SKETCH OF THE PRINCIPAL MARITIME EXPEDITIONS.
I have thought it proper to give here an account of the principal maritime expeditions, to be taken in connection with maxims on descents.
The naval forces of Egypt, Phoenicia, and Rhodes are the earliest mentioned in history, and of them the account is confused. The Persians conquered these nations, as well as Asia Minor, and became the most formidable power on both land and sea.
About the same time the Carthaginians, who were masters of the coast of Mauritania, being invited by the inhabitants of Cadiz, passed the straits, colonized Boetica and took possession of the Balearic Isles and Sardinia, and finally made a descent on Sicily.
The Greeks contended against the Persians with a success that could not have been expected,—although no country was ever more favorably situated for a naval power than Greece, with her fifty islands and her great extent of coast.
The merchant marine of Athens produced her prosperity, and gave her the naval power to which Greece was indebted for her independence. Her fleets, united with those of the islands, were, under Themistocles, the terror of the Persians and the rulers of the East. They never made grand descents, because their land-forces were not in proportion to their naval strength. Had Greece been a united government instead of a confederation of republics, and had the navies of Athens, Syracuse, Corinth, and Sparta been combined instead of fighting among each other, it is probable that the Greeks would have conquered the world before the Romans.
If we can believe the exaggerated traditions of the old Greek historians, the famous army of Xerxes had not less than four thousand vessels; and this number is astonishing, even when we read the account of them by Herodotus. It is more difficult to believe that at the same time, and by a concerted movement, five thousand other vessels landed three hundred thousand Carthaginians in Sicily, where they were totally defeated by Gelon on the same day that Themistocles destroyed the fleet of Xerxes at Salamis. Three other expeditions, under Hannibal, Imilcon, and Hamilcar, carried into Sicily from one hundred to one hundred and fifty thousand men: Agrigentum and Palermo were taken, Lilybæum was founded, and Syracuse besieged twice. The third time Androcles, with fifteen thousand men, landed in Africa, and made Carthage tremble. This contest lasted one year and a half.
Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont with only fifty thousand men: his naval force was only one hundred and sixty sail, while the Persians had four hundred; and to save his fleet Alexander sent it back to Greece.
After Alexander's death, his generals, who quarreled about the division of the empire, made no important naval expedition.
Pyrrhus, invited by the inhabitants of Tarentum and aided by their fleet, landed in Italy with twenty-six thousand infantry, three thousand horses, and the first elephants which had been seen in Italy. This was two hundred and eighty years before the Christian era.
Conqueror of the Romans at Heraclea and Ascoli, it is difficult to understand why he should have gone to Sicily at the solicitation of the Syracusans to expel the Carthaginians. Recalled, after some success, by the Tarentines, he recrossed the straits, harassed by the Carthaginian fleet: then, reinforced by the Samnites or Calabrians, he, a little too late, concluded to march on Rome. He in turn was beaten and repulsed on Beneventum, when he returned to Epirus with nine thousand men, which was all that remained of his force.
Carthage, which had been prospering for a long time, profited by the ruin of Tyre and the Persian empire.
The Punic wars between Carthage and Rome, now the preponderating power in Italy, were the most celebrated in the maritime annals of antiquity. The Romans were particularly remarkable for the rapidity with which they improved and increased their marine. In the year 264 B.C. their boats or vessels were scarcely fit to cross to Sicily; and eight years after found Regulus conqueror at Ecnomos, with three hundred and forty large vessels, each with three hundred rowers and one hundred and twenty combatants, making in all one hundred and forty thousand men. The Carthaginians, it is said, were stronger by twelve to fifteen thousand men and fifty vessels.
The victory of Ecnomos—perhaps more extraordinary than that of Actium—was the first important step of the Romans toward universal empire. The subsequent descent in Africa consisted of forty thousand men; but the greater part of this force being recalled to Sicily, the remainder was overthrown, and Regulus, being made prisoner, became as celebrated by his death as by his famous victory.
The great fleet which was to avenge him was successful at Clypea, but was destroyed on its return by a storm; and its successor met the same fate at Cape Palinuro. In the year 249 B.C. the Romans were defeated at Drepanum, and lost twenty-eight thousand men and more than one hundred vessels. Another fleet, on its way to besiege Lilybæum, in the same year, was lost off Cape Pactyrus.
Discouraged by this succession of disasters, the Senate at first resolved to renounce the sea; but, observing that the power of Sicily and Spain resulted from their maritime superiority, it concluded to arm its fleets again, and in the year 242 Lutatius Catullus set out with three hundred galleys and seven hundred transports for Drepanum, and gained the battle in the Ægates Islands, in which the Carthaginians lost one hundred and twenty vessels. This victory brought to a close the first Punic war.
The second, distinguished by Hannibal's expedition to Italy, was less maritime in its character. Scipio, however, bore the Roman eagles to Cartagena, and by its capture destroyed forever the empire of the Carthaginians in Spain. Finally, he carried the war into Africa with a force inferior to that of Regulus; but still he succeeded in gaining the battle of Zama, imposing a shameful peace on Carthage and burning five hundred of her ships. Subsequently Scipio's brother crossed the Hellespont with twenty-five thousand men, and at Magnesia gained the celebrated victory which surrendered to the mercy of the Romans the kingdom of Antiochus and all Asia. This expedition was aided by a victory gained at Myonnesus in Ionia, by the combined fleets of Rome and Rhodes, over the navy of Antiochus.
From this time Rome had no rival, and she continued to add to her power by using every means to insure to her the empire of the sea. Paulus Emilius in the year 168 B.C. landed at Samothrace at the head of twenty-five thousand men, conquered Perseus, and brought Macedonia to submission.
