THE LATHE.

“The pride of arts from fair Ambition springs,

And blooms secure beneath her fostering wings,”

Among all the many descriptions of the varied, beautiful, and useful inventions that owe their discovery and perfection to the genius and hand of man, inventions that in so wonderful a degree assist and facilitate the operations of the mechanic, no one has ever written the history of the Lathe. It seems strange that in a land where mechanism is carried to its greatest extent, where science of every kind is fostered and encouraged, the beautiful machinery, the easy management, and wonderful precision obtained by the aid of the Lathe, have never yet, in our language, found a pen willing to describe them. And yet, to the architect, the mathematician, the astronomer, and the natural philosopher, Turning is as useful, nay indispensable, as to the watchmaker, the goldsmith, the joiner, and smith. And it is not by these alone that its powers are appreciated; many of those who by birth, station, and riches are not in a situation to require its aid in their scientific and mechanical operations, still find this art, from its great simplicity, from the perfect ease and accuracy with which the most delicate and intricate workmanship is performed, the agreeable occupation it gives to the mind, and the beauty, elegance, and utility of its products, one of the most interesting and healthful that can be followed.

The treasures of all lands are converted into various and beautiful articles by the aid of the lathe. Gold and silver, brass, iron, and copper,—the magnificent trees that grow in the deep forests of the West, and those that flourish on the burning plains of Africa—the ivory obtained from the tusks of the elephant and hippopotamus,—the coal, jet, alabaster, and marble, dug from the bowels of the earth—are all of the greatest value to the turner. A kind of cocoa nut has also lately been brought from the West Indies, which, being hard, white, and tough, renders it excellent for working in the lathe; when polished, it has the appearance of a substance between ivory and mother-of-pearl.

To the Greeks and Romans (for the exact place of its origin is not known) the invention of this ingenious machine is ascribed; and though, doubtless, in our time it has been greatly improved and perfected, still the ancients, to whom we owe so much, first discovered and used it; and by them its powers were so well appreciated, that we are told it became a proverb among them to say any thing was formed in the lathe to express its justness and accuracy.

The Greek and Latin authors frequently mention it in their writings, but they have not clearly handed down to posterity the name of the first inventor; indeed, on this point there are many and varied opinions. The Sicilian historian, Diodorus Siculus, informs us that the first person who made use of the lathe was a nephew of Dædalus, by some authors named Talus, by others Perdix. This youth, we are told, invented the saw, compasses, and other mechanical instruments; and to him we possibly are indebted for the lathe also, for we are told, in ancient mythological history, so great were his ingenuity and talent for invention, that his genius soon surpassed even that of his uncle, who, enraged at his celebrity, and jealous of his rising fame, scrupled not to sacrifice him to his feelings of rage and hatred: some say he was poisoned; others, that he was precipitated from a high tower in the citadel of Athens; and the same authors assure us he was changed into a partridge.

Pliny, however, (and his words are great authority), ascribes the invention of the lathe to Theodore, of Samos, an artist who discovered the method of melting iron, of which he made statues. The same author also mentions a man of the name of Thericles, who was celebrated for his dexterity in Turning; and Virgil says—

“Lenta quibus torno facili superaddita vitis.”

These testimonies, of ancient poets and historians conjoined, prove it to be an art of the greatest antiquity. Cicero also mentions it; and it is affirmed that, with this machine, the Greeks and Romans turned all kinds of urns and vases, and adorned them with ornaments in basso relievo. If to Turning we really owe those treasures of other days which are found buried among the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii—treasures so valued by the antiquary as a memorial of former ages; by the lover of the fine arts as beautiful and graceful additions to his cabinet of curiosities; and by the rich and opulent as ornaments superior to any that modern hands can produce;—surely we must confess the workmanship of the lathes of our times is not to be compared with that performed by the more simple machinery of centuries ago. It seems, indeed, almost miraculous, that the beautiful figures and elegant and graceful designs here spoken of should be produced by a potter’s wheel, so was the lathe anciently denominated; but the testimonies of so many learned historians agree in declaring that to its aid we owe those exquisite productions, that it is impossible for even the most skeptical to deny it. Before we quit, what may not unaptly be denominated, the romance of the history of the lathe, we will add, that the saw, which we have already said was invented by Talus, is supposed to have been first made by him in imitation of either the jaw-bone of a snake, or else the back-bone of a fish; and in a painting still preserved among the antiquities of Herculaneum, is a saw exactly resembling our frame saw, with which two genii are dividing a piece of wood.

