Industrial and commercial South America

by Annie S. Peck

Climate

The climate of Argentina naturally varies on account of its wide range of latitude, as well as from increasing altitude in the mountainous section. The prevailing winds, the mountain barriers, and the sea also modify the climate in restricted locations. The conditions of temperature and rainfall are different from those in the northern hemisphere. Thus Tierra del Fuego and the south main land are more habitable than corresponding latitudes in Labrador, partly by reason of a southern equatorial current; it is an excellent region for sheep raising. At the same time it is colder than at similar latitudes of Western Europe, as the prevailing west winds are chilled by the mountains.

In the Provinces of Buenos Aires, Mesopotamia, and Santa Fé the average temperature in January is 72°, the maximum 97°-107°; the annual at the Capital city is 62.6°, farther south 42°. In Buenos Aires it may rain at any time, but the greatest precipitation is in the summer and fall. In summer there is a land breeze by day and a sea breeze at night. The north winds are hot and unhealthful, ending in violent storms. Southwest winds, the pamperos, which are gales, sometimes hurricanes, are invigorating. The central region has greater extremes of daily heat and of annual temperature, the widest at Córdoba; Santiago is the warmest of the Provinces. In the city of Buenos Aires the mercury in summer may reach 107°; in winter it goes below freezing only a few times, but there is a peculiar chill in the atmosphere which causes strong men, who never did so in New York or Boston, to wear heavy woolen underwear. The country has 200 meteorological stations.

CHAPTER XXXV
ARGENTINA: THE CAPITAL, INDIVIDUAL PROVINCES AND TERRITORIES

The Capital

Buenos Aires, the metropolis of South America, the largest city on that continent, and fourth in all America, has also a wide reputation as the second Latin city in the world. Its population is well towards 2,000,000, its area is more than double that of Paris. All its splendors may not here be rehearsed. The attractions of its 74 beautiful parks and plazas, its fine avenues, its magnificent Capitol and other public buildings, its beautiful opera house, almost the finest in the world, the many artistic and sumptuous residences, the excellent hotels, with many other admirable features make it a city delightsome to tourist and resident. The city is spoken of as a very expensive place to live, but in ordinary times, some things were cheaper than in New York while others were much dearer. Rents were high, the prices of fruit and vegetables, etc. In general, in other places in Argentina prices were higher for poor accommodations than in Europe before the War for far better. As a business centre, Buenos Aires naturally is of prime importance for the southern part of the continent. From here it is easy to visit Uruguay, Paraguay, and since the opening of the Trans-Continental, Chile also; while in every direction railways radiate to the chief cities of Argentina, even to those that are accessible by boat.

Provinces and Territories

We may perhaps get the geography of the Republic most accurately if we begin near the countries with which we are familiar at the northwest, and come from the outskirts to the commercial and political centre of the Republic.

Jujuy in the northwest corner naturally has on the north Bolivia, which comes down a little on the west, where it is followed by a bit of Chile, then by the Argentine Territory of Los Andes. The last is also on the south with a longer stretch of the Province of Salta, which extends along the entire east border as well. Here in Jujuy we are again among the mountains, for three ranges come from Bolivia, passing on through Salta at the south. The puna at the northwest is nearly 12,000 feet high; on this arid plateau are two salt lakes. The mountains reach an altitude of 15,000-20,000 feet. There are low valleys too, where there is mixed farming, not many cattle. Above are the wild vicuñas, guanacos, and chinchillas, as in Bolivia, and various minerals including gold, silver, petroleum, etc., not much worked. Sugar refining and wine making are important.

The capital, Jujuy, is in a rich and picturesque valley as low as 3675 feet, from which the railway climbs rapidly to La Quiaca, on the border of Bolivia.

Salta extends along the southern border of Bolivia from Jujuy to Formosa and Gran Chaco on the east; on the south are Santiago, Tucumán, and Catamarca; on the west Los Andes with Jujuy. The north and west sections are mountainous and cold, with high table-lands and fertile valleys; in the east the terrain comes down to the tropical country, where in places there are forests though some sections are hot and dry. Temperate and tropical products are found here; in the mountains are many varieties of minerals. Cattle are raised, some being driven over the mountains into Chile; hence the proposed railway to Antofagasta.

Salta, the capital, with an agreeable climate, is a considerable town, important as a railway centre and with trade of various kinds.

Los Andes, a Territory at the west, is a bleak mountain region, once belonging to Chile, and a part of the Puna de Atacama. It is but slightly explored, dry and sandy, with salt marshes; it appears to be rich in minerals.

San Antonio, the capital, is a place of small importance not on a railway.

Formosa and Gran Chaco, Territories east of Salta, are precisely opposite to Los Andes in character. Formosa has Bolivia on the northwest; on the long northeast boundary the Pilcomayo River separates it from Paraguay, which is also at the southeast, there separated by the Paraguay River. On the southwest the Bermejo divides it from the Chaco, while Salta is west.

The Chaco of similar shape has at the southeast a bit of the Paraguay River and country, and below a little of Corrientes across the Paraná. Santa Fé and Santiago del Estero are on the south, the latter with Salta west. These two Territories are truly semi-tropical, flat or undulating, sloping to the southeast, partly covered with dense forests, not thoroughly explored; partly with open plains, lakes and marshes, many rivers, much very fertile land suited to tropical products, some of which are grown, and excellent pasturage where herds of cattle are bred, horses, sheep, and goats. The quebracho industry for tannin, and the production of sugar are important, with some cotton plantations and castor oil factories.

Formosa, capital of that Territory, is important as a port, shipping a variety of products down the river, and as the terminus of a railway to go to Embarcación, opening up this rich Territory.

Resistencia, capital of the Chaco, on the Paraná River, is of equal and growing importance. It has railway connection with Santa Fé.

Misiones, at the extreme northeast of Argentina, is a Territory of some similarity to the two just mentioned, but with greater attractions and merit. Long and narrow, it extends up between Paraguay and Brazil, separated from the former country by the Paraná River on the west, from the latter by the Iguassú on the north and by the Uruguay on the southeast, Brazil enclosing it on the north, east, and south. Misiones joins the rest of Argentina only by a small strip along the Province Corrientes on the southwest. Misiones is a subtropical garden largely covered with beautiful forests where the picking of mate leaves is a leading industry; there is some timber extraction, and saw mills. It is an undulating plain with ranges of low mountains and hills. There are various minerals, and in open spaces some cattle.

Posadas, the capital, is a pleasant town, important as a railway and steamboat junction.

Catamarca, a Province again at the west, we find bordering on Chile, south of Los Andes and Salta, with Tucumán and Santiago east, and Córdoba and La Rioja south. The Province is largely mountainous, one peak in the eastern range, Aconquija, being over 15,000 feet. Some short torrential streams, formerly disappearing in salt marshes, are now utilized for irrigation. Cereals and other agricultural products, also cattle are raised. The Province is rich in minerals, with workings in gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and salt.

Catamarca, the capital, on the Catamarca River, is of some importance as the centre of a rich agricultural district.

Tucumán, east of Catamarca, south of Salta, with Santiago east and south, is the smallest of the Provinces, but more varied in character than most. It has snow-capped mountains, and well watered valleys and plains, some quite tropical; with agriculture, or with dense forests of quebracho, oak, pine, etc. There is activity in sugar refining and tanning, with steam saw mills, and with cereals and fruit.

Tucumán, the capital, is a large city, especially important, as the center of the sugar industry, and with many varied interests.

Santiago del Estero, more than seven times the size of Tucumán, is south of Salta and the Chaco, with Chaco and Santa Fé east, Córdoba south, and Catamarca and Tucumán west. Mostly in the lowlands, it is in places covered with forest; in other parts is a salt, clayey, partial desert which is now being crossed by railways. Here woodmen cut out quebracho trees, though in this section it does not rain for 11 months in the year, nor can wells, they say, be dug to get water unless they are over 3000 feet deep, as water obtained higher is salt. The summer temperature by day runs nearly to 120° F., while in winter it falls to 50°, with cool nights always. Water difficulties are obviously great, worse than formerly at Iquique. To cross these partly forested deserts by rail is a 40-hour journey. Between the two rivers, the Salado and Dulce, both used for irrigation, the soil is fertile, producing sugar cane, vines, wheat, alfalfa, for which the soil is favorable, coffee, and tobacco. Some quarrying of marble and gypsum goes on; but timber is the main industry.

The capital is a small town of the same name on the Rio Dulce.

La Rioja is a long, irregularly shaped Province south of Catamarca, with that and Córdoba east, San Luis and San Juan south, the latter running nearly all the way up on the west, leaving a small space of Rioja bordering on Chile. Among high mountains at the west are fertile irrigated valleys with varied agriculture; there are forests with quebracho, carob, and acacia; but much of the eastern part is low, sandy, and barren. Great mineral wealth of many varieties exists, but silver and copper are chiefly exploited.

La Rioja, the capital, is the centre of a rich fruit growing district, with some mining.

San Juan, with an extended border on Chile, has Rioja north and east, San Luis and Mendoza on the south, on the west are lofty mountains and well watered valleys; in the east barren sand hills and marshes. Wine making is the most important industry; varied minerals give promise for the future. The Province has been called rather slow, but it is now said to be waking up; irrigation is beginning and other improvements will follow.

Córdoba, an important Province, much larger, is the fourth in population and the second in wheat production. It has Santiago north, Santa Fé east, Buenos Aires and La Pampa south, and San Luis, La Rioja, and Catamarca west. Although mostly rather flat, there are mountains in the northwest of an altitude of 8000-9000 feet among which are deep broad valleys. The country is chiefly agricultural and pastoral.

