CONSTRUCTION.
[Illustration: FIG. 71.—Plate marked out for turbine wheel blades. B is blade as it appears before being curved.]
The Wheel.—If you do not possess a lathe, the preparation of the spindle and mounting the wheel disc on it should be entrusted to a mechanic. Its diameter at the bearings should be 5/32 inch or thereabouts. (Get the tubing for the bearings and for the spindle turned to fit.) The larger portion is about twice as thick as the smaller, to allow room for the screw threads. The right-hand end is turned down quite small for the pinion, which should be of driving fit.
The Blades.—Mark out a piece of sheet iron as shown in Fig. 71 to form 32 rectangles, 1 by l/2 inch. The metal is divided along the lines aaaa, bbbb, and ab, ab, ab, ab, etc. The piece for each blade then has a central slot 5/16 inch long and as wide as the wheel disc cut very carefully in it.
Bending the Blades.—In the edge of a piece of hard wood 1 inch thick file a notch 3/8 inch wide and 1/8 inch deep with a 1/2-inch circular file, and procure a metal bar which fits the groove loosely. Each blade is laid in turn over the groove, and the bar is applied lengthwise on it and driven down with a mallet, to give the blade the curvature of the groove. When all the blades have been made and shaped, draw 16 diameters through the centre of the wheel disc, and at the 32 ends make nicks 1/16 inch deep in the circumference.
True up the long edges of the blades with a file, and bring them off to a sharp edge, removing the metal from the convex side.
Fixing the Blades.—Select a piece of wood as thick as half the width of a finished blade, less half the thickness of the wheel disc. Cut out a circle of this wood 2 inches in diameter, and bore a hole at the centre. The wheel disc is then screwed to a perfectly flat board or plate, the wooden disc being used as a spacer between them.
Slip a blade into place on the disc, easing the central slit, if necessary, to allow the near edge to lie in contact with the board—that is parallel to the disc. Solder on the blade, using the minimum of solder needed to make a good joint. When all the blades are fixed, you will have a wheel with the blades quite true on one side. It is, therefore, important to consider, before commencing work, in which direction the concave side of the blades should be, so that when the wheel is mounted it shall face the nozzle.
To make this point clear: the direction of the nozzle having been decided, the buckets on the trued side must in turn present their concave sides to the nozzle. In Fig. 70 the nozzle points downwards, and the left side of the wheel has to be trued. Therefore B1 has its convex, B2 its concave, side facing the reader, as it were.
The Nozzle is a 1-1/2 inch piece of brass bar. Drill a 1/20-inch hole through the centre. On the outside end, enlarge this hole to 1/8 inch to a depth of 1/8 inch. The nozzle end is bevelled off to an angle of 20 degrees, and a broach is inserted to give the steam port a conical section, as shown in Fig. 72, so that the steam may expand and gain velocity as it approaches the blades. Care must be taken not to allow the broach to enter far enough to enlarge the throat of the nozzle to more than 1/20 inch.
[Illustration: FIG. 72.—Nozzle of turbine, showing its position relatively to buckets.]
Fixing the Nozzle.—The centre of the nozzle discharge opening is 1-13/16-inches from the centre of the wheel. The nozzle must make an angle of 20 degrees with the side of the casing, through which it projects far enough to all but touch the nearer edges of the vanes. (Fig. 72.) The wheel can then be adjusted, by means of the spindle nuts, to the nozzle more conveniently than the nozzle to the wheel. To get the hole in the casing correctly situated and sloped, begin by boring a hole straight through, 1/4 inch away laterally from where the steam discharge hole will be, centre to centre, and then work the walls of the hole to the proper angle with a circular file of the same diameter as the nozzle piece, which is then sweated in with solder. It is, of course, an easy matter to fix the nozzle at the proper angle to a thin plate, which can be screwed on to the outside of the casing, and this method has the advantage of giving easy detachment for alteration or replacement.