It is, however, certain, that could these Roman and Grecian artificers see a modern lathe, examine its complex yet beautiful mechanism, and the almost endless additions and improvements it has undergone since the days of Virgil and Pliny, they would hardly recognise it in its more finished state, and would be much puzzled to discover in what manner to manage its machinery. Among the numerous apparatus adjusted to it is a machine, by the aid of which medallions have been executed; and in the British Museum is a profile in basso relievo of Sir Isaac Newton, wholly worked in the lathe; but how different from the turning of the ancients! The medallion machine requires much labour and very expensive apparatus, while the potter’s wheel cannot have possessed much mechanism or great quantities of tools: most of those now in use being unknown in former days.

Having now established the great antiquity of the lathe as a useful and classical employment, we will briefly mention a few of the improvements it has undergone in latter years. The potter’s wheel is, of all lathes, the most simple; it merely consists of an iron beam, or axis, a small wooden wheel placed on the beam, and a larger one fastened to the end of the same beam, which turns by a pivot on an iron stand. With this simple contrivance the workman still forms the body of the vessel of clay, but never attempts to turn the handles, feet, mouldings or ornaments. In latter years, various and important tools and improvements have been made; chucks have been invented, which enable the turner to accomplish with speed and facility an almost innumerable variety of circles, lines, ellipses, and arcs, all so delicate and true in their form and design, that they cannot fail exciting the admiration and wonder of all who contemplate them. The screw also, once a formidable difficulty to the uninitiated, is now rendered perfectly easy of execution by means of the traversing mandrel; those, too, who are very learned in this art, can out of a piece of ivory or mother-of-pearl, produce in the lathe beautiful brooches, ear-rings, and studs, worked in raised flowers; chessmen in imitation of carving, and ornamented vases full of detached flowers; while fluted and spiral columns, delicate mouldings, and fanciful beadings, are of comparatively easy execution.

To form patterns upon wood or ivory, various descriptions of chucks are employed; one lathe serves for all, as they are made to screw on to the nose of the mandrel. By the aid of the concentric or common chuck, every article you turn is circular; the lines forming the circle are enlarged or decreased as the tool approaches or recedes from the axis. The oval chuck, as its name signifies, works designs of an oval or spherical shape; the eccentric turns patterns of a circular form, but its peculiar properties enable the workman to alter the centre of his work at pleasure: the geometric and compound eccentric produce beautiful geometric and carved designs; the oblique and the epicycloidal also turn curious and intricate patterns, and the straight line chuck performs all its work in direct lines. These are the chucks most in use, but many of them are expensive and complicated, and they only execute the ornamental work; the shape and size of the object are accomplished by the lathe, without any aid but that of a common chuck and common tools.

The curious and varied mechanism of the above-mentioned chucks are truly wonderful, and the patterns they perform very beautiful; one of peculiar form, and exceedingly intricate, has been invented for bankers’ checks, to prevent forgery. There are also two rests, which are necessary appendages to them; the sliding rest, that moves in a direct line at any angle, and the circular rest, which enables the turner to ornament balls, spheres, and round objects. We must not omit, too, to mention the eccentric cutter, the drill, and the universal cutter, all exceedingly useful, and enabling the turner to execute a great variety of designs and patterns. The rose engine, also, is much admired for all kinds of ornamental work, but it is very expensive, and new inventions are daily adding to the machinery of the lathe, and rendering its powers more extensive.

