TURKISH AND SLAVISH TERRITORIES.
The Turks for centuries warred with, had under vassalage or otherwise controlled, and misruled all the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia and Greece—a territory of around 170,000 square miles and 16,000,000 people—until, by the Congress of Berlin (1878), ending the Russo-Turkish war, these States were recognized as independent kingdoms, namely Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Roumania, while Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under Austrian administration (see [page 155] and [166]).
With the exception of Roumania, these people are still in the lower stages of civilization, the countries undeveloped, the forest still serves largely for the mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per cent. of the country being forest covered, mostly with deciduous trees, oak, beech and walnut, etc.
Roumania alone has systematically taken advantage of her freedom from Turkish rule in developing a modern civilization, and can also boast the beginning of a forestry system.
Roumelia, comprising Macedonia, Albania and Thrace, the Turkish possessions in Europe, with 67,000 square miles and 5,000,000 people, contain large areas of untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres in Macedonia alone[10]) with valuable oak and walnut, which have remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of developing them under Turkish rule. Where accessible, the forest is maltreated or destroyed.
[10] Lacretelle, Rapport sur les forêts de la Macédoine, 1893.
Bulgaria, to which, in 1885, East Roumelia was attached, represents now 38,000 square miles and over 4,000,000 people, independent under a German prince as king since 1879. The forest area[11] of 7.5 million acres (30 per cent. of the land area), mostly deciduous (oak, beech, walnut, etc.), and largely confined to the mountains, is one-half in communal ownership, one-sixth in private hands, mostly small woodlots, and one-third State property; but ownership rights are still much in doubt, and until 1869 the State forests were freely open to the use of all, when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of different communities was attempted. Since within 10 years such rights of user establish ownership, endless litigation has resulted, until in 1883 a law was enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user, substituting money payment (10 per cent. of value), and another restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber, walnut, may be cut. Changes in detail were made in 1897, but political exigencies, absence of an adequate organization, and other undeveloped conditions have largely prevented enforcement of these laws, and rough exploitation continues in spite of the nominal State control.
[11] Forstliche Rundschau, 1903.
Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural districts to the wooded mountains, a large import was necessary, but lately export almost equals the import, and indeed the export of walnut has increased fourteenfold in a few years. The forest administration is vested in a bureau under the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an inspector general, and two assistant chiefs. When it is stated that in 1905 the entire budget for forestry was $150,000, the inefficiency of the service is apparent.
Servia, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and 2,000,000 people, has over 42 per cent. (five million acres—according to others only 32%) still in untouched forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the forest being mainly used for hograising. Over 36% is State forest, over 43% communal and institutional forest, leaving about 20% in private hands; but, just as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of forest area, lack of transportation and systematic development—a large part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importation, which amounts to near one million dollars. Curiously enough, by the law of 1891 only the wood cut from State and church forests could be exported free of duty. This export duty was abolished in 1904, and the first attempt was made by the Minister of Agriculture to bring order into the forest administration by importing German foresters.
The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions and changes, placed private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands, or on bogsoils under government surveillance, and relieved plantations made under direction of the government of taxes for 10 years.
Roumania,[12] with 50,000 square miles and nearly 6,000,000 people, under the capable administration of a Hohenzollern prince, King Charles, was in Roman times as Dacia felix one of the most prosperous provinces, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other half in the rich alluvial valley of the Danube, now largely deforested. The hill and mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the Turkish markets, until now not quite 17 per cent. (according to others 18 or 20 per cent.) of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user, which made commons of the woods, have naturally led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts. In 1847, the National Assembly attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user, but with little effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less than 5 million acres (according to others 6.7 million acres), of which two-fifths is in private hands, two-fifths State property and Royal forest (formerly, until 1863, in the hands of the monks), the small balance belonging to communities and institutes. In the higher mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest; but broadleaf forest, especially oak and beech is the prevailing type occupying the middle altitudes and the hill country. The private forest of small owners is being rapidly depleted, only the State forest and that of large proprietors being in good condition.
[12] Die forstwirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse Rumaniens, Von Mihail Vasilescu, 1891. Notice sur les forêts de Roumanie, in Statistica pâdurilor Statulin. 1903.
In 1863, when the cloister property was secularized and taken over by the state, the rights of user in this property were suspended, and sales at auction to contractors were inaugurated, under condition that a certain number of seed trees per acre be left. There was little enforcement of this rule.
The first comprehensive law organizing the State property and inaugurating a protective policy was enacted in 1881. This law recognized State, Royal and Communal property as of public concern, and also placed such private property under supervision as was situated on steep slopes, near watercourses, and near the boundaries (of strategic importance). These areas, coming under the protective policy, comprise 84 per cent. of the whole forest area. They were not to be cleared except by special permit, and not to be exploited except under specially approved working plans.
In 1885, three French foresters were called in to organize a State forest department and to inaugurate the making of working plans. The personnel (25 inspectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient, and wood prices low (the income from state property being not over $400,000), the progress of the work was slow. Although, in 1894, the income had doubled, the administrative forces had not been enlarged to any great extent (137 foresters of various grades), and by that time only 150,000 acres had been brought under working plans. By 1900, about 200,000 acres of State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some fashion. Lack of means of transportation, however, prevents a really well regulated management. Altogether only 65 per cent. of the State property is accessible so that it can be worked, and the working plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees.
In 1889, a Forestry Association (Progressul Silvic) was formed, which with its organ, Revista pâdurilor, pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an energetic Minister of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000 for foresters’ dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact with their charges, a planting fund of $100,000, later increased to $140,000 per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclamation of sand dunes was begun. A forest improvement fund was inaugurated in 1892 by setting aside 2 per cent. of the gross forest yield. But, in the political struggles, Carp’s party was displaced, and, depression in agricultural prosperity causing financial distress, an era of increased exploitation followed, so that the export of forest products, largely cooperage, (mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been declining to less than half, rose again to about four million dollars annually. The financial embarrassment of the State led even to a proposition to sell State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose were consummated, relief came and the danger was averted.
The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding about $1,000,000, the administration costing (in 1903) $240,000, leaving a net yield of 30 cents per acre. In 1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted of a Forest Director with 156 foresters academically educated (mostly in France, and since 1892 in the Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2,500 underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of sand dunes, one-half belonging to the State, about 18,000 acres have been recovered by planting Black Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have been reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries furnish the material. In spite of all these efforts, excessive pasturing, although forbidden in the State forest, and fires continue to devastate the property.
Private forestry is, of course, much less developed; yet some large properties (Princess Schoenburg, with 20,000 acres) are under efficient German forest management. Here, money is spent on developing means of transportation, and a better revenue is secured than in State forests.