Córdoba, the old capital, founded in 1573, in a charming location among the hills, preserves some rather mediaeval characteristics, its university dating from 1613. A wonderful reservoir is near, the Dique San Roque, called one of the largest semi-natural reservoirs in the world. A wall of masonry was built across a gorge among the mountains forming a lake which holds 825,000,000 cubic feet of water. Fifteen miles lower is a basin from which lead two primary canals carrying water for irrigation, which extends over 300,000 acres.

Mendoza, the third largest Province and the most southern of the Andean, with a long border on Chile, is just below San Juan; has San Luis on the east, and on the south the Territories of La Pampa Central and Neuquen. The surface is much diversified, containing the highest peaks of the Andes including Aconcagua at the west, and eight passes across the Andes, among them, the famous Uspallata, at the summit of which is the celebrated statue, the Christ of the Andes, at a height of 12,796 feet above the sea. More than 2000 feet below, the Trans-Andine tunnel pierces the range. The Province has many rivers from which there is extensive irrigation; for the climate and the soil are dry, though the latter is fertile when irrigated. It is a great section for grapes.

Mendoza, the capital, is headquarters for the wine industry. Grapes are brought thither from the regions north and south. Raisins and alcohol are also produced. Excellent livestock, cattle, horses, mules, donkeys, sheep, goats, and pigs are raised; in the San Rafael section, Durhams and Herefords, many of which are sent over to Chile.

San Luis, east both of Mendoza and San Juan, lies south of La Rioja and Córdoba, has the latter and La Pampa east, and La Pampa south. The Province has mountains of the Córdoba system, some rising to a height of 7000 feet, with fertile well watered valleys; at the west are swamps, while the south is flat and arid. There are a number of rivers and much attention is paid to agriculture, to cattle raising, and horse breeding. The minerals, of great variety, are hardly noticed.

Santa Fé, the last of the Provinces west of the Paraná River, extends along its right bank from the Chaco on the north a distance of nearly 500 miles to the Province of Buenos Aires on the south, with Corrientes and Entre Rios on the other side of the river, and Córdoba and Santiago on the west. This State, second in population to Buenos Aires, though fifth in area, is a great plain with slight elevations, having dense forests at the north, at the south the fertile prairie, and along the great river many islands, covered with luxuriant vegetation. It is an agricultural, cattle raising country, with mills and factories also; and with extensive commerce in cereals, meat, hides, quebracho extract, and timber, from the many fluvial ports. The chief of these, Rosario, is the second largest city of the Republic with a population of 317,000. The Province contains 3000 miles of railway.

Corrientes, east and south of the Paraná River, therefore south of Paraguay, has Misiones at the northeast, Brazil east, across the Uruguay River, Entre Rios south, and Santa Fé and the Gran Chaco west across the Paraná. The Province has temperate uplands and warmer lowlands, and is well watered by rivers and some lakes and marshes. Corrientes is prominent as a cattle-raising State and has also large flocks of sheep.

The capital, Corrientes, is an important river-port visited during most of the year by vessels drawing 12 or 13 feet. Goya, farther south, is famed for its excellent cheese.

Entre Rios, south of Corrientes, has Uruguay east beyond the Uruguay River, Buenos Aires south across the Paraná, and Santa Fé beyond the same river on the west. It is in general a fertile, well-watered plain, with a forest region at the northwest running over into Corrientes, containing much valuable timber. It is a stock-raising and an agricultural region, largely devoted to cereals, with grain of the finest quality. It has also many industrial establishments.

Paraná, the capital, is a growing centre with some fine buildings, electric lights, and other facilities. Concordia, on the Uruguay River, is an important commercial town.

Buenos Aires, the last, largest, and most important of the Provinces, with the greatest population, is the only one with an ocean front. Buenos Aires has on the north Córdoba and Santa Fé; northeast, on the other side of the Paraná and La Plata, Entre Rios and Uruguay; the Atlantic is on the east and south with a bit of Rio Negro, which with La Pampa is on the west, with a little also of Córdoba. The land is flat, but with two ranges of hills; the highest in one range is 1200, in the other about 3000 feet. Several useful, some navigable rivers flow towards the ocean. The country is agricultural and pastoral, especially devoted to cattle and wheat, but in the numerous towns, industries and manufactories are developing. Many great railway systems converge at the Federal Capital. There are good roads near most of the towns, which is not the case in the other Provinces, and good auto roads lead from Buenos Aires to Tigre and to La Plata.

South of the Provinces, at least below Buenos Aires, is what was once called Patagonia, now divided into Territories.

La Pampa Central, a Territory which extends farther north, is already from its population entitled to be a Province. Lying south of Mendoza, San Luis, and Córdoba, it has Buenos Aires on the east, Rio Negro Territory south, with the Colorado River as the dividing line; and west, Neuquen and Mendoza. The Territory is undulating, with hills, valleys, prairie, and lakes; the soil is generally fertile, yielding fine crops; wheat, corn, barley, linseed, alfalfa, vines, fruits. Large herds of cattle roam over the pastures but are usually sent out for fattening.

Neuquen, south of Mendoza, borders on Chile, has Rio Negro south, and also with La Pampa, east. The north and east parts are arid, but the west mountain section has fine fertile valleys and forests, with many rivers and lakes. A railway now making this section accessible, it will be more attractive to settlers.

Rio Negro, first of the divisions of Argentina to stretch across the country, has Neuquen and La Pampa on the north, Buenos Aires and the Atlantic east, Chubut south, and Chile and Neuquen west. The section between the Negro and Colorado Rivers is fertile, also patches near other streams; wherever irrigated, good crops of wheat, corn, oats, and alfalfa are certain. Fruits and vines do well in the Negro Valley. Excellent timber is exported in beams and planks. There are some towns and many agricultural colonies; trade goes on with Chile in cattle and sheep. Several rivers are navigable and a railway has been constructed from the port San Antonio to Lake Nahuel-Huapi.

Chubut, south of Rio Negro, also extends across from the Atlantic to Chile, with Santa Cruz on the south. The central part has little vegetation but in the west are fertile valleys, and good grazing for cattle and sheep. There are millions of each, and many horses. Cereals and alfalfa are also raised in the east, with temperate zone fruits and berries. Near the oil fields of Comodoro Rivadavia is excellent farming land under cultivation. In this section there is now great activity on account of the petroleum development; some railways have been constructed and one is expected soon to cross the country. There is trade in wool and hides; gold, copper, and salt exist.

Santa Cruz, the largest division next to Buenos Aires, south of Chubut, has the Atlantic on the east and Chile on the south and west. The northwest is rather barren and rocky, with dense forests farther south; but near the coast and south of the Santa Cruz River are fine pastures supporting great flocks of sheep. There are many rivers and lakes, several, like the Buenos Aires, on or near the Chilian boundary. Wool, frozen mutton, and timber are exported.

Tierra del Fuego has the Atlantic Ocean on the north, east, and south, with the Chilian part of the island on the west. This triangular part of the island is mountainous, but has sheltered valleys, good pasturage, and vast forests with excellent timber, to some extent exploited. There are large flocks of sheep; the gold and copper deposits are unworked except for washing the sands. The capital, Ushuaiá, on the Beagle Channel, is a small penal colony.

CHAPTER XXXVI
ARGENTINA: SEAPORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION

Argentina has a long sea coast, about 1300 miles, with a number of gulfs and good harbors. The ports of Buenos Aires and Ensenada, both constructed at great expense, on the wide La Plata River, may be regarded as seaports. The best natural harbor is 500 miles by sea south of Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, where the Government has built a port and naval station, and the harbor is accessible to large ocean vessels. Farther south are other ports, not greatly frequented on account of lack of population, but of growing importance. North of Buenos Aires are river ports, some of these visited by ocean steamers, others by river boats only, a few of the latter 1000 miles from the sea. The river ports above Buenos Aires with facilities for ocean liners besides Rosario, are Campana, Zarate, Ibicuy, San Nicolas, and Santa Fé (Colastiné).

Seaports

Buenos Aires has port facilities of the first order, though insufficient for its great commerce. These are in two divisions: one, the natural port, is on the Riachuelo, a small river south of the city, which probably determined the precise location of its site. The river admits vessels of 18-foot draft. Capable of an annual traffic of 1,200,000 tons, it is of great value in national commerce. There are wooden quays on the north side of the river, now to be rebuilt at a cost of $400,000, and on the south, concrete docks and quays constructed by the Southern Railway. On that side are some of the noted frigorificos and the famous Mercado de Frutos, the Central Produce Market, with 180,000 square yards of floor space.

The main port, receiving the ocean steamers, is on the city front, extending two miles directly along the Plata River. Constructed at great expense, and expected to supply the needs of the city for years, it was completed in 1897; but the growth of the city soon outran its capacity, so that in 1911 provision was made for its enlargement, which, however, has not yet been accomplished. About $35,000,000 have been spent altogether. The port consists of two basins, darsenas, the north and south, with four docks between having a depth of 23 feet and a total area of 164 acres. The length of the quays which may be used for loading and discharging freight is about ten miles. Along the docks are 33 warehouses with 30,000,000 tons capacity, and four sheds. Grain elevators have a total capacity of 300,000 tons of cereals, and granaries of 55,000 tons in sacks. Loading under cover, the work goes on in bad weather, each elevator loading 20,000 tons a day. Two dry docks accommodate ships 400 feet long; 874 electric lights, 100 feet apart, serve the harbor entrance. Sixty-four thousand ships with 22,000,000 tonnage have entered the harbor in a year, bringing 85 per cent of the imports and carrying out 50 per cent of the exports of the country.

Ensenada, the port of the made-to-order city of La Plata, more noteworthy for its university and museum than for its commercial affairs, has been constructed for the relief of Buenos Aires, and because, 35 miles lower down, the water naturally has greater depth. The port has 8000 feet of quays, warehouses, and other necessary appliances. Two American packing houses are here located.