Twenty years later, the third Punic war decided the fate of Carthage. The important port of Utica having been given up to the Romans, an immense fleet was employed in transporting to this point eighty thousand foot-soldiers and four thousand horses; Carthage was besieged, and the son of Paulus Emilius and adopted son of the great Scipio had the glory of completing the victory which Emilius and Scipio had begun, by destroying the bitter rival of his country.
After this triumph, the power of Rome in Africa, as well as in Europe, was supreme; but her empire in Asia was for a moment shaken by Mithridates. This powerful king, after seizing in succession the small adjacent states, was in command of not less than two hundred and fifty thousand men, and of a fleet of four hundred vessels, of which three hundred were decked. He defeated the three Roman generals who commanded in Cappadocia, invaded Asia Minor and massacred there at least eighty thousand Roman subjects, and even sent a large army into Greece.
Sylla landed in Greece with a reinforcement of twenty-five thousand Romans, and retook Athens; but Mithridates sent in succession two large armies by the Bosporus and the Dardanelles: the first, one hundred thousand strong, was destroyed at Chæronea, and the second, of eighty thousand men, met a similar fate at Orchomenus. At the same time, Lucullus, having collected all the maritime resources of the cities of Asia Minor, the islands, and particularly of Rhodes, was prepared to transport Sylla's army from Sestos to Asia; and Mithridates, from fear, made peace.
In the second and third wars, respectively conducted by Murena and Lucullus, there were no descents effected. Mithridates, driven step by step into Colchis, and no longer able to keep the sea, conceived the project of turning the Black Sea by the Caucasus, in order to pass through Thrace to assume the offensive,—a policy which it is difficult to understand, in view of the fact that he was unable to defend his kingdom against fifty thousand Romans.
Cæsar, in his second descent on England, had six hundred vessels, transporting forty thousand men. During the civil wars he transported thirty-five thousand men to Greece. Antony came from Brundusium to join him with twenty thousand men, and passed through the fleet of Pompey,—in which act he was as much favored by the lucky star of Cæsar as by the arrangements of his lieutenants.
Afterward Cæsar carried an army of sixty thousand men to Africa; they did not, however, go in a body, but in successive detachments.
The greatest armament of the latter days of the Roman republic was that of Augustus, who transported eighty thousand men and twelve thousand horses into Greece to oppose Antony; for, besides the numerous transports required for such an army, there were two hundred and sixty vessels of war to protect them. Antony was superior in force on land, but trusted the empire of the world to a naval battle: he had one hundred and seventy war-vessels, in addition to sixty of Cleopatra's galleys, the whole manned by twenty-two thousand choice troops, besides the necessary rowers.
Later, Germanicus conducted an expedition of one thousand vessels, carrying sixty thousand men, from the mouths of the Rhine to the mouths of the Ems. Half of this fleet was destroyed on its return by a storm; and it is difficult to understand why Germanicus, controlling both banks of the Rhine, should have exposed his army to the chances of the sea, when he could have reached the same point by land in a few days.
When the Roman authority extended from the Rhine to the Euphrates, maritime expeditions were rare; and the great contest with the races of the North of Europe, which began after the division of the empire, gave employment to the Roman armies on the sides of Germany and Thrace. The eastern fraction of the empire still maintained a powerful navy, which the possession of the islands of the Archipelago made a necessity, while at the same time it afforded the means.
The first five centuries of the Christian era afford but few events of interest in maritime warfare. The Vandals, having acquired Spain, landed in Africa, eighty thousand strong, under Genseric. They were defeated by Belisarius; but, holding the Balearic Isles and Sicily, they controlled the Mediterranean for a time.
At the very epoch when the nations of the East invaded Europe, the Scandinavians began to land on the coast of England. Their operations are little better known than those of the barbarians: they are hidden in the mysteries of Odin.
The Scandinavian bards attribute two thousand five hundred vessels to Sweden. Less poetical accounts assign nine hundred and seventy to the Danes and three hundred to Norway: these frequently acted in concert.
The Swedes naturally turned their attention to the head of the Baltic, and drove the Varangians into Russia. The Danes, more favorably situated with respect to the North Sea, directed their course toward the coasts of France and England.
If the account cited by Depping is correct, the greater part of these vessels were nothing more than fishermen's boats manned by a score of rowers. There were also snekars, with twenty banks or forty rowers. The largest had thirty-four banks of rowers. The incursions of the Danes, who had long before ascended the Seine and Loire, lead us to infer that the greater part of these vessels were very small.
However, Hengist, invited by the Briton Vortigern, transported five thousand Saxons to England in eighteen vessels,—which would go to show that there were then also large vessels, or that the marine of the Elbe was superior to that of the Scandinavians.
Between the years 527 and 584, three new expeditions, under Ida and Cridda, gained England for the Saxons, who divided it into seven kingdoms; and it was not until three centuries had elapsed (833) that they were again united under the authority of Egbert.
The African races, in their turn, visited the South of Europe. In 712, the Moors crossed the Straits of Gibraltar, under the lead of Tarik. They came, five thousand strong, at the invitation of Count Julian; and, far from meeting great resistance, they were welcomed by the numerous enemies of the Visigoths. This was the happy era of the Caliphs, and the Arabs might well pass for liberators in comparison with the tyrants of the North. Tarik's army, soon swelled to twenty thousand men, defeated Rodrigo at Jerez and reduced the kingdom to submission. In time, several millions of the inhabitants of Mauritania crossed the sea and settled in Spain; and if their numerous migrations cannot be regarded as descents, still, they form one of the most curious and interesting scenes in history, occurring between the incursions of the Vandals in Africa and the Crusades in the East.