The wonderful discovery of voltaic electricity, by which copper-plates, plaster casts, wood engravings, and medals may be copied, can also be applied in various ways to turning, either in wood or ivory. For instance, by its aid a wooden thimble may be changed into the resemblance of gold, or a box take the appearance of silver; thus, while your work retains its first beauty and delicacy, the material is apparently of much value. It would be going beyond the bounds of a work on turning, to give any directions for this transmutation, particularly as there are so many already published on the subject. We must also add, that by a careful and steady management, the drill may be made almost to take the place of the graver; by holding a plate of copper steadily against it, and using various tools, (not letting the lathe go too quick,) portraits and landscapes can be executed for printing.

Having now finished this short sketch, which we hope will not be unacceptable to our readers, and will perhaps induce them to follow this interesting and healthful occupation, we must beg that those who peruse “The Turner’s Companion,” and follow the directions it contains, will not be daunted by the first difficulties that assail them, but will patiently persevere till experience enables them to overcome and vanquish them, remembering that—

“The wise and active conquer difficulties,

By daring to attempt them. Sloth and folly

Shiver and shrink at sight of toil and hazard,

And make th’ impossibility they fear.”

LIST OF TOOLS NECESSARY FOR TURNING.

Gouges.	Screw-driver.
Chisels.	Pincers.
Scrapers.	Compasses.
Side tools.	Rule.
Point tools.	Callipers.
Moulding tools.	T square.
Inside tools.	Brace and Bits.
Planes.	Screw tools.
Drills.	Milling tools.
Hatchet.	Oil-can.
Mallet.	Glue-pot.
Hammer.	Sand Paper.
Files.	Chalk.
Vice.	Glue.
Hand Vice.	Isinglass.
Gimlets.	Pumice Stone.
Saws.	Nails.

THE
TURNER’S COMPANION.

The machines used for Turning, whether round or oval objects, are called Lathes; they are of various shapes and sizes; some very small, as those generally used by watchmakers; others very large and powerful, for turning iron; and others, the kind I am going to describe, of a middling size, for fashioning wood and ivory. The large lathes, being too heavy to be worked with the foot, are usually turned by a steam-engine, but the foot-lathe is the most convenient for the turner in wood; it may be made of iron or wood: if of the latter, it should be constructed entirely of very hard, well-seasoned oak, or of mahogany. There are various opinions respecting the advantages and disadvantages of metallic and wooden lathes; in the former, it is impossible to obviate an elastic tremor, which is unpleasant and injurious; but then, on the other hand, they are so much more durable and compact; and they enable you to perform your work with so much more accuracy and exactitude, that they are, on the whole, perhaps, to be preferred. The drawing given in [Plate 1] will serve as a pattern for either an iron or a wooden lathe; but as the workman could construct the latter for himself, we will suppose the description we are about to give relates to a wooden one.

The bed of the lathe, B B, may be of any length required, and is firmly fastened with bolts to the uprights O O, which form the legs of the lathe, and to which the bed is strongly attached by bolts passing through both; while the nuts that draw them tight, being what is called countersunk, are of no inconvenience to the workman. The feet and the two uprights must also be firmly fastened to the legs O O; and to prevent the least unsteadiness or motion, they must be screwed strongly to the floor, and must be of a sufficient size to form a solid support to the lathe.

Plate 1.

The left hand puppets, C D, or, as they are sometimes called, the headstock, should be of iron, and cast in one piece. The under part fits tightly into the open space in the bed of the lathe, and is fixed there with screws; while the two cheeks of the puppets rest on the bed itself. The mandrel E, to prevent, as much as you can, any vibration, should be as long as possible; it runs in a metal collar, through the puppets C D, and is of steel, turned perfectly cylindrical; it is kept constantly oiled, by pouring a few drops of oil upon it through holes made in each of the puppets. The screw E, at the end, is called the nose of the spindle, and upon it the chucks intended to receive the work are screwed. The back puppet, G, is used to support long pieces of wood; it is moved backwards and forwards on the bed of the lathe, so as to suit the work upon which you are occupied, by loosening the screw L; within the upper part of G is a steel spindle, J, which screws in and out of the headstock, by turning the screw K. Care must be taken that the point of this spindle be exactly on a line with the nose of the mandrel, E. The point, J, takes out, and another nose, L, can be inserted in its place, to receive the pointed end of any small work, should it be more convenient.