Mar del Plata, the Newport of South America, 250 miles by rail south of Buenos Aires, is being developed also as a commercial port, with quays, warehouses, etc.

Bahia Blanca, with a population of 80,000 in the city and its several ports, is about 700 miles south of Buenos Aires. It is of such importance that the Southern Railway has four different routes for the journey. The city also has direct connection with Mendoza and with other parts of the country. Being situated on a large well protected bay of the ocean, it has a naturally better harbor than Buenos Aires and may be compared to Liverpool as Buenos Aires to London. Since 1882 its development has been rapid. With more than ordinary advantages for business for a city of its size, including factories, warehouses, and good hotels, it is a railway centre for lines spreading over the agricultural and stock-raising districts of southern Buenos Aires, La Pampa, San Luis, Mendoza, and San Juan, and is the natural port for these regions. Belgrano, said to belong to the Compagnie Française, is the real harbor of the city. Near is the port Ingeniero White with a T-shaped pier, accommodating 16 ships in 30 feet of water. Electrical elevators handle 6000 tons of grain in eight hours, while extensive shops and foundries are a part of the equipment. Puerto Galvan, 1¹⁄₄ miles west, belongs to the Buenos Aires and Pacific Railway. Eight ocean steamers of 25-foot draft and one of 30 may be accommodated here. The basins and warehouses are of reinforced concrete; elevators with storage capacity of 18,000 tons and other facilities exist. Besides the commercial ports, Bahia Blanca has also the naval port of the Republic, 25 miles southwest of the city on the Southern Railway. The channel entrance is 25 feet deep at high tide; there are various quays, also a dry dock, 730 feet long and 33 deep; a new one of larger size is in preparation. Other facilities are provided, machinery, workshops, hospital, electric lighting, etc. There are various fortifications, strategic railway, telegraph, semaphores, and light-houses. Hotels for immigrants have been built in the city nearby for the benefit of those who will go to work in the south. Sanitary works, costing nearly $2,000,000, are to be installed.

Smaller Ports. A number of small ports on the ocean are served by the Mihanovich Line, formerly also by German lines, while various ocean steamers call at individual ports. Viedma on the Negro River is the chief port for the Rio Negro Province, with a fine harbor. San Antonio is on the same Gulf. On the large Gulf Nuevo are the ports Pirámides on the north side and Madryn on the south, the latter a small place, but with over-seas and coasting trade; a railway 45 miles long goes to Trelew, and to the capital of Chubut, Rawson. On Camerones Bay several British companies have large sheep ranches which many years ago counted 250,000 sheep, 2500 cattle, and 4000 horses.

Comodoro Rivadavia, the famous oil port, is on the Gulf of St. George, with Visser and other ports in the vicinity. Deseado is a small port with anchorage for ships six miles in. San Julian has a harbor with seven fathoms of water. Puerto Gallegos affords good anchorage ten miles up stream for ships of 10-20-foot draft. Sheep and cattle are near. This port, the capital of Santa Cruz, has weekly service to Punta Arenas. Santa Cruz, on a river of that name, is the most important town, with a fish cultural establishment. Ushuaiá receives monthly calls, the voyage from Buenos Aires occupying 45-50 days according to the number of calls en route.

Inland Transportation

The rivers of Argentina are of great importance for inland traffic, with many ports of local service for the export of grain and other products, and for varied imports; the chief towns so engaged deserve mention. On the Paraná River, the principal artery of river travel, excellent steamers run up to Corrientes, and on the Paraguay as far as Formosa and Asunción; larger ones go to Rosario only, a night journey of 240 miles, passing a number of small ports on the way.

Rosario’s importance as a commercial city is due to General Urquiza, who in 1859 made it a port of entry. Ocean steamers drawing 28 feet come to its docks. Situated in the great cereal section, as a grain port it now surpasses Buenos Aires. The city located in the Province of Santa Fé is on a bluff above the Paraná River, along which an expensive system of docks has been arranged, the new port extending over two miles with a minimum depth at the wharves of 25 feet. Separate wharves for ocean and for coasting steamers are provided, elevators, depots under the wharves for 30,000 tons of cereals, chutes from warehouses on the bank, all kinds of needed machinery, depots for general goods, flour mills, a sugar refinery, and railway connection with all of the different lines. Port extensions costing $3,000,000 include a sea wall 1640 feet long, warehouses, railway lines, and loading apparatus. The production of $75,000,000 worth of sugar is evidence of prosperity. In other parts of the city are factories of various kinds. Four railroads centering here afford direct communication with other Provinces. Of course the second city of Argentina has all the conveniences of a place of its size, population 317,000, in the way of fine buildings, hotels, clubs, parks, theatres, banks, etc.

Paraná, capital of Entre Rios, 310 miles from Buenos Aires on the east bank of the Paraná River, is the next considerable city; its port, Bajada Grande, a little below, has some local industries and trade in agricultural and pastoral products.

Santa Fé, capital of that Province, though far smaller and less commercial than Rosario, was founded before Buenos Aires by Juan de Garay, seven miles up the small stream Quiloaza, at a time when a quieter port for their small vessels seemed more desirable than the great river, which at Rosario is 20 miles wide. An important railway centre, its port is Colastiné, opposite to Paraná, and accessible to ocean steamers.

Corrientes, population 30,000, is a rather old fashioned quiet town in a sheep raising district, with some cattle; the last port on its left bank before the turn of the river, which beyond is called the Alto Paraná. Sailing straight north one is on the Paraguay, up which the larger steamers go to Asunción. The upper Paraná though broad is much shallower, accordingly at Corrientes smaller steamers are taken for Posadas 36 hours distant. The Aripe Rapids, 145 miles up, also make these necessary. Above Posadas, boats of still lighter draft are used for the three days’ sail to the Iguassú, where a landing for the Falls is made at Puerto Aiguirre, a mile up the river. The boats continue up the Paraná beyond the northern extremity of Argentina to the Falls of La Guayra.

Continuing north from Corrientes up the Paraguay, the mouth of the Bermejo is soon passed and at Asunción the mouth of the Pilcomayo is reached, the northern boundary of this part of Argentina, the Territory of Formosa. The lower large tributary, the Bermejo, separating Formosa from the Chaco, has recently been made navigable by clearing the banks and cleaning the river bed, so that with one transshipment traffic may be carried on for 450 miles. The journey requires three weeks; but Villa Embarcación, an important centre of trade on the border of Bolivia was thus made accessible by water, the town already having rail connection with Jujuy and Salta, and being but 15 miles from Orán, another important terminus. Tropical products, as sugar, cotton, and fruit, are of value, and oil from Bolivia. The native population of El Chaco is estimated at 25,000 Indians of various tribes; as many more in Formosa. The forest covered plains are not thoroughly explored, some persons having lost their lives in the attempt; several are known to have been murdered in 1900 and 1902. Aside from these rivers there is little steamboat service in the interior.

The Plata Basin, in size and flow of water second in the world, and now in economic importance surpassing the Amazon, includes also the Uruguay River which separates the two Republics, serving both for a considerable distance. The Uruguay, formed by several streams which rise in the Serra do Mar of Brazil, has a length of 800 miles. It is navigable for ocean steamers 100 miles to the falls at Concordia and Salta, above these for smaller craft. Steamers of the Mihanovich Line from Buenos Aires, after crossing the Plata enter the rather muddy Uruguay. Passing on the right the town of Fray Bentos in Uruguay, the first port of consequence in Argentina is Concepción del Uruguay, a stock raising centre near which are large estancias, some devoted to pure blooded, others to crossed stock. Nine of these estates cover 370,000 acres, with hardly 1200 devoted to agriculture. Concordia, population 25,000, a little below the Falls, is an important railway junction with good harbor accommodations, flour mills, elevators, etc., exporting wheat, cattle, hides, wool, linseed, mate, and quebracho.

Railways

The railway system of Argentina is developed to a greater extent than that of any other South American country, largely due to the opportunity for easy construction presented by its great plains. The land transportation is complicated, as there is a real network of railways centering at Buenos Aires besides smaller centres at Bahia Blanca, Rosario, and Santa Fé; other cities are at points of junction of several lines; the most important of these will be mentioned. The railways have an extension of 22,720 miles, about 4000 of which are Government owned, 18,000 of private capital, 670 provincial, and 600 of industrial railways.

The first railway line in Argentina, six miles long, was constructed in 1857. The first of importance, 246 miles, from Rosario to Córdoba, was built by Wm. Wheelwright in the 60’s. January 1st, 1918, about 22,500 miles of railway were open to traffic, with other mileage in construction. The careful policy pursued in Argentina during this development has prevented the great evils experienced in the United States of local land booms and town lot speculations. Large investments in railways have been made by European countries, especially by Great Britain, which has about $1,000,000,000 so placed, and France the next smaller sum. The value of the privately owned lines is $1,220,000,000, while that of the Government owned is $150,000,000. In 1915 the equipment included 7000 locomotives, 6300 passenger cars, 160,000 freight and service cars. The density of traffic in Buenos Aires is shown from the fact that 500 passenger trains daily leave the city. Instead of taxes the railways pay the Government 3 per cent of the net receipts, which is spent on making roads to the railway stations and bridges; 60 per cent is allowed for expenses. If above 17 per cent profit is made by a company in three successive years the Government has a right to lower the rates. The railways may build branch lines 47 miles long without special permission, if they do not run within 12¹⁄₂ miles of another road. Several roads have constructed irrigation works along their lines, for which they receive Government 5 per cent bonds at par. In 1917 an increase of rates of 22 per cent was allowed by the Government to cover extra operation costs.