A revolution not less important, and one which has left more durable traces, marked in the North the establishment of the vast empire now known as Russia. The Varangian princes, invited by the Novgorodians, of whom Rurik was the chief, soon signalized themselves by great expeditions.
In 902, Oleg is said to have embarked eighty thousand men in two thousand boats on the Dnieper: they passed the falls of the river and debouched in the Black Sea, while their cavalry followed the banks. They proceeded to Constantinople, and forced Leo the Philosopher to pay tribute.
Forty years subsequently, Igor took the same route with a fleet said to have consisted of ten thousand boats. Near Constantinople his fleet, terrified by the effects of the Greek fire, was driven on the coast of Asia, where the force was disembarked. It was defeated, and the expedition returned home.
Not discouraged, Igor re-established his fleet and army and descended to the mouths of the Danube, where the Emperor Romanus I. sent to renew the tribute and ask for peace, (943.)
In 967, Svatoslav, favored by the quarrel of Nicephorus with the King of Bulgaria, embarked sixty thousand men, debouched into the Black Sea, ascended the Danube, and seized Bulgaria. Recalled by the Petchenegs, who were menacing Kiew, he entered into alliance with them and returned into Bulgaria, broke his alliance with the Greeks, and, being reinforced by the Hungarians, crossed the Balkan and marched to attack Adrianople. The throne of Constantine was held by Zimisces, who was worthy of his position. Instead of purchasing safety by paying tribute, as his predecessors had done, he raised one hundred thousand men, armed a respectable fleet, repulsed Svatoslav at Adrianople, obliged him to retreat to Silistria, and took by assault the capital of the Bulgarians. The Russian prince marched to meet him, and gave battle not far from Silistria, but was obliged to re-enter the place, where he sustained one of the most memorable sieges recorded in history.
In a second and still more bloody battle, the Russians performed prodigies of valor, but were again compelled to yield to numbers. Zimisces, honoring courage, finally concluded an advantageous treaty.
About this period the Danes were attracted to England by the hope of pillage; and we are told that Lothaire called their king, Ogier, to France to be avenged of his brothers. The first success of these pirates increased their fondness for this sort of adventure, and for five or six years their bands swarmed on the coasts of France and Britain and devastated the country. Ogier, Hastings, Regner, and Sigefroi conducted them sometimes to the mouths of the Seine, sometimes to the mouths of the Loire, and finally to those of the Garonne. It is even asserted that Hastings entered the Mediterranean and ascended the Rhone to Avignon; but this is, to say the least, doubtful. The strength of their fleets is not known: the largest seems to have been of three hundred sail.
In the beginning of the tenth century, Rollo at first landed in England, but, finding little chance of success against Alfred, he entered into alliance with him, landed in Neustria in 911, and advanced from Rouen on Paris: other bodies marched from Nantes on Chartres. Repulsed here, Rollo overran and ravaged the neighboring provinces. Charles the Simple saw no better means of delivering his kingdom of this ever-increasing scourge than to offer Rollo the fine province of Neustria on condition that he would marry his daughter and turn Christian,—an offer which was eagerly accepted.
Thirty years later, Rollo's step-son, annoyed by the successors of Charles, called to his aid the King of Denmark. The latter landed in considerable force, defeated the French, took the king prisoner, and assured Rollo's son in the possession of Normandy.
During the same interval (838 to 950) the Danes exhibited even greater hostility toward England than to France, although they were much more assimilated to the Saxons than to the French in language and customs. Ivar, after pillaging the kingdom, established his family in Northumberland. Alfred the Great, at first beaten by Ivar's successors, succeeded in regaining his throne and in compelling the submission of the Danes.
The aspect of affairs changes anew: Sweyn, still more fortunate than Ivar, after conquering and devastating England, granted peace on condition that a sum of money should be paid, and returned to Denmark, leaving a part of his army behind him.
Ethelred, who had weakly disputed with Sweyn what remained of the Saxon power, thought he could not do better to free himself from his importunate guests than to order a simultaneous massacre of all the Danes in the kingdom, (1002.) But Sweyn reappeared in the following year at the head of an imposing force, and between 1003 and 1007 three successive fleets effected disembarkations on the coast, and unfortunate England was ravaged anew.
In 1012, Sweyn landed at the mouth of the Humber and again swept over the land like a torrent, and the English, tired of obedience to kings who could not defend them, recognized him as king of the North. His son, Canute the Great, had to contend with a rival more worthy of him, (Edmund Ironside.) Returning from Denmark at the head of a considerable force, and aided by the perfidious Edric, Canute ravaged the southern part of England and threatened London. A new division of the kingdom resulted; but, Edmund having been assassinated by Edric, Canute was finally recognized as king of all England. Afterward he sailed to conquer Norway, from which country he returned to attack Scotland. When he died, he divided the kingdom between his three children, according to the usage of the times.
Five years after Canute's death, the English assigned the crown to their Anglo-Saxon princes; but Edward, to whom it fell, was better fitted to be a monk than to save a kingdom a prey to such commotions. He died in 1066, leaving to Harold a crown which the chief of the Normans settled in France contested with him, and to whom, it is said, Edward had made a cession of the kingdom. Unfortunately for Harold, this chief was a great and ambitious man.
The year 1066 was marked by two extraordinary expeditions. While William the Conqueror was preparing in Normandy a formidable armament against Harold, the brother of the latter, having been driven from Northumberland for his crimes, sought support in Norway, and, with the King of Norway, set out with thirty thousand men on five hundred vessels, and landed at the mouth of the Humber. Harold almost entirely destroyed this force in a bloody battle fought near York; but a more formidable storm was about to burst upon his head. William took advantage of the time when the Anglo-Saxon king was fighting the Norwegians, to sail from St. Valery with a very large armament. Hume asserts that he had three thousand transports; while other authorities reduce the number to twelve hundred, carrying from sixty to seventy thousand men. Harold hastened from York, and fought a decisive battle near Hastings, in which he met an honorable death, and his fortunate rival soon reduced the country to submission.
