart, with the right arm extended upward and the left downward, and the weight of the body thrown on the right leg, while the left leg is extended directly to the side.

Second Position.—Change the weight to the left leg, and bend the left knee while the right leg is extended. At the same time bring the right arm down and carry the left up and sway the body at the hips to the right side. The feet are kept flat on the floor during the entire exercise, and it will be noticed that the arm, which is extended downward, is on the same side as the extended leg.

These exercises increase the flexibility of the chest, strengthen the muscles at the sides of the waist, and cause some massage of the liver.

Exercises in Trunk Flexions: for Muscles of the Back, Abdomen, and Leg (Figs. 59, 60).—First Position.—Stand with the feet about six inches apart, the body bent well forward at the waist-line, while the legs are rigidly extended at the knees. Increase the bend gradually at the waist until the tips of the fingers touch the floor between the feet, as shown in the pose.

Second Position.—From the first position carry the arms directly forward, upward, and backward until they reach the position shown in the second pose, with the knees and ankles flexed; bend the trunk as far backward as possible, while the arms are extended over the head. Maintain for a moment, and return to the original position.

Fig. 58.—Exercises in lateral trunk flexions: for shoulders, chest, hips, and legs. Second position.

Fig. 59.—Exercises in trunk flexions: for back, abdomen, and legs. First position.

Fig. 60.—Exercises in trunk flexions: for back, abdomen, and legs. Second position.

Fig. 61.—Chest weight exercises for arms and shoulders. First position.

Fig. 62.—Chest weight exercises for arms and shoulders. Second position.

Fig. 63.—Chest weight exercises for shoulders and chest expansion. First position.

Fig. 64.—Chest weight exercises for shoulders and chest expansion. Second position.

Fig. 65.—Chest weight exercises for extending depth of chest. First position.

Fig. 66.—Chest weight exercises for extending depth of chest. Second position.

Fig. 67.—Chest weight exercises for chest expansion. First position.

Fig. 68.—Chest weight exercises for chest expansion. Second position.

Fig. 69.—Figures of the dance. First position of the hands and feet.

These movements must all be taken slowly, and in the beginning do not attempt to go far back of the vertical line. Nearly all the muscles on the front and back of the body are involved in these exercises, but the greatest strain comes on the muscles of the back and abdomen and the muscles on the back of the thighs. The bending and rising bring into powerful action the extensors of the back and neck and the retractors of the shoulders.

After this exercise has been mastered, it can be used to still further expand the lungs, by forcible inspiration when the chest is in the most favorable position for expansion; retain the breath while the trunk is flexed, forcing the air into the cells of the lungs under pressure. This last feature of the exercise should not be attempted by any one with weak lungs.

Boxing and Fencing.—Boxing and fencing are both excellent exercises for the lungs, for both sides of the body, for balance, for rapidity, for endurance, variety, promptitude, and sudden adaptation; for originality, up to a certain point, as well as for self-reliance and fearlessness. They have the advantage of cheapness, and are best practised in the open air.

Exercises with Chest Weights: for Chest Expansion, Shoulders, and Arms.—These exercises are excellent for developing the muscles of the upper part of the chest, and for rounding out the chest, shoulders, and arms. They are also good flesh-reducing exercises.

The weights should be fairly light at first, beginning with perhaps two and one-half pounds, and gradually increasing until five pounds are used. The weights should only be increased with the increase of the strength of the individual. All the movements should be performed consecutively from ten to twenty times each; then proceed to the next movement.

In taking any heavy exercise great care must be used not to overfatigue the muscles, or more harm than good will be done. As soon as the muscles have become too tired to perform any exercise vigorously, it should be discontinued, and a rest of a few minutes taken, when the exercise may be resumed. When a point is reached at which the muscles feel tired at the commencement of the exercise stop at once for the day.

Chest Weight Exercises for Arms and Shoulders (Figs. 61, 62).—First Position.—Face the chest weights, grasp the handles firmly, and hold the arms straight out in front of the chest. Stand with the heels nearly together, and far enough away from the weights to raise them a little distance from the floor.

Second Position.—Draw the two handles to the chest and almost under the armpits, letting the elbows and shoulders go well back; then extend the arms. Repeat ten times.

Chest Weight Exercises for Shoulders and Chest Expansion (Figs. 63, 64).—First Position.—Hold the arms straight out in front.

Second Position.—Then, still keeping them in a horizontal position, throw them back as far as possible.