Balancing the Wheel.—As the wheel will revolve at very high speed, it should be balanced as accurately as possible. A simple method of testing is to rest the ends of the spindle on two carefully levelled straight edges. If the wheel persists in rolling till it takes up a certain position, lighten the lower part of the wheel by scraping off solder, or by cutting away bits of the vanes below the circumference of the disc, or by drilling holes in the disc itself.
Securing the Wheel.—When the wheel has been finally adjusted relatively to the nozzle, tighten up all the spindle nuts hard, and drill a hole for a pin through them and the disc parallel to the spindle, and another through N3 and the spindle. (Fig. 70.)
Gearing.—The gear wheels should be of good width, not less than 3/16 inch, and the smaller of steel, to withstand prolonged wear. Constant lubrication is needed, and to this end the cover should make an oil-tight fit with the casing, so that the bottom of the big pinion may run in oil. To prevent overfilling, make a plug-hole at the limit level, and fit a draw-off cock in the bottom of the cover. If oil ducts are bored in the bearing inside the cover, the splashed oil will lubricate the big pinion spindle automatically.
[Illustration: FIG. 73.—Perspective view of completed turbine.]
General—The sides of the casing are held against the drum by six screw bolts on the outside of the drum. The bottom of the sides is flattened as shown (Fig. 70), and the supports, S1 S2, made of such a length that when they are screwed down the flattened part is pressed hard against the bed. The oil box on top of the casing has a pad of cotton wool at the bottom to regulate the flow of oil to the bearings. Fit a drain pipe to the bottom of the wheel-case.
Testing.—If your boiler will make steam above its working pressure faster than the turbine can use it, the nozzle may be enlarged with a broach until it passes all the steam that can be raised; or a second nozzle may be fitted on the other end of the diameter on which the first lies. This second nozzle should have a separate valve, so that it can be shut off.
XVII.
STEAM TOPS.
A very interesting and novel application of the steam turbine principle is to substitute for a wheel running in fixed bearings a “free” wheel pivoted on a vertical spindle, the point of which takes the weight, so that the turbine becomes a top which can be kept spinning as long as the steam supply lasts.
These toys, for such they must be considered, are very easy to make, and are “warranted to give satisfaction” if the following instructions are carried out.
A Small Top.—Fig. 74 shows a small specimen, which is of the self-contained order, the boiler serving as support for the top.
[Illustration: FIG. 74.-Simplest form of steam top.] [1]
[Footnote 1: Spirit lamp shown for heating boiler.]
For the boiler use a piece of brass tubing 4 inches or so in diameter and 3 inches long. (The case of an old brass “drum” clock, which may be bought for a few pence at a watchmaker’s, serves very well if the small screw holes are soldered over.) The ends should be of brass or zinc, the one which will be uppermost being at least 1/16 inch thick. If you do not possess a lathe, lay the tube on the sheet metal, and with a very sharp steel point scratch round the angle between tube and plate on the inside. Cut out with cold chisel or shears to within 1/16 inch of the mark, and finish off carefully—testing by the tube now and then—to the mark. Make a dent with a centre punch in the centre of the top plate for the top to spin in.
[Illustration: FIG. 75.—Wheel of steam top, ready for blades to be bent.
A hole is drilled at the inner end of every slit to make bending easier.]
Solder the plates into the tube, allowing an overlap of a quarter of an inch beyond the lower one, to help retain the heat.
The top wheel is cut out of a flat piece of sheet iron, zinc, or brass. Its diameter should be about 2-1/2 inches, the vanes 1/2 inch long and 1/4 inch wide at the circumference. Turn them over to make an angle of about 45 degrees with the spindle. They will be more easily bent and give better results if holes are drilled, as shown in Fig. 75.
The spindle is made out of a bit of steel or wire—a knitting-needle or wire-nail—not more than 1 inch in diameter and 1-1/2 inches long. The hole for this must be drilled quite centrally in the wheel; otherwise the top will be badly balanced, and vibrate at high speeds. For the same reason, the spindle requires to be accurately pointed.