The Central Argentina is one of the most important of the railways, serving the chief cities of north and central Argentina, Buenos Aires, Rosario, Córdoba, Santa Fé, Tucumán, etc., and some of the best agricultural lands of the country. It has the finest railway station and terminal in South America, the Retiro, and a mileage of 3300. The main line, extending 720 miles to Tucumán, crosses the Provinces of Buenos Aires, Santa Fé, Santiago del Estero, and Tucumán; there are branches in these Provinces and in Córdoba. Elaborate extensions planned, but suspended on account of the outbreak of the War, will doubtless be carried out before long. On account of heavy suburban traffic the lines for 17 miles out of Buenos Aires have been electrified by a third rail. Two thousand passenger trains a week are handled at the station and 9,000,000 passengers annually. Through express service is maintained, and connection is made with the Government Line to the Bolivia frontier at La Quiaca. In 1913 about 22,000,000 passengers were carried; 9,000,000 tons of freight are handled, 2,000,000 head of cattle, and other live stock. Aside from the stock the chief freight is cereals, but sugar, timber, wool, hides, hay, and lime are also carried.

EASTERN ARGENTINA, URUGUAY

The Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway, equally important, with the longest mileage, operates about 3800 miles of road. Ninety per cent of the mileage is in the province of Buenos Aires, serving the important cities of La Plata, capital of the province, Mar del Plata, the famous shore resort, the port, Bahia Blanca, etc. The freight station is the largest in South America with storage capacity for 230,000 bags of grain and 2000 tons of other freight. A line goes west from Bahia Blanca through northern Patagonia to Neuquen and Senilossa, 480 miles, which is handling excellent traffic especially in cattle. Important irrigation works have been made by the railway in the Rio Negro and Neuquen Valleys. The road has a terminus in Plaza Constitución, Buenos Aires, where 35 trains daily, including express and de luxe, serve 25-30 million passengers in normal years. In 1913 besides 6,500,000 head of live stock the road transported 1,800,000 tons of wheat, 1,000,000 of corn, 227,000 of potatoes, 920,000 of lime and stone, and 2,500,000 general freight.

The Buenos Aires and Pacific, an ambitious and adventurous road, has nearly equal mileage, 3535, some of which are leased. As its name implies, it operates the main part of the only transcontinental line of South America. In addition to the cross country line from Buenos Aires to Mendoza, and beyond that, the Argentine section of the Trans-Andine, 111 miles to the Chilian Line midway of the tunnel, amounting with branches to 1000 miles, the Company has acquired by lease and construction the Bahia Blanca and North Western Railway, now extended to Mendoza, with branches, a length of 900 miles. From Bahia Blanca a line called the Patagonas Extension has been constructed 167 miles to Carmen de Patagonas at the mouth of the Negro, giving access to northern Patagonia. Land is being irrigated with water from the Colorado River in the effort to attract colonists. It is a property which has been extended too rapidly to pay dividends at the moment, but of an assured future. On the North Western Railway wheat, barley, oats, wine, maize, cattle, sheep, and general merchandise are the freight; the passenger business is small in comparison.

The Buenos Aires Western Railway is fourth in importance, with 1870 miles of track extending from the Once Station, on the Buenos Aires subway in the heart of the city, to sections of La Pampa and San Luis; primarily a freight road, it now carries many passengers. Electricity is used for suburban traffic. By tunnel from the Once station, freight is carried to the port, being by so much ahead of New York. With the Great Southern, the Western has leased the Midland Railway from Buenos Aires to Carhue, 320 miles. In 1912-13 the road carried over 7,000,000 head of live stock, nearly 3,000,000 tons of freight, and 1,000,000 passengers. Wheat, maize, hay, and other agricultural products are the bulk of the freight.

The Córdoba Central, operating 1200 miles, is an amalgamation of several lines extending from that city, one now reaching Buenos Aires, one to San Francisco connecting with Santa Fé and Rosario lines, and another to Tucumán, there connecting with the Government owned road, the Central Northern Railway, to the frontier. It is hoped that the small mileage lacking in Bolivia will soon be completed, when, as the gauge is the same, it will be possible to operate through cars from La Paz to Buenos Aires. The sugar lands of the north are now traversed by this road, sugar and cereals being important freight.

The Entre Rios Railway is a part of the through rail route to Asunción, Paraguay, beginning at Ibicuy on the Paraná River where it is connected with the Buenos Aires Central by ferry, that road bringing the trains from Buenos Aires. The road, about 800 miles long, has the standard gauge, 4 feet 8¹⁄₂ inches.

The Argentina North East Railway, in which the preceding is largely interested, extends through Entre Rios, Corrientes, and a bit of Misiones to Posadas, forming another part of the road to Asunción. It has 750 miles of the same gauge. On account of the war and decrease in traffic, difficulties were experienced; but in 1917-18 there was great improvement, the cattle transport breaking all records, and oranges becoming an important item. By means of a ferry across the Alto Paraná River from Posadas to Encarnación there is through service with sleeping and dining cars from Buenos Aires to Asunción, on account of which travel has greatly increased as well as shipment of freight.

The last three railways with several French roads were in 1912 incorporated under the name of the Argentine Railway, a Maine corporation, but on account of difficulties from the War, receivers were afterward appointed. All of the railways mentioned are British owned, mostly of broad gauge, 5¹⁄₂ feet. One more is the Central Railway of the Chubut Company from Port Madryn to Trelaw, about 50 miles, a section settled chiefly by the Welsh. They plan to carry the road across to the Andean foothills.

While the investments of the British are far larger, the French also saw here an opportunity and financed several railways.

The Province of Santa Fé Railway is the most important, with 1200 miles of line and extensions planned to Asunción;

The Province of Buenos Aires Railway with 800 miles has a line to Rosario, and one to the coal docks and wharves of the port of La Plata; and

The Rosario to Puerto Belgrano, on Bahia Blanca, 500 miles long, is of broad gauge with the idea of exchanging freight with the British lines; the other two lines are of one metre.

The Buenos Aires Central is a locally controlled road operating 250 miles including an important section from Buenos Aires to Zarate, where ferry connection is made with lines already spoken of to Asunción.

The War greatly affected conditions in Argentina, but previously the British-owned roads had made good returns besides giving work to many British both in Argentina and at home; as the rails, rolling stock, and coal are all British. Trade has naturally followed the invested dollar.

The Government Railways have been constructed under a comprehensive plan chiefly to promote settlement in outlying districts and to develop fertile territory. Deficits have resulted, but recently improvements have been shown in decreasing expenses and increase of gross receipts.

The Central Northern is an important road for tourists and business men, a metre gauge running from Santa Fé by Tucumán, Jujuy, and Negra Muerta to La Quiaca on the frontier. It has branches extending to Resistencia, capital of El Chaco, on the west side of the Paraná; and to Santiago del Estero, to Salta, and to Embarcación, the last, it is hoped, to be extended to Yacuiba and ultimately to Santa Cruz of the Bolivian Oriente. The road to La Quiaca passes a height of 12,000 feet, the terminus being above 11,000. Salta, the terminus of another branch, is 6000 feet lower; Embarcación is lower still, on a navigable stream, the Bermejo. To this point the Government is building a road from Formosa on the Paraguay River to open up that Territory; 186 of the 437 miles are already completed. This rich country now occupied by savages will then be a source of wealth. A road running northeast from Diamante, Entre Rios, when finished will open a rich territory; 106 miles are now in operation.

The Patagonian Railways will make accessible a large region which is well worth while. Plans call for over 1200 miles of road, 560 of which are now open and showing increase of earnings. One line from San Antonio on the Gulf of San Matias to Lake Nahuel Huapi at San Carlos de Bariloche is just completed, nearly 300 miles. From the Lake it may be carried over the mountains to connect with the Chilian Railways at Osorno. Another road is building from Comodoro Rivadavia on the Gulf of St. George to Lake Buenos Aires, now complete to Colonia Sarmiento, 122 miles. An important line running more north and south has been begun and opened 176 miles from Port Deseado in Santa Cruz to Colonia Las Heras, following up the Deseado River, later crossing the railway from Comodoro Rivadavia and going on towards Nahuel Huapi, to the terminus of these lines. A road is planned from Puerto Gallegos to Chile, 84 miles towards Punta Arenas with a branch north to the Puerto Deseado Railway. A narrow gauge is talked of from San Julian, half way up the coast toward Puerto Deseado, to the Chilian boundary with one branch to Lake Argentina, the other to Lake Buenos Aires.

Other lines are proposed in the north: one from Salta to Huaytiquina on the Chilian border, 190 miles, to cost 20,000,000 pesos (if paper, $8,800,000); this Chile is expected to continue to Antofagasta; one on the other side of the country, from Candelaria in Misiones, where a port is to be made on the Alto Paraná, will go northeast to ports on the Uruguay, connecting the two rivers with 625 miles of light railway. An industrial railway is expected from Goya or Reconquista through the quebracho forest to the western part of Santiago del Estero.

An aeroplane service for mail and passengers has been organized to go from Bahia Blanca to Puerto Gallegos, making ten stops en route.

CHAPTER XXXVII
ARGENTINA: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES

The chief sources of the wealth of Argentina are familiar to everyone with any knowledge of world affairs: cattle and agriculture. Stock raising is said to comprise about 50 per cent of the wealth. According to the census of 1914 its value of $8,000,000,000, including land, animals, and machinery, was just about that. The animals were estimated at 1¹⁄₂ billion, the land and fixed installations at 6 billions. In stock of various kinds, Argentina is fifth in the world: with 6 per cent of the total number of cattle, she is third in sheep with 8 per cent, fourth in horses with 4 per cent, fifth in goats with 4 per cent, and eighth in pork with 1.2 per cent.