At the same time, another William, surnamed Bras-de-fer, Robert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, conquered Calabria and Sicily with a handful of troops,(1058 to 1070.)
Scarcely thirty years after these memorable events, an enthusiastic priest animated Europe with a fanatical frenzy and precipitated large forces upon Asia to conquer the Holy Land.
At first followed by one hundred thousand men, afterward by two hundred thousand badly-armed vagabonds who perished in great part under the attacks of the Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Greeks, Peter the Hermit succeeded in crossing the Bosporus, and arrived before Nice with from fifty to sixty thousand men, who were either killed or captured by the Saracens.
An expedition more military in its character succeeded this campaign of religious pilgrims. One hundred thousand men, composed of French, Burgundians, Germans, and inhabitants of Lorraine, under Godfrey of Bouillon, marched through Austria on Constantinople; an equal number, under the Count of Toulouse, marched by Lyons, Italy, Dalmatia, and Macedonia; and Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, embarked with a force of Normans, Sicilians, and Italians, and took the route by Greece on Gallipolis.
This extensive migration reminds us of the fabulous expeditions of Xerxes. The Genoese, Venetian, and Greek fleets were chartered to transport these swarms of Crusaders by the Bosporus or Dardanelles to Asia. More than four hundred thousand men were concentrated on the plains of Nice, where they avenged the defeat of their predecessors. Godfrey afterward led them across Asia and Syria as far as Jerusalem, where he founded a kingdom.
All the maritime resources of Greece and the flourishing republics of Italy were required to transport these masses across the Bosporus and in provisioning them during the siege of Nice; and the great impulse thus given to the coast states of Italy was perhaps the most advantageous result of the Crusades.
This temporary success of the Crusaders became the source of great disasters. The Mussulmans, heretofore divided among themselves, united to resist the infidel, and divisions began to appear in the Christian camps. A new expedition was necessary to aid the kingdom which the brave Noureddin was threatening. Louis VII. and the Emperor Conrad, each at the head of one hundred thousand Crusaders, marched, as their predecessors had done, by the route of Constantinople, (1142.) But the Greeks, frightened by the recurring visits of these menacing guests, plotted their destruction.
Conrad, who was desirous of being first, fell into the traps laid for him by the Turks, and was defeated in detachments in several battles by the Sultan of Iconium. Louis, more fortunate, defeated the Turks on the banks of the Mender; but, being deprived of the support of Conrad, and his army being annoyed and partially beaten by the enemy in the passage of defiles, and being in want of supplies, he was confined to Attalia, on the coast of Pamphylia, where he endeavored to embark his army. The means furnished by the Greeks were insufficient, and not more than fifteen or twenty thousand men arrived at Antioch with the king: the remainder either perished or fell into the hands of the Saracens.
This feeble reinforcement soon melted away under the attacks of the climate and the daily contests with the enemy, although they were continually aided by small bodies brought over from Europe by the Italian ships; and they were again about to yield under the attacks of Saladin, when the court of Rome succeeded in effecting an alliance between the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and the Kings of France and England to save the Holy Land.
The emperor was the first to set out. At the head of one hundred thousand Germans, he opened a passage through Thrace in spite of the formal resistance of the Greeks, now governed by Isaac Angelus. He marched to Gallipolis, crossed the Dardanelles, and seized Iconium. He died in consequence of an imprudent bath in a river, which, it has been pretended, was the Cydnus. His son, the Duke of Swabia, annoyed by the Mussulmans and attacked by diseases, brought to Ptolemais scarcely six thousand men.
At the same time, Richard Coeur-de-Lion[[58]] and Philip Augustus more judiciously took the route over the sea, and sailed from Marseilles and Genoa with two immense fleets,(1190.) The first seized Cyprus, and both landed in Syria,—where they would probably have triumphed but for the rivalry which sprang up between them, in consequence of which Philip returned to France.
Twelve years later, a new Crusade was determined upon, (1203.) Part of the Crusaders embarked from Provence or Italy; others, led by the Count of Flanders and the Marquis of Montferrat, proceeded to Venice, with the intention of embarking there. The party last mentioned were persuaded by the skillful Dandolo to aid him in an attack upon Constantinople, upon the pretext of upholding the rights of Alexis Angelus, the son of Isaac Angelus, who had fought the Emperor Frederick and was the successor of those Comnenuses who had connived at the destruction of the armies of Conrad and Louis VII.
Twenty thousand men had the boldness to attack the ancient capital of the world, which had at least two hundred thousand defenders. They assailed it by sea and land, and captured it. The usurper fled, and Alexis was replaced upon the throne, but was unable to retain his seat: the Greeks made an insurrection in favor of Murzupha, but the Latins took possession of Constantinople after a more bloody assault than the first, and placed upon the throne their chief, Count Baldwin of Flanders. This empire lasted a half-century. The remnant of the Greeks took refuge at Nice and Trebizond.
A sixth expedition was directed against Egypt by John of Brienne, who, notwithstanding the successful issue of the horrible siege of Damietta, was obliged to give way before the constantly-increasing efforts of the Mussulman population. The remains of his splendid army, after a narrow escape from drowning in the Nile, deemed themselves very fortunate in being able to purchase permission to re-embark for Europe.