The steam ports are next drilled in the top of the boiler. Three of them should be equally spaced (120 degrees apart) on a circle of 1-inch radius drawn about the spindle poppet as centre. The holes must be as small as possible—1/40 to 1/50 inch—and inclined at an angle of not more than 45 degrees to the top plate. The best drills for the purpose are tiny Morse twists, sold at from 2d. to 3d. each, held in a pin vice rotated by the fingers. The points for drilling should be marked with a punch, to give the drills a hold. Commence drilling almost vertically, and as the drill enters tilt it gradually over till the correct angle is attained.
If a little extra trouble is not objected to, a better job will be made of this operation if three little bits of brass, filed to a triangular section (Fig. 76 a), are soldered to the top plate at the proper places, so that the drilling can be done squarely to one face and a perfectly clear hole obtained. The one drawback to these additions is that the vanes of the turbine may strike them. As an alternative, patches may be soldered to the under side of the plate (Fig. 76, b) before it is joined to the barrel; this will give longer holes and a truer direction to the steam ports.
[Illustration: FIG. 76. Steam port details.]
Note that it is important that the ports should be all of the same diameter and tangential to the circle on which they are placed, and all equally inclined to the plate. Differences in size or direction affect the running of the top.
Solder the spindle to the wheel in such a position that the vanes clear the boiler by an eighth of an inch or so. If tests show that the top runs quite vertically, the distance might be reduced to half, as the smaller it is the more effect will the steam jets have.
A small brass filler should be affixed to the boiler halfway up. A filler with ground joints costs about 6d.
A wick spirit lamp will serve to raise steam. Solder to the boiler three legs of such a length as to give an inch clearance between the lamp wick and the boiler. If the wick is arranged to turn up and down, the speed of the top can be regulated.
A Large Top.—The top just described must be light, as the steam driving it is low-pressure, having free egress from the boiler, and small, as the steam has comparatively low velocity. The possessor of a high-pressure boiler may be inclined to make something rather more ambitious—larger, heavier, and useful for displaying spectrum discs, etc.
The top shown in Fig. 77 is 3 inches in diameter, weighs 1 oz., and was cut out of sheet-zinc. It stands on a brass disc, round the circumference of which is soldered a ring of 5/32-inch copper tubing, furnished with a union for connection with a boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 77.—-Large steam top and base.]
The copper tubing must be well annealed, so as to bend quite easily. Bevel off one end, and solder this to the plate. Bend a couple of inches to the curve of the plate, clamp it in position, and solder; and so on until the circle is completed, bringing the tube snugly against the bevelled end. A hole should now be drilled through the tube into this end—so that steam may enter the ring in both directions-and plugged externally.
By preference, the ring should be below the plate, as this gives a greater thickness of metal for drilling, and also makes it easy to jacket the tube by sinking the plate into a wooden disc of somewhat greater diameter.
Under 50 lbs. of steam, a top of this kind attains a tremendous velocity. Also, it flings the condensed steam about so indiscriminately that a ring of zinc 3 inches high and 18 inches in diameter should be made wherewith to surround it while it is running.
If a little bowl with edges turned over be accurately centred on the wheel, a demonstration of the effects of centrifugal force may be made with water, quicksilver, or shot, which fly up into the rim and disappear as the top attains high speed, and come into sight again when its velocity decreases to a certain figure. A perforated metal globe threaded on the spindle gives the familiar humming sound.
A spectrum disc of the seven primary colours—violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red—revolved by the top, will appear more or less white, the purity of which depends on the accuracy of the tints used.
XVIII.
MODEL BOILERS.
A chapter devoted to the construction of model boilers may well open with a few cautionary words, as the dangers connected with steam-raisers are very real; and though model-boiler explosions are fortunately rare, if they do occur they may be extremely disastrous.
Therefore the following warnings:—
(1.) Do not use tins or thin sheet iron for boilers. One cannot tell how far internal corrosion has gone. The scaling of 1/100 inch of metal off a “tin” is obviously vastly more serious than the same diminution in the thickness of, say, a 1/4-inch plate. Brass and copper are the metals to employ, as they do not deteriorate at all provided a proper water supply be maintained.