Chest Weight Exercise for Extending Depth of Chest (Figs. 65, 66).—First Position.—Stand with the back to the chest weights, palms forward, arms straight.

Second Position.—Let the arms go past the sides, back and up as far as possible; then bring them down and forward and return to first position.

Chest Weight Exercise for Chest Expansion (Figs. 67, 68).—First Position.—Stand with the back to the chest weights, holding the arms straight out in front.

Second Position.—Then, keeping them straight and in a horizontal position, throw them back as far as possible. With the arms still extended on a straight line with the shoulders, bring them forward until the hands meet in front. This is an excellent exercise to expand and develop the chest.

Classic and Esthetic Dancing: an Essential Feature in Physical Training.—From earliest antiquity the dance has been of universal practice among all peoples of the earth, both savage and civilized, and it has been made to express all the emotions of which the mind is capable of feeling. Dancing held a prominent position among the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks.

The teachers of physical training have long felt that even the combination of gymnastics and athletic sports left much to be desired in the carriage and movements of the body, so classic and esthetic dancing, which stands between the two, more closely allied to gymnastics in its movements and to games in its spirit, was introduced as an additional gymnastic exercise, to harmonize the movements of the body, and to produce an ease of manner with a grace of beauty and of motion.

Society Dancing.—A sharp distinction must be made between the modern gymnastic dancing and society dancing. In the latter, the waltz and the two-step always require a partner. The dancing is ordinarily confined to the ball-room, with its poor ventilation and overheated air; add to these the constriction of the waist, so that the free action of the heart and lungs is interfered with, and under these conditions it may even prove a dangerous pastime to the young woman with weak heart or lungs. As a physical exercise, the waxed floor of the ball-room still further reduces its value.

Gymnasium or Classic and Esthetic Dancing.—For the gymnasium dancing there must be, first of all, the loose dress and heelless slippers, and an abundant supply of fresh air at a proper temperature, while the foot grips the floor as tenaciously as in boxing or fencing; a smooth floor renders an artistic execution impossible. The floor should be rough or covered with canvas, when dancing becomes as good a developer of the heart and lungs as running or swimming.

Girls in good physical condition can keep up esthetic dancing for an hour with very few rests or pauses. The work done in one hour is about equivalent to a walk of ten miles.

The first steps in the attainment of grace of motion is to avoid short, angular, jerky movements, and to learn to do everything, even the most difficult exercises, with the least expenditure of power and energy. This implies considerable muscular strength and great muscular endurance and control. As soon as the dancer loses her balance or poise, holds one arm too straight, and bends the other one at too sharp an angle, or puts too much stress on this movement and too little on that, or makes too much effort, the harmony is lost and gracefulness is not attained.

The modern gymnasium dancing conforms more completely with the requirements of good exercise than ball-room dancing, because the trunk, arms, and legs are brought more generally into action. While the exercises of the feet and calves are not so intense or so concentrated as in ballet dancing, the range and the extent of the movement are much greater. Not only are the shoulder, back, and chest muscles considerably developed by the free use of the arms, but so many of the muscles of the lower part of the back, abdomen, and thighs are used that greater respiratory power is acquired to sustain the extended action; hence, the chest-walls are expanded by the effort, and the abandonment of the corset during dancing gives the utmost freedom to all respiratory movements.

Statistics show that some of the benefits accruing from a conscientious study and practice of aesthetic dancing are, that it raises and develops the chest, lengthens the waist, and also reduces its circumference; the hips are reduced in size, the thighs and calves are enlarged, while the ankles are made smaller and the insteps are raised and given a higher arch. Properly applied and directed, dancing exercises are even a cure for flat-foot.

The improvement noted in thirteen young ladies during twenty-five days by M. B. Gilbert is as follows: The average increase in the normal chest measure, from half an inch to one and a half inches; with the chest inflated, from half an inch to one and three-fourth inches.

The foundation for this coördinate work, from which an unlimited variety of the most valuable developing exercises is formed, consists of the long-established five positions of the feet and five positions of the arms, together with positions of the whole body, known as attitudes, arabesques, poses, elevations, groupings, etc. From these precepts are established, whereby steps, attitudes, and motions are systematically arranged, according to the method, and in strict harmony with time and cadence of music.

Fig. 70.—Figures of the dance. Second position of hands; second position of right foot.

Fig. 71.—Figures of the dance. Third position of hands; third position of right foot.