Upon the spindle is a brass or a mahogany wheel, F; it has three grooves in it, and the great wheel, K, has three similar grooves turned in a V, so as more effectually to take hold of the band which moves them round. The three different grooves in this wheel, and in the small one, give different velocities to them. The band which turns them is made of strong catgut, and passes under the lower and over the upper wheel, working in the corresponding grooves of each; it is joined with a hook and eye of iron, that have a screw in them. Slightly taper off with a sharp penknife a little of each end of the catgut, so that it will just enter the hook and eye; then hold the band firmly in a vice with your left hand, and with your right take up the hook or eye in a pair of pincers, and screw it upon the catgut till quite firm. This is a far better means of joining the band than any other that can be employed, as the hooks and eyes seldom give way, and obviate the necessity of knots or joins, which are always clumsy and inconvenient. Cord, too, gives way with the variations of the atmosphere, so that it constantly requires shortening in dry, and lengthening in rainy weather; catgut is so slightly influenced by these changes, that its use is far preferable. The treadle, N, when moved up and down with the foot, gives motion to the two wheels, and thus the spindle, with the wood to be worked screwed upon it, is turned round with a quick or slow movement. The axle of the great wheel, S, works in two screws, Q; the crank, M, is connected at one end with the axle, S, and at the other hooks into the treadle frame, N. Plenty of oil should be given to the axle at Q to enable it to work easily. The rest which supports the tools is represented at Fig. 1, and M; it is made of iron, and consists of three parts; the lower has a forked foot, T, which rests upon the bed of the lathe, and enables it to be drawn backwards and forwards, so as to accommodate the workman; this foot is held in its place by a bolt, O, which, passing through the bed of the lathe, is sufficiently broad to rest upon each side of the foot, T, and is tightened by a screw that passes underneath the lathe, P, through which it passes; the upper part of the rest is a cross piece of iron with a cylindrical stem, that fits into the socket, U, and is moved up and down, to the right or the left, by loosening the screw, H. The workman should have rests of different sizes, to suit various kinds of work, but they must all fit into the same socket.

Having now given a clear description of a lathe, I need only add, that it should be placed opposite a window, so as to have the benefit of as much light as possible; a skylight above the head is also a great advantage. As it is indispensably necessary for the learner to exercise himself in plain turning, that is, in the formation of different articles, so as to be able to turn them perfectly round, oval, or hollow, as required, before attempting more difficult and complicated work, we will now give a list of the most useful tools for this purpose.

For the wood, the gouge, Fig. 1, [plate 1], is first to be employed, to reduce the unevenness of your work; its edge is rounded. To use it, place the rest on a level with the axis of the work, and hold the handle of the tool downwards so that its cutting edge is above the axis. These tools are useful for making concave mouldings. In using them, do not push them roughly against the wood till it becomes tolerably even, or you will spoil their edge and chip the work; and hold your hands very steady.

The chisel, Fig. 2, is next used, to give a smooth and polished appearance to the wood. Its cutting edge is oblique. Elevate the rest considerably above the axis of the work, so that, though held with a less inclination than the gouge, the edge of the chisel operates on a higher part of the surface. Use this tool at first with great caution, for it is much more difficult to manage than the gouge; with an inexperienced hand, the point is apt to dig into the wood, quite spoiling its surface, or else, by pressing it too firmly upon the work, it cuts great pieces in an uneven manner. When skillfully used, it should feel almost to work by itself, merely running steadily along the wood, shaving off all its inaccuracies, and making it look quite bright, smooth, and polished. All soft woods are entirely turned with the gouge and chisel, of both of which you must have several sizes.