(2.) If in doubt, make the boiler much more solid than is needed, rather than run any risks.
(3.) Fit a steam gauge, so that you may know what is happening.
(4.) Test your boiler under steam, and don’t work it at more than half the pressure to which it has been tested. (See p. 220.)
In the present chapter we will assume that the barrels of all the boilers described are made out of solid-drawn seamless copper tubing, which can be bought in all diameters up to 6 inches, and of any one of several thicknesses. Brass tubing is more easily soldered, but not so good to braze, and generally not so strong as copper, other things being equal. Solid-drawn tubing is more expensive than welded tubing or an equivalent amount of sheet metal, but is considerably stronger than the best riveted tube.
Boiler ends may be purchased ready turned to size. Get stampings rather than castings, as the first are more homogeneous, and therefore can be somewhat lighter.
Flanging Boiler Ends.—To make a good job, a plate for an end should be screwed to a circular block of hard wood (oak or boxwood), having an outside diameter less than the inside diameter of the boiler barrel by twice the thickness of the metal of the end, and a rounded-off edge. The plate must be annealed by being heated to a dull red and dipped in cold water. The process must be repeated should the hammering make the copper stubborn.
Stays should be used liberally, and be screwed and nutted at the ends. As the cutting of the screw thread reduces the effective diameter, the strength of a stay is only that of the section at the bottom of the threads.
Riveting.—Though stays will prevent the ends of the boiler blowing off, it is very advisable to rivet them through the flanges to the ends of the barrel, as this gives mutual support independently of soldering or brazing. Proper boiler rivets should be procured, and annealed before use. Make the rivet holes a good fit, and drill the two parts to be held together in one operation, to ensure the holes being in line. Rivets will not close properly if too long. Dies for closing the rivet heads may be bought for a few pence.
Soldering, etc.—Joints not exposed directly to the furnace flames may be soldered with a solder melting not below 350 degrees Fahr. Surfaces to be riveted together should be “tinned” before riveting, to ensure the solder getting a good hold afterwards. The solder should be sweated right through the joint with a blow-lamp to make a satisfactory job.
All joints exposed to the flames should be silver-soldered, and other joints as well if the working pressure is to exceed 50 lbs. to the square inch. Silver-soldering requires the use of a powerful blow—lamp or gas-jet; ordinary soft soldering bits and temperatures are ineffective. Brazing is better still, but should be done by an expert, who may be relied on not to burn the metal. It is somewhat risky to braze brass, which melts at a temperature not far above that required to fuse the spelter (brass solder). Getting the prepared parts of a boiler silver-soldered or brazed together is inexpensive, and is worth the money asked.
[Illustration: FIG. 78.]
Some Points in Design.
The efficiency of a boiler is governed chiefly (1) by the amount of heating surface exposed to the flames; (2) by the distribution of the heating surface; (3) by the amount of fuel which can be burnt in the furnace in a given time; (4) by avoiding wastage of heat.
The simplest form of boiler, depicted in Fig. 78, is extremely inefficient because of its small heating surface. A great deal of the heat escapes round the sides and the ends of the boiler. Moreover, a good deal of the heat which passes into the water is radiated out again, as the boiler is exposed directly to the air.
Fig. 79 shows a great improvement in design. The boiler is entirely enclosed, except at one end, so that the hot gases get right round the barrel, and the effective heating surface has been more than doubled by fitting a number of water-tubes, aaa, bbbb, which lie right in the flames, and absorb much heat which would otherwise escape. The tubes slope upwards from the chimney end, where the heat is less, to the fire-door end, where the heat is fiercer, and a good circulation is thus assured. The Babcock and Wilcox boiler is the highest development of this system, which has proved very successful, and may be recommended for model boilers of all sizes. The heating surface may be increased indefinitely by multiplying the number of tubes. If a solid fuel-coal, coke, charcoal, etc.-fire is used, the walls of the casing should be lined with asbestos or fire-clay to prevent the metal being burnt away.
[Illustration: FIG. 79—Side and end elevations of a small water-tube boiler.]