Fig. 72.—Figures of the dance. Third position (“amplified”) of hands; fourth position of right foot, in front. N. B.—When the arms are not in motion, the palms must be turned down.

Fig. 73.—Figures of the dance. Fourth position of hands; fourth position of right foot, in back.

Fig. 74.—Figures of the dance. Fifth position of hands; fifth position of right foot.

Fig. 75.—Figures of the dance. Forward balance.

Fig. 76.—Figures of the dance. Backward balance.

Fig. 77.—Courtesy.

Fig. 78.—Highland fling.

Fig. 79.—Hornpipe step “on heels,” pulling down the small ropes.

Fig. 80.—Swedish step from “Kulldansen.”

Fig. 81.—Circles with hands, from Spanish dances.

Fig. 82.—Combination of dance steps. First position.

Fig. 83.—Combination of dance steps. Second position.

Fig. 84.—Combination of dance steps. Third position.

Fig. 85.—On the toe tips.

The freedom given by such dancing softens the crude awkward positions so universal among young people; the general carriage invariably improves as the head goes up and the shoulders go back; a more elastic tread and an easier propelling of the body in walking is gained. Not only is the chest broadened and deepened, and fat removed from waists and hips, and weak backs strengthened, but students gain in quickness of perception, coördination, and judgment, as well as in agility and power to keep their feet in correct rhythm.

Esthetic dancing is particularly recommended in all factories, stores, and schools where there are any large number of girls and women as a recess exercise, because in this way they get a great deal of vigorous exercise in a very short time. It brings all the large muscle groups into action, causes a rapid circulation of the blood, aërates the lungs, and it affords the best possible sort of a contrast to their monotonous and cramped positions; it is most exhilarating and it is good fun. It is an excellent mental tonic and physical invigorator; it brightens the day, and enables the women to do better work.

FIGURES OF THE DANCE WITH SOME SIMPLE EXERCISES

Fundamental Positions of the Hands and Feet (Fig. [69]).—First Position of the Hands and Feet.—Stand erect, resting on the balls of the feet, with the chin up and the chest high; arms straight down almost touching the body; hands about 6 inches apart, slightly curved, palm toward palm; the thumb opposite the middle finger, elbows held slightly away from the body as in the figure. Stand with the heels together and the feet turned out so as to form a right angle.

Second Position of the Hands and Feet (Fig. [70]).—Move the hands and arms away from each other until the hands are about 3 feet apart as in the figure. Move the right foot directly to right in line with left foot and about 12 inches away from it; toe touching floor, instep well arched, heel raised and kept turned toward left heel as in Fig. [70]. Counterpart for left.

Third Position (Fig. [71]).—Bring the elbows up until they and the hands are in line with the shoulders, fingertips almost touching across chest, palms toward the body as in the figure. Move the right foot forward until the right heel is in the hollow of the left foot and at right angle to it as shown in the figure. Then move the right foot back of the left until the hollow of the right foot is back of the left heel. Notice that the feet should touch closely and the legs be very straight. Counterpart for left foot.

Third Position of Hands Amplified (Fig. [72]).—Extend the hands to the sides in a straight line with the shoulders; if this position is to be maintained turn the palms toward the floor, with the thumb under the middle finger.

Fourth Position of the Right Foot in Front (Fig. [72]).—Move the right foot directly forward about 12 inches in front of the left foot, as in the figure, toe touching the floor, heel raised; instep arched. Counterpart for left foot.

Fourth Position of Hands (Fig. [73]).—Move hands and arms up until the hands are about 3 feet apart above the head; palms toward each other, arms nearly straight as in the figure.

Fourth Position of Right Foot in Back (Fig. [73]).—Move right foot about 12 inches back until in line with left foot, toe touching floor, heel raised as in the figure. Counterpart for left foot.

Fifth Position of Hands and Feet (Fig. [74]).—Move hands more closely together until about 6 inches apart; palms toward each other and the arms very slightly bent as in the figure.

The right toe touches the left heel in back, or right heel touches left toe in front as in the figure. The feet are at right angles. Counterpart for left foot.

Elevated Position of the Feet.—The second and fourth positions may be elevated by extending the leg and foot at right angles to the body. See Figs. [70], [72], [78], [82], [83], and [84]. The third and fifth positions become elevated by raising the foot, toe pointed to the floor, as in combination of steps, Figs. [78] and [82].