The court of Rome, whose interest it was to keep up the zeal of Christendom in these expeditions, of which it gathered all the fruits, encouraged the German princes to uphold the tottering realm at Jerusalem. The Emperor Frederick and the Landgrave of Hesse embarked at Brundusium in 1227, at the head of forty thousand chosen soldiers. The landgrave, and afterward Frederick himself, fell sick, and the fleet put in at Tarentum, from which port the emperor, irritated by the presumption of Gregory IX., who excommunicated him because he was too slow in the gratification of his wishes, at a later date proceeded with ten thousand men, thus giving way to the fear inspired by the pontifical thunders.
Louis IX., animated by the same feeling of fear, or impelled, if we may credit Ancelot, by motives of a higher character, set out from Aigues-Mortes, in 1248, with one hundred and twenty large vessels, and fifteen hundred smaller boats, hired from the Genoese, the Venetians and the Catalans; for France was at that time without a navy, although washed by two seas. This king proceeded to Cyprus, and, having there collected a still larger force, set out, according to Joinville's statement, with more than eighteen hundred vessels, to make a descent into Egypt. His army must have numbered about eighty thousand men; for, although half of the fleet was scattered and cast away upon the coast of Syria, he marched upon Cairo a few months later with sixty thousand fighting-men, twenty thousand being mounted. It should be stated that the Count of Poictiers had arrived also with troops from France.
The sad fortune experienced by this splendid army did not prevent the same king from engaging in a new Crusade, twenty years later, (1270.) He disembarked upon that occasion at the ruins of Carthage, and besieged Tunis. The plague swept off half his army in a few months, and himself was one of its victims. The King of Sicily, having arrived with powerful reinforcements at the time of Louis's death, and desiring to carry back the remains of the army to his island of Sicily, encountered a tempest which caused a loss of four thousand men and twenty large ships. This prince was not deterred by this misfortune from desiring the conquest of the Greek empire and of Constantinople, which seemed a prize of greater value and more readily obtained. Philip, the son and successor of Saint Louis, being anxious to return to France, would have nothing to do with that project. This was the last effort. The Christians who were abandoned in Syria were destroyed in the noted attacks of Tripoli and Ptolemais: some of the remnants of the religious orders took refuge at Cyprus and established themselves at Rhodes.
The Mussulmans, in their turn, crossed the Dardanelles at Gallipolis in 1355, and took possession, one after the other, of the European provinces of the Eastern Empire, to which the Latins had themselves given the fatal blow.
Mohammed II., while besieging Constantinople in 1453, is said to have had his fleet transported by land with a view to placing it in the canal and closing the port: it is stated to have been large enough to be manned by twenty thousand select foot-soldiers. After the capture of this capital, Mohammed found his means increased by all those of the Greek navy, and in a short time his empire attained the first rank of maritime powers. He ordered an attack to be made upon Rhodes and upon Otranto on the Italian main, whilst he proceeded to Hungary in search of a more worthy opponent (Hunniades.) Repulsed and wounded at Belgrade, the sultan fell upon Trebizond with a numerous fleet, brought that city to sue for terms, and then proceeded with a fleet of four hundred sail to make a landing upon the island of Negropont, which he carried by assault. A second attempt upon Rhodes, executed, it is stated, at the head of a hundred thousand men, by one of his ablest lieutenants, was a failure, with loss to the assailants. Mohammed was preparing to go to that point himself with an immense army assembled on the shores of Ionia, which Vertot estimates at three hundred thousand men; but death closed his career, and the project was not carried into effect.
About the same period England began to be formidable to her neighbors on land as well as on the sea; the Dutch also, reclaiming their country from the inroads of the sea, were laying the foundations of a power more extraordinary even than that of Venice.
Edward III. landed in France and besieged Calais with eight hundred ships and forty thousand men.
Henry V. made two descents in 1414 and 1417: he had, it is stated, fifteen hundred vessels and only thirty thousand men, of whom six thousand were cavalry.
All the events we have described as taking place, up to this period, and including the capture of Constantinople, were before the invention of gunpowder; for if Henry V. had cannon at Agincourt, as is claimed by some writers, they were certainly not used in naval warfare. From that time all the combinations of naval armaments were entirely changed; and this revolution took place—if I may use that expression—at the time when the invention of the mariner's compass and the discovery of America and of the Cape of Good Hope were about to turn the maritime commerce of the world into new channels and to establish an entirely new system of colonial dependencies.
I shall not mention in detail the expeditions of the Spaniards to America, or those of the Portuguese, Dutch, and English to India by doubling the Cape of Good Hope. Notwithstanding their great influence upon the commerce of the world,—notwithstanding the genius of Gama, Albuquerque, and Cortez,—these expeditions, undertaken by small bodies of two or three thousand men against tribes who knew nothing of fire-arms, are of no interest in a military point of view.
The Spanish navy, whose fame had been greatly increased by this discovery of a new world, was at the height of its splendor in the reign of Charles V. However, the glory of the expedition to Tunis, which was conquered by this prince at the head of thirty thousand fine soldiers transported in five hundred Genoese or Spanish vessels, was balanced by the disaster which befell a similar expedition against Algiers, (1541,) undertaken when the season was too far advanced and in opposition to the wise counsels of Admiral Doria. The expedition was scarcely under way when the emperor saw one hundred and sixty of his ships and eight thousand men swallowed up by the waves: the remainder was saved by the skill of Doria, and assembled at Cape Metafuz, where Charles V. himself arrived, after encountering great difficulties and peril.
While these events were transpiring, the successors of Mohammed were not neglecting the advantages given them by the possession of so many fine maritime provinces, which taught them at once the importance of the control of the sea and furnished means for obtaining it. At this period the Turks were quite as well informed with reference to artillery and the military art in general as the Europeans. They reached the apex of their greatness under Solyman I., who besieged and captured Rhodes (1552) with an army stated to have reached the number of one hundred and forty thousand men,—which was still formidable even upon the supposition of its strength being exaggerated by one-half.