Live Stock

Cattle. As to be expected, the live stock industry came first, requiring less labor. The early development was a natural one, cattle roaming freely over the plains and multiplying. From these wild herds, descendants of those brought over by early colonists, one could take all he wished up to 10,000-12,000 head, or more with permission from the Governor. But within the last 40 years much blooded stock has been imported from Europe, and scientific breeding has been practised. Twenty-five years ago the stock was estimated as worth $200,000,000. Of great value to the industry was the founding of the Argentina Rural Society in 1866; further, the discovery of the preservation of meat at freezing, and the arrangements for the transport of chilled meat. The numerous Stock Shows greatly contributed to improvements. Beginning at Palermo, Buenos Aires, in 1858, these have for many years been held there annually; others at various centres as at Rosario, Bahia Blanca, Santa Fé, Concordia, etc.

On the pampas all over the country cattle and sheep are raised, though areas are still open in less favorable or accessible districts. Further increase especially of cattle will depend to some extent on the improvement of more pasture lands by the cultivation of alfalfa and other pasturage. The utility of alfalfa, both as improving the land for wheat and as food for cattle was early recognized. Its introduction was a boon to raisers of stock including horses, the alfalfa growing on brackish lands formerly thought useless, as well as on wheat lands. On the largest estancias 20,000-50,000 acres are sometimes given to artificial pasturage chiefly alfalfa. This valuable forage to which 20,000,000 acres are devoted gives 3-4 crops a year, 6-8 tons to the acre.

A great advance in the quality of the stock naturally followed the importation between 1901-14 of pedigreed animals, some at fancy prices: $18,000 for a bull, several horses at $150,000 or more each; altogether 13,000 cattle, 35,000 sheep, 6000 horses, 3000 pigs, worth $14,000,000; in one year stock of various kinds worth $1,500,000. Most of these came from England. Durhams, Shorthorns, are most favored, but many Herefords are raised, Polled Angus, and other breeds. As dairy interests are developing, Durhams are preferred as good milkers as well as good meat. Of the 30,000,000 head of cattle existing before the War (recent figures are 25,900,000), the largest number was in the Province of Buenos Aires, about 7,000,000, with Santa Fé and Córdoba following; millions more are scattered in the Provinces and Territories from the extreme north almost to the extreme south. The export of live stock to neighboring countries has in peace times amounted to $9,000,000. In some districts drought has been a drawback to stock raising, yet it has been difficult to convince the small farmers of the desirability of artesian wells. Some persons have thought that as more land is irrigated for farming the amount of stock would diminish; but Martinez, the leading authority on such matters, states that 50,000 square leagues will remain exclusively for breeding. This extent of territory will support 40,000,000 horned cattle and 200,000,000 sheep, besides the millions which would be raised in the cultivated districts on the intensive principle. Patagonia has large regions suited only for stock raising.

Sheep cannot be allowed on the high priced land, ruining the alfalfa, so they are largely relegated to the outlying districts and to Patagonia; but some high bred sheep are found on model estancias. In the south the sheep are generally of Falkland and Romney Marsh origin, crossed with merinos; they are large and fat, weighing about 150 pounds, some over 200. Some proprietors produce fleece of 9 pounds weight. Thick, short wool is preferred, as frost on long wool prevents the animals moving and so causes great mortality in winter. In the north Lincolns are favored. The largest numbers of sheep are in Buenos Aires, Mesopotamia, San Luis, and Patagonia. During the War wool was in great demand, and in 1916-17, 350,000 bales were exported, two-thirds to the United States; in 1917-18, 181,000 tons, one fourth of which was washed. Diseases are practically unknown, and the increase sometimes reaches 112 per cent. A mortality of 20 per cent is due to cold weather. The number of sheep in 1915 was stated as 80,000,000; recent figures are 43,300,000. Some of the sheep ranches are very large, one in Santa Cruz having 100,000 acres fenced in; others have 50,000 acres or more.

Horses number about 10,000,000; Argentine racers are of the highest quality, as might be expected from the importation of high class blooded stock. Hogs number 3,000,000, goats over 4,000,000.

Packing Houses

The frigorificos are famous; extremely important and prosperous. British capital was early invested in this industry, both cattle raising and packing houses. In 1907 American capital began to turn in this direction. A Swift plant it is said made a profit of 35 per cent in 1916, one of Wilson with smaller investment, 300 per cent. Some plants are for canning also; besides there is meat extract, flour, tongues, soup, dried beef, etc., and by-products such as hides, hoofs, grease, etc. In 1919, 15 frigorificos were in operation, three in Buenos Aires, two in La Plata, three in Zarate, two in Santa Cruz, and one each in Bahia Blanca, General Lopez, Santa Fé, Campana, and Tierra del Fuego. Of these one belongs to Armour and three to Swift; the former was expecting a daily capacity of 2500 cattle, 5000 sheep, and 3000 hogs; others were to increase production. During the War the demand for meat as we know increased. Normally three-fourths of the amount exported is frozen beef, with mutton next in quantity; but in 1917 for war purposes canned meat was nearly half in weight of the frozen beef. The latter was valued at $77,000,000, the former at $37,000,000, the total meat export at $137,000,000. Due to millions spent on pedigreed stock, Argentine meat is of high quality.

In nine months of 1918 the export of stock products, $365,000,000, was 60 per cent of the total. Of meat export, frozen beef was more than half and canned beef a quarter. Wool both dirty and washed was a large item, also skins and fat. Cattle exported on the hoof, 143,000 head, were worth $4,200,000. Butter was a large item and cheese considerable. From 1908 to 1914 the increase had been in value 116 per cent. In four months of 1919, 1,000,000 head of cattle were slaughtered, 1,300,000 sheep, and 55,000 hogs; a larger number than in any corresponding period. The chief purchasers now are England, France, and Italy; but exports to other countries are likely to develop so that increase in stock raising is desirable and the prospect excellent. The cultivation of alfalfa has increased the capacity of different lands 3-25 times. It is the feeling on the part of some Argentines that the packing house industry now dominated by foreigners should be rather in the hands of natives; and it is hoped that by eliminating the excessive profits of the frigorificos, both stock raiser and consumer may receive a benefit.

Agriculture

Of late years agricultural products in ordinary times have outstripped stock raising in value, in some years of good crops being practically double. While regarded as preëminently an agriculture country, hardly more than one twelfth of the Argentine area is devoted to the industry although over one-third is arable land, about 250,000,000 acres. Yet the cultivated land has increased rapidly, being four times as large in 1916 as in 1872. Thirty-five thousand square miles are annually offered for sale. The average area of 62,000,000 acres of cultivated land varies by 2,000,000-3,000,000 from year to year. Of such land one-third is in the Province of Buenos Aires, one-fourth in Santa Fé, one-fifth in Córdoba, with Pampa Central, Entre Rios, San Luis, and other sections following in rapidly diminishing scale. While the area of wheat and linseed doubled, that of corn quadrupled, and of oats increased 30-fold; yet wheat is a long leader. The chief products cultivated are wheat, corn, flax, oats, barley, alfalfa, sugar cane, and the vine. Others of importance are tobacco, cotton, peanuts, potatoes, vegetables, yerba mate, mandioca, fruits, etc. In 1916 over 2,000,000 tons of wheat, and nearly 3,000,000 of corn were exported with some linseed, oats, and barley. In 1919-20 there was a decrease in acreage sown to wheat and corn, but a slight increase in linseed. A wheat crop of 5,000,000 tons is expected for 1921 with 3,200,000 for export; of linseed 1,000,000 tons.

Wheat. Over 24,000,000 acres are devoted to its culture. Although the soil is famed for its fertility the average yield is not very high, about 11 bushels an acre. One writer gives 23 bushels as the average in Mendoza with one property producing 50 bushels. The climate is sufficiently agreeable, but in some years the rainfall is inadequate, and occasionally a visitation of locusts seriously affects the crops, destroying those in some districts; but the regions are so extensive that all cannot be affected at the same time.

Extensive farming is beginning to give way to intensive, especially near the city of Buenos Aires, where land values are now very high. Argentine authorities state that in general a great improvement in farming methods is imperative. Hundreds of large estates are owned by Argentines, while British investments in cattle and agricultural lands probably amount to $50,000,000. Only 30 per cent of the estates are cultivated by their owners. Rentals of lease holders are usually so short and uncertain that they suffer many embarrassments and lack ambition to install desirable improvements, to plant orchards, etc.; a situation which must be remedied to attain permanent prosperity. The Argentine leaders realize that instruction is needed to show the importance of varied cultivation, of rotation in crops, of including some stock raising, and on other matters. Better credit arrangements are suggested and other benefits, one of which has been noted in connection with the countries farther north, the use of fibre plants to make their own bags, thus saving a vast outlay for the importation of such needed articles.

Linseed is an important and lucrative production although the fibre is generally burned. This might be utilized for paper, and better varieties may be introduced to advantage.

Cotton, it is thought, will soon be cultivated on a large scale. Much progress has been made in the last decade, and nearly 40,000 acres are now devoted to its culture, most of them in the Chaco, a few less than 5000 in Corrientes, Misiones, and Formosa. Regions in Salta, La Rioja, Santiago del Estero, Jujuy, Tucumán, and Catamarca are also adapted to its growth, but especially sections near the Paraná River and its tributaries, altogether nearly 350,000 square miles. Capital and labor are wanting, but as little machinery is required, less capital is needed for this industry than for most others. Most of the region is favorable for river transport. The cotton raised is of good quality, classed as Strict good, Middling, or Fully good or Middling; fine and silky, over an inch in length. Several varieties are cultivated. Land is about $20 an acre. The production in 1920-21 is expected to be 75 per cent more than in 1919-20 and nearly seven times that of four years ago. It is hoped that within a few years Argentina will provide cotton for the great manufacturing nations; also that cotton gins will be supplied, and factories for developing the by-products, oil, etc., as also for the cotton itself. Cotton gins already exist in Resistencia and several colonies, where 2000 tons have been seeded.