N. B.—In elevated positions the toe must be extended so that the foot and leg form a straight line.

Simple Exercises Using the Fundamental Positions.—Stand with feet in first position; hands in first position (Fig. [69]).—Exercise 1.—Move right foot to second position (Fig. [70]), and back to first position four times. Left foot the same.

Exercise 2.—Move right foot from fourth position in front (Fig. [72]) to fifth position in front (Fig. [74]). Repeat four times. Right foot in back (Fig. [73]), fourth to fifth, four times. Left foot in back, fourth to fifth, four times.

Exercise 3.—Move right foot from second position to third in front, to second, to third in back. Repeat four times. Left foot the same.

To make the exercise more difficult, hold the skirt extended with the hands in the second position (see Fig. [77]). Or arms extended in third position amplified, palms down, which is very difficult.

Music in 6/8 time will add interest.

Arm Movements.—Exercise 4.—Move hands from first position to second and back to first. Repeat four times. N. B.—Draw the hands away from each other by the wrists, and toward each other by the wrists. The hands should move as though trailed through water.

Exercise 5.—Move the hands from the third position, to the third position amplified, and back again to third (Figs. [71], [72]). Repeat four times. N. B.—Move to third position from first position. Do not go directly from the first position to third position amplified, but through third position in front.

Exercise 6.—Move hands from fourth to fifth position, four times.

Exercise 7.—Move right hand to fourth position, left hand to second position, starting from third in front, back to third position. Repeat four times. Change hands, moving right to second, left to fourth position.

Use slow rhythmic waltz music for exercises 4 to 7.

Combination of Hand and Foot Movements.—Waltz music at first and later 6/8 time.

Forward Balance (Fig. [75]).—Step forward on right foot, left foot extended in fourth position back; right hand in fourth position, left hand in second.

Backward Balance (Fig. [76]).—Step back on the left foot, raising the right foot in elevated third position in front; right hand in third position in front of waist, left hand in fifth position. Counterpart, starting with left foot.

Courtesy (Fig. [77]).—Grasp the skirt lightly at either side between the fingers, keeping the backs of the hands forward; hands in second position. Point the right toe in second position. Count, “One, Two.” Lifting the heels, turn on both toes until you face toward the left. Count, “Three, Four.”

Place the left foot in fourth position back of right foot, bending both knees as if you were sitting down. Count, “Five, Six.” Slightly spread the skirt. N. B.—Keep the body erect from the waist up.

Rise to the standing position, drawing the right foot backward into the first position. Count, “Seven, Eight.”

Counterpart for Courtesy to the left. Music, Gavotte or Schottische played slowly.

Highland Fling Step (Fig. [78]).—Point right foot to second position, right arm is bent at elbow and wrist, left arm is almost in fifth position. Hop on left foot, at the same time bringing right foot in very elevated fifth position back of left knee. Hop on left foot bringing right foot in front of knee; hop on left foot bringing right foot back of knee again. Repeat to the left with hands in corresponding positions.

Hornpipe Step (Fig. [79]).—Keeping feet in first position, walk forward on the heels very quickly, taking steps of about 1 inch in length. Look up and with the hands keep pulling down an imaginary rope, moving one hand constantly above the other.

Swedish Step from “Kulldansen” (Fig. [80]).—Place right heel in second position, arms in second position modified. Bow to the right, bending at the waist. Repeat to the left with the left heel in the second position, right foot in first position. Repeat several times.

Spanish Circle with Hands (Fig. [81]).—Kneel on the left knee. With both hands make circles going from left to right, sweeping from third position at floor level to fifth position and back again, four times.

Combination of Dance Steps—First Position (Fig. [82]).—Left foot in fifth position front. Swing the left foot in circle to fifth position in back. Right hand holding skirt in third position in front, left hand holding skirt in third position amplified.

Second Position (Fig. [83]).—As left foot arrives in back of right, swing arms to third position amplified. Move the left foot to second position.

Third Position (Fig. [84]).—Move the left foot to the fifth position in front, kicking the right foot in second position elevated. Right hand in third position; left hand in third position amplified.

Pose on Toe Tips (Fig. [85]).—Rise on the tips of the toes, the feet as close together as possible, bringing the hands from the first to the fifth position.

When the pupil has mastered these very skilfully arranged series of dancing poses, steps, and exercises she has learned how to dance; that is, she is in a position, after watching any new dance for a short time, to go on the floor with a leader.