In 1565, Mustapha and the celebrated Dragut made a descent upon Malta, where the Knights of Rhodes had made a new establishment; they carried over thirty-two thousand Janissaries, with one hundred and forty ships. John of Valetta, as is well known, gained an enduring fame by repulsing them.
A more formidable expedition, consisting of two hundred vessels and fifty-five thousand men, was sent in 1527 to the isle of Cyprus, where Nicosia was taken and Famagosta besieged. The horrible cruelties practiced by Mustapha increased the alarm occasioned by his progress. Spain, Venice, Naples, and Malta united their naval forces to succor Cyprus; but Famagosta had already surrendered, notwithstanding the heroic defense of Bragadino, who was perfidiously flayed alive by Mustapha's order, to avenge the death of forty thousand Turks that had perished in the space of two years spent on the island.
The allied fleet, under the orders of two heroes, Don John of Austria, brother of Philip II., and Andrea Doria, attacked the Turkish fleet at the entrance of the Gulf of Lepanto, near the promontory of Actium, where Antony and Augustus once fought for the empire of the world. The Turkish fleet was almost entirely destroyed: more than two hundred vessels and thirty thousand Turks were captured or perished, (1571.) This victory did not put an end to the supremacy of the Turks, but was a great check in their career of greatness. However, they made such vigorous efforts that as large a fleet as the former one was sent to sea during the next year. Peace terminated this contest, in which such enormous losses were sustained.
The bad fortune of Charles V. in his expedition against Algiers did not deter Sebastian of Portugal from wishing to attempt the conquest of Morocco, where he was invited by a Moorish prince who had been deprived of his estates. Having disembarked upon the shores of Morocco at the head of twenty thousand men, this young prince was killed and his army cut to pieces at the battle of Alcazar by Muley Abdulmalek, in 1578.
Philip II., whose pride had increased since the naval battle of Lepanto on account of the success he had gained in France by his diplomacy and by the folly of the adherents of the League, deemed his arms irresistible. He thought to bring England to his feet. The invincible Armada intended to produce this effect, which has been so famous, was composed of an expeditionary force proceeding from Cadiz, including, according to Hume's narrative, one hundred and thirty-seven vessels, armed with two thousand six hundred and thirty bronze cannon, and carrying twenty thousand soldiers, in addition to eleven thousand sailors. To these forces was to be added an army of twenty-five thousand men which the Duke of Parma was to bring up from the Netherlands by way of Ostend. A tempest and the efforts of the English caused the failure of this expedition, which, although of considerable magnitude for the period when it appeared, was by no means entitled to the high-sounding name it received: it lost thirteen thousand men and half the vessels before it even came near the English coast.
After this expedition comes in chronological order that of Gustavus Adolphus to Germany,(1630.) The army contained only from fifteen to eighteen thousand men: the fleet was quite large, and was manned by nine thousand sailors; M. Ancillon must, however, be mistaken in stating that it carried eight thousand cannon. The debarkation in Pomerania received little opposition from the Imperial troops, and the King of Sweden had a strong party among the German people. His successor was the leader of a very extraordinary expedition, which is resembled by only one other example mentioned in history: I refer to the march of Charles X. of Sweden across the Belt upon the ice, with a view of moving from Sleswick upon Copenhagen by way of the island of Funen,(1658.) He had twenty-five thousand men, of whom nine thousand were cavalry, and artillery in proportion. This undertaking was so much the more rash because the ice was unsafe, several pieces of artillery and even the king's own carriage having broken through and been lost.
After seventy-five years of peace, the war between Venice and the Turks recommenced in 1645. The latter transported an army of fifty-five thousand men, in three hundred and fifty vessels, to Candia, and gained possession of the important post of Canea before the republic thought of sending succor. Although the people of Venice began to lose the spirit which made her great, she still numbered among her citizens some noble souls: Morosini, Grimani, and Mocenigo struggled several years against the Turks, who derived great advantages from their numerical superiority and the possession of Canea. The Venetian fleet had, nevertheless, gained a marked ascendency under the orders of Grimani, when a third of it was destroyed by a frightful tempest, in which the admiral himself perished.
In 1648, the siege of Candia began. Jussuf attacked the city furiously at the head of thirty thousand men: after being repulsed in two assaults, he was encouraged to attempt a third by a large breach being made. The Turks entered the place: Mocenigo rushed to meet them, expecting to die in their midst. A brilliant victory was the reward of his heroic conduct: the enemy were repulsed and the ditches filled with their dead bodies.
Venice might have driven off the Turks by sending twenty thousand men to Candia; but Europe rendered her but feeble support, and she had already called into active service all the men fit for war she could produce.
The siege, resumed some time after, lasted longer than that of Troy, and each campaign was marked by fresh attempts on the part of the Turks to carry succor to their army and by naval victories gained by the Venetians. The latter people had kept up with the advance of naval tactics in Europe, and thus were plainly superior to the Mussulmans, who adhered to the old customs, and were made to pay dearly for every attempt to issue from the Dardanelles. Three persons of the name of Morosini, and several Mocenigos, made themselves famous in this protracted struggle.
Finally, the celebrated Coprougli, placed by his merits at the head of the Ottoman ministry, resolved to take the personal direction of this war which had lasted so long: he accordingly proceeded to the island, where transports had landed fifty thousand men, at whose head he conducted the attack in a vigorous manner.(1667.)
In this memorable siege the Turks exhibited more skill than previously: their artillery, of very heavy caliber, was well served, and, for the first time, they made use of trenches, which were the invention of an Italian engineer.