The horizontal boiler has an advantage over the vertical in that, for an equal diameter of barrel, it affords a larger water surface, and is, therefore, less subject to “priming,” which means the passing off of minute globules of water with the steam. This trouble, very likely to occur if the boiler has to run an engine too large for it, means a great loss of efficiency, but it may be partly cured by making the steam pass through coils exposed to the furnace gases on its way to the engine. This “superheating” evaporates the globules and dries the steam, besides raising its temperature. The small water-tube is preferable to the small fire-tube connecting furnace and chimney, as its surface is exposed more directly to the flames; also it increases, instead of decreasing, the total volume of water in the boiler.
A Vertical Boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 80.—Details of vertical boiler.]
The vertical boiler illustrated by Fig. 80 is easily made. The absence of a water jacket to the furnace is partly compensated by fitting six water-tubes in the bottom. As shown, the barrel is 8 inches long and 6 inches in outside diameter, and the central flue 1-1/2 inches across outside solid-drawn 1/16-inch tubing, flanged ends, and four 1/4-inch stays—disposed as indicated in Fig. 80 (a) and (b)—are used. The 5/16 or 3/8 inch water-tubes must be annealed and filled with lead or resin before being bent round wooden templates. After bending, run the resin or lead out by heating. The outflow end of each pipe should project half an inch or so further through the boiler bottom than the inflow end.
Mark out and drill the tube holes in the bottom, and then the flue hole, for which a series of small holes must be made close together inside the circumference and united with a fret saw. Work the hole out carefully till the flue, which should be slightly tapered at the end, can be driven through an eighth of an inch or so. The flue hole in the top should be made a good fit, full size.
Rivet a collar, x (Fig. 80, a), of strip brass 1/4 inch above the bottom of the flue to form a shoulder. Another collar, y (Fig. 80, c), is needed for the flue above the top plate. Put the ends and flue temporarily in place, mark off the position of y, and drill half a dozen 5/32-inch screw holes through y and the flue. Also drill screw holes to hold the collar to the boiler top.
The steam-pipe is a circle of 5/16-inch copper tube, having one end closed, and a number of small holes bored in the upper side to collect the steam from many points at once. The other end is carried through the side of the boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 81.—Perspective view of horizontal boiler mounted on wooden base.]
Assembling.—The order of assembling is:—Rivet in the bottom; put the steam-pipe in place; rivet in the top; insert the flue, and screw collar y to the top; expand the bottom of the flue by hammering so that it cannot be withdrawn; insert the stays and screw them up tight; silver-solder both ends of the flue, the bottom ends of the stays, and the joint between bottom and barrel. The water-tubes are then inserted and silver-soldered, and one finishes by soft-soldering the boiler top to the barrel and fixing in the seatings for the water and steam gauges, safety-valve, mud-hole, filler, and pump-if the last is fitted.
The furnace is lined with a strip of stout sheet iron, 7 inches wide and 19-1/4 inches long, bent round the barrel, which it overlaps for an inch and a half. Several screws hold lining and barrel together. To promote efficiency, the furnace and boiler is jacketed with asbestos—or fire-clay round the furnace—secured by a thin outer cover. The enclosing is a somewhat troublesome business, but results in much better steaming power, especially in cold weather. Air-holes must be cut round the bottom of the lining to give good ventilation.
A boiler of this size will keep a 1 by 1-1/2 inch cylinder well supplied with steam at from 30 to 40 lbs. per square inch.
A Horizontal Boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 82.—Longitudinal section of large water-tube boiler.]
The boiler illustrated by Fig. 81 is designed for heating with a large paraffin or petrol blow-lamp. It has considerably greater water capacity, heating surface—the furnace being entirely enclosed—and water surface than the boiler just described. The last at high-water level is about 60, and at low-water level 70, square inches.