Women in the prime of life will be interested to know that in twenty lessons of one-half hour each, given at the Women’s University Club under the able instruction of Miss Rabinovitz,[8] to a class of women ranging in age from thirty to fifty years, two-thirds of whom had either never learned to dance or who had not danced since childhood, not only learned the above various dancing steps and exercisers, but also the following dances.

The Folk Dances were: The Tantouli (Swedish); Ace of Diamonds (Danish); Reap the Flax (Swedish); and the Sailor’s Hornpipe (English). This last dance was especially for the very excellent exercise which it afforded. The Minuet was taught for form, grace of movement, and exercise. There were also taught the Hesitation Waltz, the Maxixe, and the Lulu Fado.

Outdoor Exercise.—Outdoor exercise must be regarded as one of the essentials to good health, and as such must be classed with food, clothing, bathing, and sleep.

In addition to the beneficial effects of exercise on the muscles, circulation, and all the functions of the body, are the soothing effects of outdoor life on the nerves. It is only out-of-doors, in the parks, in the country, or by the sea that one is soothed into entire oblivion and forgetfulness of the cares of life, and to such a degree that the individual may be said to be hypnotized by the powers of nature, so that the mind is almost as perfectly at rest as in a sound sleep.

The time spent out-of-doors should not be less than two hours daily. Actual experience of busy workers will prove that not only is this time not lost, but that actually more and better work can be done in the day, and that the resulting improvement in the general health will be so great that much less time will be lost through indisposition and actual sickness, so that the daily outdoor exercise will be found to be a great economic gain.

Outdoor exercises, such as walking, running, swimming, and hill and mountain climbing, possess the very great advantage that indulging in them demands no expense, and are, therefore, open to all. All these exercises develop the lungs and chest and strengthen the heart, and are, therefore, classed under exercises of endurance.

The Effect of Walking on the Heart and Lungs.—In a slow walk the respiratory action is almost double the ordinary amount; in walking at an ordinary pace, that is, about three miles an hour, it is four times as great; while in a vigorous or hasty walk, that is, at a rate of from four to six miles an hour, it is from seven to nine times as great.

The change of speed from three to five miles an hour elevates an automatic, listless occupation into a vigorous exercise, employing many new muscle groups and stimulating the heart, lungs, and skin, while the change from a smooth, level road to the broken ground of the mountain-side may be dangerous for many a one who is able to walk at a moderate speed on level ground.

In walking the clothing must be sufficiently loose not to interfere with the more rapid respirations and the increased action of the heart. When the heart cannot keep pace with the demanded speed of the circulation, a “stitch” ensues, and getting one’s second wind means that the heart has succeeded in accommodating itself to the strain. Too great a “stitch,” resulting in absolute breathlessness, is a warning that must not be disregarded.

This increase in the respiratory action is important, as compared with the brief and transient increase from exercise with apparatus, because a quick walk can easily be kept up for several hours.

The fatigue is small, because, in the first place, of the abundant supply of oxygen; the will is scarcely used, and walking is almost automatic, partly because the muscle areas used are large, and each movement prepares for the next. Walking is a heart and lung exercise of a very excellent sort.

The Effect of Walking on the Movements of the Blood in the Legs.—The circulation of the blood depends on the pumping of the heart, which is in turn affected by the suction action of the lungs and the muscular movements of contraction and relaxation which go on rhythmically. While in prolonged standing the veins of the legs become fuller, and the circulation of blood in them more sluggish, and by the laws of gravitation the blood is kept down in them. Hence also in walking slowly with short steps the legs remain overfull of blood and become heavy. Instead of being quickened, the circulation is actually hindered, for the waste-products are not carried away quickly enough. Hence, slow walking soon causes a feeling of fatigue, while the vigorous walker, going along with long strides, keeps fresh.

Rules for Long Walks.—In walking, not only the distance should be taken into account, but the character of the road and the incline of the ascent. A distance that could be easily covered on a smooth, level highway may mean double the expenditure of muscle and nerve force if the ground is sandy or very damp. Other hindrances to be taken into consideration are opposing winds, not only because of the resistance, but also because of the inhalation of dust and rain.

The walk should be occasionally broken for short periods of rest. The pauses should be short, about five minutes, and during this time the body should be erect. Experience proves that sitting down makes one more tired on getting up again. A short halt should be made before climbing a steep ascent, so as to begin with fresh strength and easy breathing, as this means increased work for the heart and lungs.