The Venetians, on their side, greatly improved the methods of defense by mines. Never had there been seen such furious zeal exhibited in mutual destruction by combats, mines, and assaults. Their heroic resistance enabled the garrison to hold out during winter: in the spring, Venice sent reinforcements and the Duke of Feuillade brought a few hundreds of French volunteers.
The Turks had also received strong reinforcements, and redoubled their efforts. The siege was drawing to a close, when six thousand Frenchmen came to the assistance of the garrison under the leadership of the Duke of Beaufort and Navailles,(1669.) A badly-conducted sortie discouraged these presumptuous young men, and Navailles, disgusted with the sufferings endured in the siege, assumed the responsibility, at the end of two months, of carrying the remnant of his troops back to France. Morosini, having then but three thousand exhausted men to defend a place which was open on all sides, finally consented to evacuate it, and a truce was agreed upon, which led to a formal treaty of peace. Candia had cost the Turks twenty-five years of efforts and more than one hundred thousand men killed in eighteen assaults and several hundred sorties. It is estimated that thirty-five thousand Christians of different nations perished in the glorious defense of the place.
The struggle between Louis XIV., Holland, and England gives examples of great maritime operations, but no remarkable descents. That of James II. in Ireland (1690) was composed of only six thousand Frenchmen, although De Tourville's fleet contained seventy-three ships of the line, carrying five thousand eight hundred cannon and twenty-nine thousand sailors. A grave fault was committed in not throwing at least twenty thousand men into Ireland with such means as were disposable. Two years later, De Tourville had been conquered in the famous day of La Hogue, and the remains of the troops which had landed were enabled to return through the instrumentality of a treaty which required their evacuation of the island.
At the beginning of the eighteenth century, the Swedes and Russians undertook two expeditions very different in character.
Charles XII., wishing to aid the Duke of Holstein, made a descent upon Denmark at the head of twenty thousand men, transported by two hundred vessels and protected by a strong squadron. He was really assisted by the English and Dutch navies, but the expedition was not for that reason the less remarkable in the details of the disembarkation. The same prince effected a descent into Livonia to aid Narva, but he landed his troops at a Swedish port.
Peter the Great, having some cause of complaint against the Persians, and wishing to take advantage of their dissensions, embarked (in 1722) upon the Volga: he entered the Caspian Sea with two hundred and seventy vessels, carrying twenty thousand foot-soldiers, and descended to Agrakhan, at the mouths of the Koisou, where he expected to meet his cavalry. This force, numbering nine thousand dragoons and five thousand Cossacks, joined him after a land-march by way of the Caucasus. The czar then seized Derbent, besieged Bakou, and finally made a treaty with one of the parties whose dissensions at that time filled with discord the empire of the Soofees: he procured the cession of Astrabad, the key of the Caspian Sea and, in some measure, of the whole Persian empire.
The time of Louis XV. furnished examples of none but secondary expeditions, unless we except that of Richelieu against Minorca, which was very glorious as an escalade, but less extraordinary as a descent.
[In 1762, an English fleet sailed from Portsmouth: this was joined by a portion of the squadron from Martinico. The whole amounted to nineteen ships of the line, eighteen smaller vessels of war, and one hundred and fifty transports, carrying ten thousand men. The expedition besieged and captured Havana.—TRS.]
The Spaniards, however, in 1775, made a descent with fifteen or sixteen thousand men upon Algiers, with a view of punishing those rovers of the sea for their bold piracies; but the expedition, for want of harmonious action between the squadron and the land-forces, was unsuccessful, on account of the murderous fire which the troops received from the Turkish and Arab musketeers dispersed among the undergrowth surrounding the city. The troops returned to their vessels after having two thousand men placed hors de combat.
The American war (1779) was the epoch of the greatest maritime efforts upon the part of the French. Europe was astonished to see this power send Count d'Estaing to America with twenty-five ships of the line, while at the same time M. Orvilliers, with a Franco-Spanish fleet of sixty-five ships of the line, was to cover a descent to be effected with three hundred transports and forty thousand men, assembled at Havre and St. Malo.
This new armada moved back and forth for several months, but accomplished nothing: the winds finally drove it back to port.
D'Estaing was more fortunate, as he succeeded in getting the superiority in the Antilles and in landing in the United States six thousand Frenchmen under Rochambeau, who were followed, at a later date, by another division, and assisted in investing the English army under Cornwallis at Yorktown, (1781:) the independence of America was thus secured. France would perhaps have gained a triumph over her implacable rival more lasting in its effects, had she, in addition to the display made in the English Channel, sent ten ships and seven or eight thousand men more to India with Admiral Suffren.
During the French Revolution, there were few examples of descents: the fire at Toulon, emigration, and the battle of Ushant had greatly injured the French navy.
Hoche's expedition against Ireland with twenty-five thousand men was scattered by the winds, and no further attempts in that quarter were made. (1796.)
At a later date, Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt, consisting of twenty-three thousand men, thirteen ships, seventeen frigates, and four hundred transports, obtained great successes at first, which were followed by sad reverses. The Turks, in hopes of expelling him, landed fifteen thousand men at Aboukir, but were all captured or driven into the sea, notwithstanding the advantages this peninsula gave them of intrenching themselves and waiting for reinforcements. This is an excellent example for imitation by the party on the defensive under similar circumstances.
The expedition of considerable magnitude which was sent out in 1802 to St. Domingo was remarkable as a descent, but failed on account of the ravages of yellow fever.
Since their success against Louis XIV., the English have given their attention more to the destruction of rival fleets and the subjugation of colonies than to great descents. The attempts made in the eighteenth century against Brest and Cherbourg with bodies of ten or twelve thousand men amounted to nothing in the heart of a powerful state like France. The remarkable conquests which procured them their Indian empire occurred in succession. Having obtained possession of Calcutta, and then of Bengal, they strengthened themselves gradually by the arrival of troops in small bodies and by using the Sepoys, whom they disciplined to the number of one hundred and fifty thousand.