Sugar is an important production in the north, especially in the Province of Tucumán, which contains about 85 per cent of the 250,000 acres devoted to sugar in 1913, 9 per cent being in Jujuy. The largest amount ever produced was in 1914, about 336,000 tons. In 1913 over 3,000,000 tons of cane were ground to produce 275,000 tons of sugar, an average of 8.8 per cent, in Jujuy a trifle more. Later production fell, in 1917 to 80,000 tons, but rose in 1919 to 250,000, of which Tucumán produced 178,000 from 2,500,000 tons of cane. The average yield is under 12 tons per acre. Java cane has lately been introduced, which will undoubtedly produce more than double the cane to the acre now obtained from the native. Much more land is suited to its growth and the country might be self-sustaining in this line, as it has been one or two years and also have some to export. Of the 39 sugar mills and refineries in the country, 27 are in Tucumán, the rest in Santa Fé, Corrientes, Salta, Jujuy, Chaco, and the Capital. Two are refineries only, these in Rosario and Buenos Aires; nine refine part of their production, the rest are sugar mills only. The greatest capacity of the mills is 417,000 tons, of the refineries 150,400 tons. About 15,000 persons are employed in the industry, at some seasons over 40,000. Several foreign companies are engaged and several local, which have paid good dividends. In the entire industry about $100,000,000 is invested, of which Americans are said to have 10 per cent. The erection of two sugar beet factories is considered.

Rice culture, like that of cotton, has been developed in the last decade, as yet in few sections although most of the country north of Buenos Aires has many marshy tracts suitable to its growth. Of 25,000 acres planted in 1918-19 Tucumán had 13,000, Misiones one-fourth as much, Salta, Jujuy, and elsewhere the remainder. In Tucumán the harvest is most plentiful, about 1250 pounds to the acre. More than three times the area should be planted to supply the country, and a superfluity could be exported.

Tobacco has long been cultivated though not largely, 40,000 acres in 1895; but there was a gradual decrease until recently, when production has been augmented almost to earlier figures. Corrientes, Salta, and Misiones seem best adapted to its growth. In 1917 over 2,000,000 pounds were exported worth $500,000. A large and good use for nicotine is for pastoral and agricultural washes.

Vineyards. The climate and soil of Catamarca, Rioja, San Juan, Mendoza, and Neuquen are excellently adapted for grape culture, and many varieties flourish of native and European grapes, but the great rise of freight rates interferes with sending the fruit to the Buenos Aires market for consumption. As a pound of grapes in Buenos Aires costs 15 times as much as the fruit grower receives, the fruit has become a luxury for the rich. The making of wine is therefore the chief industry of Mendoza, where 1500 bodegas or wine cellars of varying style and capacity exist, some, models of their kind. Some 15 of these have cost about $500,000 each, but the more common type numbering 1000 have a value of $50,000-$100,000. An excellent quality of light wine is made for consumption in the country. The Province of San Juan also contains extensive vineyards and expensive bodegas. At least 3000 establishments are yearly in operation. About 1¹⁄₂ billion pounds of grapes are used to obtain 500 million litres of wine (a 68 per cent return) of which 400,000,000 come from Mendoza. A great future for the industry is expected unless prohibition becomes world wide.

Fruit of semi-tropical and temperate zones is increasingly cultivated, all varieties in the various sections, but in insufficient quantities. In Chubut apples, pears, plums, cherries, and ordinary berries of the best quality are raised; but much fruit is imported from Chile with some from Europe and the United States.

Forestry

The development of forestry is slight and the importation of timber for building and furniture is large; yet the country contains all that is needed, and by planting under favorable conditions might have much more.

Quebracho. In the subtropical country, which is the entire north aside from the mountains, the most valuable wood is the quebracho, of two varieties, red and white. The tree takes 90-100 years to reach maturity, with a height of 80 feet and a diameter of about 2¹⁄₂ feet. Logs are exported for the extraction of tannin, though tannin is extracted locally in increasing quantities, and shipped. The wood is much employed by the railways for sleepers as it does not decay from standing in water. Lately, owing to shortage of coal much has been used in locomotives for fuel, and some for manufactories. Formerly Great Britain was the principal purchaser, but of late the United States has taken the most. In 1915 over $15,000,000 worth of extract was exported and $2,500,000 of logs. Quebracho, break-axe, is of course extremely hard, but there are other hard woods like cedar, and many varieties of valuable timber.

Yerba mate is cultivated in many places, especially in Misiones; the wild growing trees of the forest furnish a still greater supply of the leaves. From these a drink is made which outside of the large cities is in this part of the continent far more popular than tea or coffee.

The northern forests contain several varieties of rubber trees, but none are exploited. Along the Andes are forests, the principal ones from Lake Nahuel Huapi south. Those in this region are believed to be worth $10,000,000,000. The variety of native woods both hard and soft is large; and trees of other countries have been introduced. Thousands of eucalyptus trees have been planted on many estancias, serving a useful purpose in many ways, beside being an ornament on the level plain.

Mining

In the description of the Provinces, mention has been made of the minerals existing in various localities, but up to the present time the working of these has been slight. Tungsten, gold, copper, wolfram, borax, and petroleum have received the most attention, but few are those who have realized any considerable profits. Within ten years the exports have amounted to hardly more than $3,000,000.

Gold is mined in small quantities in various places; in southern Patagonia it is gathered from the coast sands after a heavy sea storm. In Neuquen and Catamarca are workings of fair size. The copper deposits of the Andes are difficult of access but may be developed later. Silver was mined formerly, but the ore was of moderate grade and the work was discontinued. A reverberatory smelter has recently been installed for the mines in Rioja.

Coal deposits exist in Mendoza, San Juan, Neuquen, Chubut, and Tierra del Fuego. The coal is not very good but will help in view of the shortage and high prices. Work is being done in San Juan and Mendoza. It is proposed to open mines among large deposits in Chubut, though the coal will have to be carried 180 miles to a railway.

The tungsten industry is active; 900 tons have been mined in one year, about one-seventh of the world production. Exploitation of marble, wolfram, and mica in Córdoba and San Luis is showing good results.

Manganese is exported in increasing quantity chiefly from the desert section of Santiago del Estero.

Large saline deposits exist, some in basins with no outlet, in the central Provinces, some of volcanic type on the Puna of Atacama, others near the ocean not far from Bahia Blanca. Some of them have been exploited. Importation of salt has diminished and home production is expected shortly to suffice for local needs.

Petroleum is now exciting the greatest interest. Oil is known to exist in four regions with others reported, but only one has been thoroughly tested, that at Comodoro Rivadavia. Borings carried on here by the Government struck oil at a depth of about 1800 feet in 1907. In 1910, 12,000 acres were reserved for Government exploitation which has since been carried on. The place is near the coast about 850 miles south of Buenos Aires. Development has been rather slow, but in 1916, 25 wells had been sunk and 21 were in active production of about 14 tons each per day. There were four steel tanks and other storage space, in all about 26,000 cubic meters, one such of this oil equalling .93 metric ton. In 1917, 36 wells were in production and 19 being bored. In 1918 about 1,250,000 barrels were produced. Tank steamers are provided, and storage tanks in Buenos Aires. An oil tank is begun in Rosario. Others are to be constructed in Buenos Aires, Bahia Blanca, Puerto Militar, Santa Fé, and Mar del Plata. The oil is heavy with an asphalt base; distilled, it yields 1.5-3.5 per cent of naphtha and gasoline, 15-19 per cent of illuminating oils, and 77-85 per cent of lubricating oils, fuel, and coke. Heavier than the better grades of United States oil, it has been used almost entirely as fuel, though it is said that it will distil readily. This will undoubtedly be its chief usefulness, to serve instead of coal. It is employed by a number of factories. A new Government well, 1921, was producing 34,000 barrels a day, and prospects are of the best. Millions have been appropriated for tank steamers, machinery, and for intensive development of the oil fields. The price rose from about $10 a ton in 1916 to $40 in December, 1917. Government control will probably continue, especially because the oil is likely to be used by the navy.

A few private companies are operating outside the restricted area, using 12-inch tubes, while the Government has used smaller. One Company with a capital of $2,000,000 has with other equipment 4.3 miles of railway connecting with the Government railway to the port, also two miles of pipe line. Many of the frigorificos use oil, mostly Mexican. The West India Oil Company imports from the United States or Mexico, mainly for refining.

The other fields are the Salta-Jujuy, the Cacheuta, a few miles south of Mendoza, and the Mendoza-Neuquen field, 700 miles southwest of Buenos Aires. In these fields the oil has a paraffine base, a sample from Jujuy showing 5 per cent of light oil, 30 per cent of kerosene, and 52 of lubricating oil; a grade equal to that of Pennsylvania or Ohio. One such field in Neuquen justifying immediate development is favorably located 824 miles from Buenos Aires near the Ferrocarril del Sud, which will provide special cars and tariff, so that speedy results are hoped for.

Industries including Manufactures

While Argentina is primarily an agricultural and pastoral country and is likely so to continue, a fair amount of capital is invested in manufacturing and in other commercial projects, some of the capital European. The largest sum is invested in Light and Power Companies; for all cities of any size have electric lighting and many, electric traction. About $128,000,000 have been thus invested; in packing houses 40 millions, flour mills 7; in sugar refineries 50, wine making 78, foundries and metal works 25, dairies, etc., 43, tannin extract, etc., 33, lithographing and printing 12, breweries 14, construction companies 11, these all millions. Other companies with investments of 5-10 millions are shoes, saw mills, jute and cotton sacks, carpentry, painting and horse-shoeing together; liquors, tanneries, cotton and woolen mills, furniture, trunks and tapestries, leather goods, brick kilns, clothing, wagons and carriages, ice and aërated waters, ore smelting, grain elevators; many more with investment of 1-5 millions, besides a total of 47 million in still smaller companies.