In starting out for a walk, one should begin slowly, and gradually increase the pace, and in returning the same rule should be observed.

Running.—The force exerted in running is enormous. In running it is the length of the step more than anything else which increases the speed of the run; hence, the runner should learn to take long steps. But the greatest speed can only be kept up for a limited time; the distance is one hundred yards.

Running is the most effective of all exercises of speed, and, like all exercises of speed, can be changed into one of endurance by a certain moderation in the pace. By running the heart and lungs are developed more than by any other exercise.

Age Limit for Running.—All ages are not equally well adapted for running: they do not all share in its good results. Running is best for all young people, before and at the age of puberty. Running is then quite a necessity. The growing child is always ready for a run. From the fortieth year on running, as an exercise of speed, becomes less and less desirable, and, when the organs of circulation or breathing are impaired, it must be absolutely forbidden.

In running always begin slowly—running moderately, for instance, for fifty feet; then increase the speed gradually, but when running for exercise, never speed to the utmost, as this is not necessary for the benefits of the exercise. Always close the run with the same moderation with which it was commenced; that is, never stop short, as this sudden arrest of action gives a most undesirable shock to the heart. The movements of running may easily be imitated in the house, while standing in one place, and simply lifting the feet in the same quick alternation from the floor.

Mountain Climbing.—The advantages of mountain climbing are manifold. The weight of the body has to be carried up a certain height. To accomplish this the work of the muscles is increased; the breathing must be deeper to satisfy the increased demands for oxygen; fresh air is admitted into the apices of the lungs, which do not, as a rule, participate in respiration. A more powerful action of the heart takes place, but care must be taken that this is not carried too far. Slow climbing, without any unnecessary waste of energy and with appropriate pauses, to allow the heart to recover, is advantageous. One should not talk too much while climbing. The dress should be suitable; the neck must be free and the shoulders not heavily weighted, so that they may be drawn back and the chest fully expanded.

Swimming.—Of all outdoor exercises for women, swimming is one of the most perfect. It not only calls into vigorous action most of the muscles of the body, but spares many of those muscles which are so commonly overworked, most of the work being performed by muscles which are so little used as to have become weak and flabby.

For instance, the extensors of the fingers and the hand, that are so constantly stretched in sewing and writing, are in constant use in swimming, while the corresponding flexors, the slaves of the needle and the pen, are relaxed. Again, the muscles passing from the shoulder-blades to the trunk, on which depends much of the erect carriage and strength of the chest, which have become wasted from disuse while the woman sat at the desk or bent over her sewing, are the very muscles by which the movements of the upper half of the body are executed, while all the muscles of the lower extremity are brought into use. Of especial value is the free movement of the hip-joint, a joint that is seldom moved with any degree of freedom from the time a girl leaves climbing trees, unless she has the advantage of special gymnastic training. The vigorous action demanded of the respiratory muscles greatly increases the chest capacity.

The body is lighter than the water, and is perfectly supported by it, so the weight is taken off the spine, and the muscles of the back are relieved from their normal state of tension. The head is the only part of the body that is held up by muscular action, and, in floating, even this is supported by the water.

The disadvantages arise from the fact that the temperature of the water is very much below that of the body, so that there is a greatly increased conduction of heat from the body, and, unless this loss is made good by exercise, there is very great danger of a chill. In most persons a prolonged stay in cool or cold water produces a liability to cramp.

During the month of August the temperature of the ocean reaches its maximum of 66.65° F. This is about 32 degrees below the temperature of the body. Upon entering the water the first effect noticed is a sensation of cold; this varies with the susceptibility of the individual, and the difference between the temperature of the water and the surrounding air. The skin assumes the appearance of “goose-flesh,” the face is pale and anxious, and the lips are blue; the pulse decreases in frequency, a sense of oppression is manifest, and there may be spasmodic shivering; that is, the first effect of immersion is to cause a contraction of the blood-vessels of the surface of the body. This should be quickly followed by a secondary reaction, in which there is a sensation of warmth, a quickened pulse, and an increase of energy. When, by taking the proper precautions, this reaction does not occur, it is a contraindication to sea-bathing and swimming.

If the immersion has been too prolonged, there is a second sensation of chilliness, a signal that the bather must leave the water at once.