Fig. 3 is called a right-side tool, and has two cutting edges, a side edge and an end edge: so as at the same time to cut the bottom and side of a cavity. The left-side tool cuts with the opposite side. In using them, hold the bevel which forms the edge downwards.

Fig. 4 is a point tool, useful for making small mouldings, and much employed in finishing the shoulders and flat ends of work.

Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, are inside tools, used to turn out hollows; also to make cups, and various other articles.

Fig. 10 is a parting tool, used to cut off work, and to make incisions.

Fig. 11 is used exclusively for very hard woods, as cocoas and ebony, which chip if attempted to be smoothed with a chisel; also for turning ivory, bone, or jet; one side and the end are sharp. This tool is very strong, and requires some practice to use it well. Be very careful, in sharpening it, to keep the front edge quite straight, or else, in hollowing out boxes, the inner sides will not be turned out evenly; that is, one part will be thinner than another. This tool is held flat upon the rest, which must be on a level with the axis of the work, or sometimes the tool, by raising the handle, may be lowered so as just to scrape the wood. It is frequently called a graver; in turning metals, it is the tool first used. Copper and brass are easy to turn, and in case of necessity, it is useful to have the proper tools, and to know how to manage them.

These tools all are indispensably necessary to the turner, and he should exercise himself constantly in their use; for until he becomes quite master of them, he will injure, spoil, chip, and destroy, whatever he attempts to turn.

Figs. 12 and 13 are very useful to make mouldings of various kinds.

The handles of the tools must be made of very hard wood, and it is a great convenience to have them all of nearly the same size; for the hand, getting accustomed to them, manages them with more facility. Drive the tool firmly into the handle, and hold it there by a broad brass ring, as in No. 1.

To keep the tools in good order, that is, properly ground and sharp, demands great attention. If they become chipped, grind them even on a grindstone, taking care that the BEVELS retain their proper angles. To avoid spoiling their edges, and to enable you to have them always near at hand, a rack perforated with holes, into which they can slip, is very useful. This rack may be fastened against the wall, near the lathe. A screw-driver, two or three different-sized gimlets, and nails of various kinds, must always form part of the turner’s tool-box; also some files, and a hand-vice.

Before we leave the description of turning tools, we will mention the saw, which is an indispensable addition to the tool-box. There are many kinds, but the most useful are the hand-saw, the tenon saw, and the circular saw. The first is about twenty-six inches long, and is generally made with four teeth to an inch. It is used for cutting wood across, and in the direction of its fibres. The teeth at the lower end are smaller than the upper ones, by which means the wood is not so much torn as if the teeth were all of an equal size. The tenon saw is used for cutting across the fibres of wood; the smallest saw of this kind is about fourteen inches long, the largest about twenty inches. Circular saws are of all sizes; they are easily fitted up with a spindle, which, being screwed on to the nose of the mandrel, and supported at the other end by the back puppet, enables the workman to turn them by the wheel of the lathe, while at the same time he holds the wood or ivory firmly against them. Should a larger circular saw be required, it is more advisable to fit it up separately from the lathe, with a frame-work and wheel to itself.

Glue, which is very necessary for turners, requires some little care in preparing; it must first be steeped for several hours in cold water to soften it; if it swells without melting, it is good, and must then be dissolved in water; the proper quantities are, a quart of water to half a pound of glue. The heat should be just enough to melt it, and the pan in which it is contained must be placed in a larger copper vessel, filled with water; by this means, when the water in the outer pan boils, the glue will be dissolved without any fear of its burning, which would immediately spoil it. When you are going to glue a piece of wood to a chuck, put very little glue thinly and evenly over the surface of the latter, then press the wood upon it firmly, and place a lead weight upon them to unite them perfectly.