Of other lines, in 1916 there were 71 telephone companies, capital $15,000,000; 143 banks, capital about $500,000,000, employing 10,000 persons; 85 insurance companies. The companies of all kinds generally are on a sound and paying basis, in spite of high cost of fuel and power. The two leading department stores in Buenos Aires, equal to our best in character, are both British owned; there are many other shops of every kind of the highest class.

The tramways and subway of Buenos Aires are noteworthy. The tramway system has been called the best in the world. There are 500 miles of lines, carrying about 400,000,000 passengers yearly. Packing like cattle is not allowed, the number of persons per car being strictly limited. The subway 8.7 miles long carries 2,500,000 with a splendid system and fine service including one for freight. Extensions were postponed on account of the War. The water supply, taken from the river, and the drainage system are of the highest character. A revenue of $7,000,000 is received by the Government.

Dairy Products. The dairy industry is of quite recent development; butter formerly imported in quantity is now becoming an article of export. From 1914 to 1918 the production of cheese increased 277 per cent, of butter 162 per cent. Three thousand existing creameries, most of which are in the Provinces near the Capital, in 1918 made 50,000,000 pounds of butter, 40 million of cheese, and 15 of casein. More than half the butter and some cheese was exported.

The growth of other industries has caused a great falling off in many imports; of preserves 62 per cent, of ham 96, preserved vegetables 87, beer 98, cider 55, common wine 85. Other things as chocolate, macaroni, fruit crackers, shoes, and cloth have decreased 50 per cent. Of fideos enough is produced for home use, and to export in 1918 over 2,000,000 pounds.

Furniture. The construction of furniture has attained large proportions, a great part of what is sold in the country being made in Buenos Aires though often bearing foreign names. Wood is imported, even $25,000,000 worth in one year, while the finest woods grow in the country. Of 305 saw mills, 134, the most important, are in the City and Province of Buenos Aires far from the forests. The small mills near the woods merely chop off the branches for transport or prepare firewood. Cut wood from Buenos Aires is returned to Misiones and Corrientes for construction, a terrible waste. A change has begun; the mills near the forests are being enlarged and equipped with machinery, so an evolution of the industry is under way.

Paper. Eight paper factories with capital of $8,000,000 employing 1500 persons produce 40,000,000 pounds of paper, 28,000,000 for packing, the rest for newspapers, books, and other things. A great quantity is still imported, formerly from Germany, lately much from the United States. The paper is made of rags, shreds of paper, and pasteboard, the consumption of pulp being small, hardly 200,000 pounds. One factory at Barranqueras, on the Paraná River in the Chaco, employs a kind of bog grass to make three tons of straw board a day.

Flour. The flour mills are of great importance, supplying in 1919, 850,000 tons of flour for home use and some for export. In 1918, 176,445 tons were exported. With fewer mills than formerly, the 400 existing are more productive. The 79 in Buenos Aires, 47 in Santa Fé, 44 in Entre Rios, and 26 in Córdoba produce 95 per cent of the total. Sixty-one per cent of the mills are Argentine owned. One hundred and fifty two are steam mills, 156 hydraulic. They have 25,000-30,000 horse power and employ 10,000 persons. About $34,000,000 are invested in the industry while the production is $100,000,000. However the farmers have trouble, as the fee for hauling grain has increased 60 per cent, and cartage 25 miles to a station is as much as the freight from Buenos Aires to New York. A flour mill in Mendoza and in other western cities of the wheat belt would undoubtedly pay handsomely, saving expensive transport. A new flour mill at La Plata to cost $500,000 is to turn out a quantity sufficient to fill 1000 bags a day.

Beer is made in 25 factories for the consumption of the entire country, a quantity of 80,000,000 litres worth $12,000,000. To produce the 7000 horse power needed, thousands of tons of coal, wood, and petroleum are consumed.

Other Manufactures. Factories making shoes, said to be of the best quality, underwear, umbrellas, acids, perfume, and many other articles are found. Vegetable oils are extracted from peanuts, linseed, rape, cotton seed, and other articles, in establishments in Buenos Aires and Santa Fé.

Altogether there are about 50,000 industrial establishments with a capital of $800,000,000 using 678,000 horse power, employing 500,000 persons, consuming nearly $500,000,000 worth of material, and producing nearly $1,000,000,000 worth of goods. About half of these are extractive or manufacturing. One-third belong to the Argentines who supply 18.67 per cent of the capital.

Developing Industries. The Government is interested in the establishment of other factories and construction work; a cement factory in Buenos Aires to make 300,000 tons per annum is considered, the Government now using 700,000 tons a year. Ship building is encouraged; a steel ship of 1250 tons was launched at Riachuelo; yards are to be constructed at the port of Carmen de Patagones on the Rio Negro by an Argentine company with capital of 50,000,000 pesos. Some armored cement oil-tanks of 6000 tons capacity are to be made for Comodoro Rivadavia, and a depot for petroleum and naphtha at the port of Mar del Plata. Also for the former, port works, a breakwater, a mole for loading, and houses for workmen at a cost of 17,000,000 pesos. Sanitary works for 16 towns at a cost of 9,800,000 pesos are provided for, 22,000,000 pesos are to be spent in three years for machinery and tank steamers to develop the Government oil wells, the exploitation of which will cost 45,000,000 pesos; present production is yet insufficient.

A Spanish Argentine Corporation with a capital of $10,000,000 is to build two large frigorificos at Buenos Aires and Santa Fé, with steamers to transport beef to Spain. Another frigorifico is designed for Puerto Deseado in the south to coöperate with local ranchmen.

The lack of combustibles has for many years been a great and embarrassing problem, an early solution of which is now hoped for. Importation of coal from England and of petroleum from the United States has been carried on at great cost. In five years, 1912-16, $190,000,000 was spent for such articles, while as they say petroleum ran into the sea and wood rotted at the railway stations. In 1919 coal was $26 a ton. The forests of the north have an inexhaustible supply of wood; the charcoal industry is quite well developed in the Chaco, north Santa Fé, Tucumán, and Santiago. Many woods are appropriate, but high freights have impeded their use. A large deposit of coal is recently reported in Tucumán. A new railway to the firewood region of Santiago del Estero will save a 100 mile haul. A splendid source of electric power are the Iguassú Falls with 275 cascades, the greatest with a height of 213 feet. Investigation shows that 500,000 horse power is easily available, one half each for Brazil and Argentina. Ten thousand horse power would be sent 800 miles to Buenos Aires, the rest used in Misiones, Corrientes, and Entre Rios. From the Salto Grande Falls on the Uruguay 50,000 horse power might be available for Argentina and Uruguay each.

Investments

The opportunity for investments for persons with capital is evidently large. A great deal of money is necessary for stock raising, though less in the far south. Agriculture, especially the raising of cotton, rice, or tobacco might be attractive; the sugar industry may be extended. Factories of various kind may be established by experts. Persons speaking Spanish fluently, capable of acting as foremen or superintendents of establishments of various kinds, might find employment. The minerals with the exception of petroleum are less accessible than in some other countries. An American department store in Buenos Aires is desirable, and one might succeed in Rosario.

CHAPTER XXXVIII
PARAGUAY: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.

Paraguay has been called the most romantic of all the South American countries, from the point of view of nature and history both. It is a land of “dolce far niente” so far as agreeableness is concerned, a land where nature is lavish and necessities are few; on the other hand a region where the climate is not enervating, where energetic action and enterprise are not altogether lacking, and where these find ample reward. One of the two inland countries of the continent, having always been such, she has no grievance on this account. In fact, being in the heart of South America and almost surrounded by rivers, Paraguay has in many ways a most favorable location for inland commerce, which will surely bring her prosperity.

Area, Population, Boundary

Area. Paraguay, generally called eighth in size of the South American Republics, has an area of about 165,000 square miles, more or less, according to the determination of the boundary dispute with Bolivia. One hundred and ninety-six thousand miles is claimed by the Paraguay Government. The more settled part of the country east of the Paraguay River covers about 65,000 square miles; the section west, which on most maps is given to Paraguay, though claimed by Bolivia, is more uncertain in area, but may have 100,000 or more square miles. With the other neighboring countries the boundaries have been definitely determined.

Population. As in several other countries, the population of Paraguay can be estimated only, since no exact census has ever been taken. Approximate figures given by different writers are 800,000-1,100,000.

Boundary. Paraguay has Brazil on the north and east; Argentina, too, is east, is exclusively on the south, and partly on the west; while Bolivia is west and north of the Chaco, the dividing line being uncertain.

The greater part of the way rivers form the boundary line. The Paraná separates Paraguay proper from Argentina on the south, and on the east as far as the Iguassú River; north of the latter river Brazil is on the opposite shore of the Paraná to beyond the Sete Quedas, or Falls of La Guayra (higher up the Paraná is wholly in Brazil); the boundary line then goes west and north along the watershed to the source of a branch of the Rio Apá, which with that river it follows west down to the Paraguay. Above the point of junction the Paraguay River has Brazil on the east bank and for some distance the Paraguayan Chaco on the west. Below the Apá, the Paraguay divides the country into sections, as far as the Pilcomayo River, on the southwest of which is Argentina. Below, along the Paraguay River to the Alto Paraná, Argentina is on the west. The Chaco section may be said at present to be in the practical possession of Paraguay, so far as it is occupied by any one except savages.