The best time for bathing is between eleven o’clock in the morning and four in the afternoon, depending on the tide. No one should go into the water within two hours after meals, nor should she on leaving the bath proceed at once to the table, since digestion draws the blood from the periphery to the stomach, and to eat immediately after bathing is to lose most of the benefit of the saline treatment.

All should avoid cold-water bathing when fatigued, and swimmers ought to pay especial attention to this point, on account of the demand they are going to make on their muscular system; and on no account must one enter the water when in a perspiration; a moderate walk along the shore should be taken until the perspiration has subsided. These precautions are of the highest importance, and disregard of them may prove fatal.

Enter the water quickly until it reaches the waist, then plunge headlong, or cover the body to the neck. Care should be taken to wet the chest and abdomen immediately on entering the water, since these parts are the most sensitive to the impression of cold.

Every one should learn to swim, and those who cannot must move the arms and legs about vigorously. The duration of the bath should depend on the state of the health of the individual, on the state of the weather, and on whether the water is rough or calm. The average duration of the time spent in the water should be from three to fifteen minutes, the latter being the maximum time for any one. No benefit will accrue from spending a longer time than this in the water, and much harm may result.

The sea-bath should be followed by moderate exercise, in order to insure a perfect reaction, and to aid in expending the superfluous energy which sea-water imparts.

Swimming and sea-bathing should be avoided by persons who have weak hearts and a poor circulation, in whom the reaction after a plunge into cold water is never well established. Also by persons with heart or kidney disease, and by all feeble and old persons.

Persons with feeble constitutions, but with no actual disease, as in various forms of nervous disorders, insomnia, etc., generally derive marked benefit from sea-bathing.

Persons who are weak should walk and not plunge into the water. As in all other exercises, a determination on the part of the weak to equal the strong is a fertile cause of mischief.

Horseback Riding as an Exercise.—The advantages claimed for horseback riding are that it acts on nearly every muscle of the body, while the mind is interested and refreshed. An insuperable disadvantage to the majority of women living in large towns and cities is the enormous cost of the exercise.

The value of horseback riding for women has been greatly diminished by the very faulty position caused by the side-saddle, which produced a cramped position of the body and a tendency to lateral curvature of the spine. Then, too, women ride too tightly corsetted, thereby preventing much good that would otherwise accrue to the circulation and digestive organs.

When the woman rides astride, the body is held erect and in a natural position, and she sits much more firmly on her horse and, if not corsetted, it becomes an exhilarating and delightful form of exercise. The best results will probably be found in a neurasthenic class of women, who are not strong enough to take more active exercise, and for them it will be of decided therapeutic value to both mind and body.

Rowing.—This is one of the most beneficial of exercises; it has the advantages of scenery, freedom from dust, and companionship; it exercises equally both sides of the body and most of the muscles. It is an excellent exercise for strength, rapidity, and endurance.

In correct and graceful rowing there is a pendulum-like movement from the hips. The rower should sit with the trunk fully extended, the head up, the eyes to the front, the chest thrown forward, and the weight of the trunk equally distributed upon the two sides of her seat. The feet rest against the stretcher, the two hands should be near together, and should be held symmetrically at an equal distance from the body.

Stretching.—The body and extended arms are brought forward as far as possible. The spinal column should be kept extended, not bent so as to make a crooked back, and the trunk should be thrown forward from the hip-joints. When the stretch has reached its forward limit, the oar is dipped into the water just far enough to cover it; then immediately the pull begins, and it must be continued evenly to the end.

The Pull.—The body rises erect from the hips and swings backward. The hands should not reach the front of the chest until the body has passed the perpendicular and is sinking back. When the pull is finished, the hands are dropped and suddenly bent toward the wrists. This lifts the oar out of the water, and keeps its lower surface parallel with it; during the stretching forward, the oar is kept parallel with the water, so that it has not much resistance from the air.

The muscles brought chiefly into play are the long muscles of the back in the backward swing, and the abdominal muscles in the forward swing. But the muscles of the pelvis, thighs, and legs all have to work, likewise the muscles of the arms, chest, and shoulders. And it is one of the best exercises for developing the lungs and chest, as well as of strengthening the heart. Fatigue will be felt most in the muscles of the legs, hips, and arms, but the exertion is so well distributed that it causes much less fatigue than would otherwise be the case.

Athletic Sports.—Athletic sports possess three distinct advantages—they are played out-of-doors, and give an incentive to taking the proper amount of exercise; they are all team games, and so develop the social and coöperative spirit; and last, but by no means least, they afford a great deal of amusement and real recreation.