The vertical section (Fig. 82) shows 1/16-inch barrel, 13 inches long over all and 12 inches long between the end plates, and 6 inches in diameter. The furnace flue is 2-1/2 inches across outside, and contains eleven 1/2-inch cross tubes, set as indicated by the end view (Fig. 83), and 3/4 inch apart, centre to centre. This arrangement gives a total heating surface of about 140 square inches. If somewhat smaller tubes are used and doubled (see Fig. 84), or even trebled, the heating surface may be increased to 180-200 square inches. With a powerful blow-lamp this boiler raises a lot of steam.
Tubing the Furnace Flue.—Before any of the holes are made, the lines on which the centres lie must be scored from end to end of the flue on the outside. The positions of these lines are quickly found as follows:—Cut out a strip of paper exactly as long as the circumference of the tube, and plot the centre lines on it. The paper is then applied to the tube again, and poppet marks made with a centre punch opposite to or through the marks on the paper. Drive a wire-nail through a piece of square wood and sharpen the point. Lay the flue on a flat surface, apply the end of the nail to one of the poppet marks, and draw it along the flue, which must be held quite firmly. When all the lines have been scored, the centring of the water tubes is a very easy matter.
[Illustration: FIG. 83.-End of horizontal boiler, showing position of holes for stays and fittings.]
The two holes for any one tube should be bored independently, with a drill somewhat smaller than the tube, and be opened to a good fit with a reamer or broach passed through both holes to ensure their sides being in line. Taper the tubes—2-7/8 inches long each—slightly at one end, and make one of the holes a bit smaller than the other. The tapered end is passed first through the larger hole and driven home in the other, but not so violently as to distort the flue. If the tubes are made fast in this way, the subsequent silver-soldering will be all the easier.
[Illustration: FIG. 84.—Doubled cross tubes In horizontal boiler flue.]
The Steam Dome.—The large holes—2 inches in diameter—required for the steam dome render it necessary to strengthen the barrel at this point. Cut out a circular plate of metal 4 inches across, make a central hole of the size of the steam dome, and bend the plate to the curve of the inside of the barrel. Tin the contact faces of the barrel and “patch” and draw them together with screws or rivets spaced as shown in Fig. 85, and sweat solder into the joint. To make it impossible for the steam dome to blowout, let it extend half an inch through the barrel, and pass a piece of 1/4-inch brass rod through it in contact with the barrel. The joint is secured with hard solder. Solder the top of the dome in 1/8 inch below the end of the tube, and burr the end over. The joint should be run again afterwards to ensure its being tight.
[Illustration: FIG. 85.—Showing how to mark out strengthening patch round steam dome hole.]
The positions of stays and gauges is shown in Fig. 83.
Chimney.—This should be an elbow of iron piping fitting the inside of the flue closely, made up of a 9-inch and a 4-inch part. The last slips into the end of the flue; the first may contain a coil for superheating the steam.
A Multitubular Boiler.
[Illustration: FIG. 86.—Cross section of multitubular boiler.]
Figs. 86 and 87 are respectively end and side elevations of a multitubular boiler having over 600 square inches of heating surface—most of it contributed by the tubes—and intended for firing with solid fuel.
The boiler has a main water-drum, A, 5 inches in diameter and 18 inches long, and two smaller water-drums, B and C, 2-1/2 by 18 inches, connected by two series of tubes, G and H, each set comprising 20 tubes. The H tubes are not exposed to the fire so directly as the G tubes, but as they enter the main drum at a higher point, the circulation is improved by uniting A to B and C at both ends by large 1-inch drawn tubes, F. In addition, B and C are connected by three 3/4-inch cross tubes, E, which prevent the small drums spreading, and further equalize the water supply. A 1-1/2-inch drum, D, is placed on the top of A to collect the steam at a good distance from the water.
Materials.—In addition to 1-1/2 feet of 5 by 3/32 inch solid-drawn tubing for the main, and 3 feet of 2-1/2 by 1/16 inch tubing for the lower drums, the boiler proper requires 22-1/2 feet of 1/2-inch tubing, 19 inches of 3/4-inch tubing, 2-1/4 feet of 1-inch tubing, 1 foot of 1-1/2-inch tubing, and ends of suitable size for the four drums.
[Illustration: FIG. 87.—Longitudinal section of multitubular boiler.]