History

It seems extraordinary that here in the centre of the South American continent, 1000 miles from the sea, is one of the oldest cities, the capital of the Republic, Asunción, founded a full century earlier than Providence (1636), and 85 years before the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Juan de Ayolas, sent by Pedro de Mendoza after the first settlement at Buenos Aires (not long after destroyed), in 1536 established here a colony; then sailing up the river to a place he called Candelaria, with a few followers he boldly struck off through the forest towards Peru. Irala, left behind to await his return, proved faithful; but after long waiting in vain, being obliged twice to go to Asunción for provisions, he learned at last that Ayolas, after a successful journey to Alto Peru, had arrived in his absence and had then been slaughtered by savages: a tragic sequel of heroism, fitly to be compared to that of Captain Scott, his achievement of the South Pole, followed by the disastrous return journey.

Irala, later becoming Governor, was one of the few Conquistadores, after many vicissitudes, to die peacefully in 1557. Until 1776, Asunción was the chief Spanish city of the eastern slope of South America. Buenos Aires then became the seat of a Viceroy, in that year appointed.

In 1810, after expelling the Viceroy, the Argentines sent up a small army, expecting Paraguay also to revolt, but she declined. However, in 1811 the Paraguayans expelled the Spanish Governor; in 1814 a despotism under Dr. J. G. R. Francia came into being. At his death in 1840, his nephew, Carlos Antonio Lopez, succeeded to power, followed in 1862 by his son, Francisco Lopez. This young man, who had visited Europe, soon organized a well drilled army with the idea of becoming a second Napoleon, in South America. His opportunity came when Uruguay appealed for his assistance against the Portuguese of Brazil. Crossing Argentine territory to invade Brazil, in spite of the refusal of Argentina to give permission, Lopez became involved in war with both of the larger countries and later with Uruguay. Although so small, Paraguay might have held her own against one of the larger Republics, but after making a desperate struggle for nearly six years, during which most of the male citizens were killed, boys of 12-15 forced to fight, women compelled to work in the fields and to act as supply bearers, with cruel persecution from the Dictator, the army was utterly wiped out, and Lopez killed in 1870. Three-fourths of the population had perished.

Not yet has the country recovered its previous condition and numbers, several revolutions having interrupted its growth; the last in 1911-12. Curiously, the people pride themselves on being one of the most homogeneous of the South American Republics and the best fighters.

Government

The Government organized in 1870 is of the usual form with three branches. The President, elected for four years, is not again eligible for eight years. There are two Houses of Congress, a Senate of 13 members and a Chamber of 26 Deputies. A Permanent Committee of Congress sits during the interval between sessions, both to provide for emergencies and to prevent usurpation by the Executive. The Judiciary has a Supreme Court, two Superior Courts of Appeal, Civil and Criminal Courts with Lower Courts and Justices.

The section west of the River is under military command; the part east has 23 electoral districts with subdivisions. As in Argentina, all persons born in the Republic are deemed citizens.

There are said to be 20 Districts, some of which along the Paraguay from the north are Concepción, San Pedro, Villeta, Pilar; farther east Caraguatay, Yhú, Paraguarí, Guaira, Guindí, Caazapá, San Ignacio, and Encarnación. All have capitals of the same name except Guaira, the capital of which is Villa Rica. Data as to area and population of these is lacking.

An unusual official is a Defender General of the Poor, of Minors, and of Absentees.

Population

The Paraguayans claim that their people are nearly pure Spanish, with slight admixture of Guaraní, this being the most numerous, intelligent, and peaceful of the Indian tribes of that region. Preserving the spirit of the invaders, they are an unusually hardy race for one on the edge of the tropics. While Spanish blood and culture largely predominate in the capital, the population of the rural districts is more primitive in character.

The number of the people is uncertain, but may reach 1,000,000, including 50,000, some say 100,000 wild Indians belonging to several tribes, chiefly in the Chaco. In the eastern section of Paraguay proper there are probably not over 25,000 persons, most of the population being east and south of the mountainous section and especially near the Paraguay River. They say that there are no idle or poor in the country, although many may be seen barefoot in Asunción; as the simple life is popular, little clothing is needed, and food is abundant. (Of late the standard of living has been rising.) For this reason the country people generally lack energy and ambition. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, some also in pastoral pursuits. The native women are called superior to the men. Burdens thrown upon them during their great war made them resourceful and independent. The men as a rule are peaceful unless they have been drinking caña, which is now forbidden by some large employers of labor. In the section east of the mountains are uncivilized Indians of the principal tribes, one timid and retiring. Some of the Cainguaes at times work in the yerbales. The Indians in the Chaco are of a number of different tribes of a low order of civilization, who are mostly nomads, and live by the chase and fishing. A few work at estancias spasmodically, never for long.

Education

Education is backward, though the percentage of illiteracy, if about 60 as is said, may be less than in some of the other Republics. With the scattered population, chiefly in the country and in small towns, to provide educational facilities for all is impossible. There is a University in Asunción with five Faculties; secondary schools in Asunción, Pilar, and Villa Rica; and six Normal Schools. A School of Commerce with night and day classes does good work in the capital, where the Instituto Paraguayo is of important cultural value, recently receiving a library of 2000 volumes in English from the Carnegie Peace Foundation. The Banco Agricola has done much for the diffusion of general education as well as more specifically in agriculture. As in other countries, some young men go abroad to study, either on Government scholarships or with private means.

Press, Religion, etc.

Press. The capital is well supplied with newspapers and periodicals; little journalism exists elsewhere.

Religion. The religion is Roman Catholic, but there is complete toleration for other creeds. An important work has been carried on in the Chaco by W. Barbrooke Grubb and others of the English Church. Schools have been established, with an industrial and intellectual as well as a religious centre. Civil marriage alone is legal.

Telegraphic communication with the outside world is carried on by way of Posadas and Corrientes, but frequent interruptions in service have made it unsatisfactory. There are over 2000 miles of wire in the interior. Wireless is used by the Government to communicate with the garrison towns. There are stations at the Capital, Concepción, and Encarnación. In 1919 there was no Telephone service in Asunción, as the station had been destroyed by fire; but such service existed in Concepción, Villa Rica, and Paraguarí.

Money. The Money in use is paper, the standard, a gold peso equal to the Argentine, 96.5 cents. The paper peso varies in value, in 1920 being worth five cents. The value of exports and imports is declared in gold, an Exchange Bureau supplying local money at the actual rate. Thus fluctuations affecting commerce have ceased and business has improved.

The Metric System of weights and measures is usual.

CHAPTER XXXIX
PARAGUAY: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Highlands. The physical features of the country are simple, the Paraguay River dividing it into sections: the Gran Chaco, to some extent unexplored in detail, and the Oriental. The latter, Paraguay proper, is traversed from north to south by a broad irregular belt of highlands, nowhere much above 2200 feet. The angle of the ridges is sharper on the west, the country undulating in gradual slopes from the foot. On the east, spurs run out enclosing deep valleys, and the country has more of an upland character. The streams flowing west to the Paraguay are smoother and to some extent navigable, while those flowing east and southeast to the Alto Paraná are interrupted by rapids and falls.

Plains. In the southwest section between the Paraguay and the Paraná there is considerable marshy country, part draining into the Ypoa lagoon; other marshy lowlands occur along the Paraguay River. All these could be drained at moderate expense, thus providing much rich and accessible land. The western section, containing most of the inhabitants, has an average altitude of about 600 feet. In the more settled parts of the west and south are extensive grassy and open lands, and hills covered with forests, while clumps of trees are frequent in the lowlands. The soil of the western part is rather dry and sandy except near the rivers and marshes. It is extremely rich, of a reddish color due to impregnated iron. Above is a thick layer of humus, formed by centuries of decaying vegetation. In places the soil is clayey, or has a substratum of clay beneath. This is true of most of the forest region, and of the swampy section. Of Paraguay proper the western part is 25 per cent forest, the middle 66, the eastern 95 per cent.

The Gran Chaco, though called a plain, and flat near the rivers, is somewhat hilly. Rarely, a freshet on the Paraguay or the Pilcomayo transforms the neighboring country into great lakes, these sometimes extending 20 or 30 miles back from the river. Along the river banks is usually a narrow strip of forest, from which the soil and trees occasionally crumble into the stream, especially along the Pilcomayo, thus impeding navigation on that river. Farther back are open plains dotted with groups of palms, and some stretches of forest. The average altitude is 426 feet. Little is known of the country north of 22°.

Rivers. The country is greatly favored with rivers. The Paraguay, 1800 miles long, rises in Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the source of the Tapajós, a branch of the Amazon. From the east the Paraguay receives several important streams. Below the Apá, the northern boundary, two tributaries, the Aquidabán and the Ipané, are nearly 200 miles long. More important is the navigable Jejui (all these north of Asunción); still more the Tebicuary, entering the Paraguay far south of Asunción by two mouths, one over one-half, the other over one-third of a mile in width. The Alto Paraná is different, a more rocky and a shallower stream than the Paraguay. From that country it has many affluents, the Monday over 100 miles long with great cataracts in the lower part but navigable above. The Paraná River, 2000 miles long to the mouth of the Uruguay, rises in Goyaz, 665 miles above the Sete Quedas. It is 100 miles more to the Iguassú, then 492 to Corrientes, and 676 beyond to the beginning of the La Plata.

The rivers of the Chaco are more sluggish. Even the Pilcomayo is untraced in its middle course where vast swamps impede passage by land or water. The river is navigable in its lower reaches for a considerable distance, and the upper part is well known. The River Confuso is a smaller stream of similar character. Paraguay has few lakes save those swampy in character, but one, Lake Ipacaraí, east of Asunción, is a popular beauty spot, with pleasure and health resorts. Lake Ypoa is larger and both are navigable by boats of slight draft.