Formal and systematic gymnastics are essential for the development of the body and the correction of its defects; out-of-door exercise is excellent, but the solitary walk, climb, swim, or row leaves much to be desired, while in walking especially the mind is free to pursue the same trains of thought which with it was occupied at the desk, and so it fails to be properly refreshing to the mind and body. Whereas in all athletic sports the ego has to be pushed into the background, with all its interests; the day’s work left behind, and the entire attention concentrated on the play. This is a very distinct advantage to the individual.

Women at all ages take themselves and life too seriously. This is in all probability due to a defective early education; between the long school hours, home study, housework, and sewing, they had neither time nor opportunity to cultivate a love for play and games, and so the play instinct was not developed, and if not developed in youth, the chances are that it never will be. In middle and advanced age, when the stress and storm are at their height, nothing is so sure a restorative to overtaxed brains and overwrought nerves as games, sports, and a love of fun.

As a result of our unnatural mode of life in youth, it has come to pass that American women especially have been defrauded out of their birthright of the love of games and sports. Athletic games and sports are as essential to a scheme of education as are reading, writing, and arithmetic.

Other distinct advantages accruing to athletic games are that here the individual becomes acquainted with her powers and weaknesses. In formal gymnastics the movements follow each other in a regular sequence, through lines already carefully laid out; in games, on the contrary, no two plays or combination of plays are exactly alike. One can never tell what her opponent is going to do, and yet what one’s opponent does is so vital to the success or failure of the game that the player must decide quickly and accurately how that move in the game can best be met, so that intense concentration, quickness, alertness, prolonged attention, self-control, and even self-sacrifice are called for, for in the team game the individual interests must be submerged, in order that the side may win; and so the individual power, sense of responsibility, and an esprit de corps are developed, in a manner almost impossible in the same degree in any other way.

The principal outdoor games for women are croquet, lawn-tennis, hockey, golf, hand-ball, basket-ball, baseball, boxing, and fencing.

Croquet.—Of all these games, croquet is the mildest, and for that reason is a good beginning game for a woman who has always led a sedentary life, or for a woman who has become enfeebled through serious illness. It is also an excellent game for old age.

To be beneficial and not detrimental, the exercise must be very gradually increased, both in the length of time occupied and in the vigor of the movements. The muscles must be slowly built up and improved in tone, the lungs developed, and the heart strengthened.

Another advantage of croquet is that it is inexpensive and requires a limited amount of ground.

Lawn-tennis.—Tennis is a much more violent exercise than croquet, and is a game for young people and youth. Now, as to just what constitutes youth: it is altogether a question of the condition of the arteries, heart, and muscular system, and is not a question of years per se.

The game is moderately expensive; played with four, it is not at all violent. It is an excellent game for social purposes, and can be kept up until late in life, but it cannot be begun late in life. It has just the proper amount of variety, activity, and endurance to suit hundreds of people for whom croquet would be too mild, and for whom ball-games would be too severe.

Golf.—Golf is deservedly a very popular game at all ages. Perhaps the greatest drawback for the city dweller is the inaccessibility of the golf links and the great expense of the game.

It combines scenery, walking for several miles, some hill climbing, and a considerable amount of exercise for the right side of the body, particularly for the right arm, and the muscles of the right side of the back and chest. The great drawback, from the physical standpoint, is an overdevelopment of the muscles of the right side of the body, which, in the majority of people, are already better developed than those of the left side; the muscles of the left side of the body are brought very slightly into play.

While the distinct advantages of the game are combined with walking, the healthy body swings, the accuracy needed in making the drives, the distance of the drives, the variety of implements as well as of stroke, and many other features, and, further, it is a game that keeps one pleasantly employed in a company of one’s choosing for several hours.

Hockey.—Hockey is among the finest of games for most young people, and should rank at least third among games. It has most of the advantages of foot-ball, and many of the advantages of cricket. It involves a considerable amount of running and a great deal of real sport and fun.

Basket-ball.—This is another of the most popular games for young people, and possesses in a very great degree all the advantages of a team game. The confidence that follows a successful throw proves of considerable value, unless it leads to the carelessness of overconfidence. Faith in the ability to get out of a desperate situation in the tossing increases with success. This leaves the attention imperturbed, and one does not go to pieces. According to Mosso, movements develop the brain, and it has been repeatedly noticed that intelligence in animals increases with the increased motility of their extremities.