The Anglo-Russian expedition to Holland in 1799 was composed of forty thousand men, but they were not all landed at once: the study of the details of the operations is, however, quite interesting.
In 1801, Abercrombie, after threatening Ferrol and Cadiz, effected a descent into Egypt with twenty thousand Englishmen. The results of this expedition are well known.
General Stuart's expedition to Calabria, (1806,) after some successes at Maida, was for the purpose of regaining possession of Sicily. That against Buenos Ayres was more unfortunate in its results, and was terminated by a capitulation.
In 1807, Lord Cathcart attacked Copenhagen with twenty-five thousand men, besieged and bombarded the city, and gained possession of the Danish fleet, which was his object.
In 1808, Wellington appeared in Portugal with fifteen thousand men. After gaining the victory of Vimeira, and assisted by the general rising of the Portuguese, he forced Junot to evacuate the kingdom. The same army, increased in numbers to twenty-five thousand and placed under Moore's command, while making an effort to penetrate into Spain with a view of relieving Madrid, was forced to retreat to Corunna and there re-embark, after suffering severe losses. Wellington, having effected another landing in Portugal with reinforcements, collected an army of thirty thousand Englishmen and as many Portuguese, with which he avenged Moore's misfortunes by surprising Soult at Oporto, (May, 1809,) and then beating Joseph at Talavera, under the very gates of his capital.
The expedition to Antwerp in the same year was one of the largest England has undertaken since the time of Henry V. It was composed of not less than seventy thousand men in all,—forty thousand land-forces and thirty thousand sailors. It did not succeed, on account of the incapacity of the leader.
A descent entirely similar in character to that of Charles X. of Sweden was effected by thirty Russian battalions passing the Gulf of Bothnia on the ice in five columns, with their artillery. Their object was to take possession of the islands of Aland and spread a feeling of apprehension to the very gates of Stockholm. Another division passed the gulf to Umeå, (March, 1809.)
General Murray succeeded in effecting a well-planned descent in the neighborhood of Tarragona in 1813, with the intention of cutting Suchet off from Valencia: however, after some successful operations, he thought best to re-embark.
The expedition set on foot by England against Napoleon after his return from Elba in 1815 was remarkable on account of the great mass of matériel landed at Ostend and Antwerp. The Anglo-Hanoverian army contained sixty thousand men, but some came by land and others were disembarked at a friendly port.
The English engaged in an undertaking in the same year which may be regarded as very extraordinary: I refer to the attack on the capital of the United States. The world was astonished to see a handful of seven or eight thousand Englishmen making their appearance in the midst of a state embracing ten millions of people, taking possession of its capital, and destroying all the public buildings,—results unparalleled in history. We would be tempted to despise the republican and unmilitary spirit of the inhabitants of those states if the same militia had not risen, like those of Greece, Rome, and Switzerland, to defend their homes against still more powerful attacks, and if, in the same year, an English expedition more extensive than the other had not been entirely defeated by the militia of Louisiana and other states under the orders of General Jackson.
If the somewhat fabulous numbers engaged in the irruption of Xerxes and the Crusades be excepted, no undertaking of this kind which has been actually carried out, especially since fleets have been armed with powerful artillery, can at all be compared with the gigantic project and proportionate preparations made by Napoleon for throwing one hundred and fifty thousand veterans upon the shores of England by the use of three thousand launches or large gun-boats, protected by sixty ships of the line[[59]].
From the preceding narrative the reader will perceive what a difference there is in point of difficulty and probability of success between descents attempted across a narrow arm of the sea, a few miles only in width, and those in which the troops and matériel are to be transported long distances over the open sea. This fact gives the reason why so many operations of this kind have been executed by way of the Bosporus.
[The following paragraphs have been compiled from authentic data:—
In 1830, the French government sent an expedition to Algiers, composed of an army of thirty-seven thousand five hundred men and one hundred and eighty pieces of artillery. More than five hundred vessels of war and transports were employed. The fleet sailed from Toulon.
In 1838, France sent a fleet of twenty-two vessels to Vera Cruz. The castle of San Juan d'Ulloa fell into their hands after a short bombardment. A small force of about one thousand men, in three columns, took the city of Vera Cruz by assault: the resistance was slight.
In 1847, the United States caused a descent to be made upon the coast of Mexico, at Vera Cruz, with an army of thirteen thousand men, under the command of General Scott. One hundred and fifty vessels were employed, including men-of-war and transports. The city of Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan d'Ulloa speedily fell into the possession of the forces of the United States. This important post became the secondary base of operations for the brilliant campaign which terminated with the capture of the city of Mexico.
In 1854 commenced the memorable and gigantic contest between Russia on the one side and England, France, Sardinia, and Turkey on the other. Several descents were made by the allied forces at different points of the Russian coast: of these the first was in the Baltic Sea. An English fleet sailed from Spithead, under the command of Sir Charles Napier, on the 12th of March, and a French fleet from Brest, under the command of Vice-Admiral Parseval Deschênes, on the 19th of April. They effected a junction in the Bay of Barosund on the 11th of June. The allied fleet numbered thirty ships and fifty frigates, corvettes, and other vessels. The naval commanders wished to attack the defenses of Bomarsund, on one of the Aland Isles, but, after a reconnoissance, they came to the conclusion that it was necessary to have land-forces. A French corps of ten thousand men was at once dispatched to Bomarsund under General Baraguay-d'Hilliers, and the place was speedily reduced.
Later in the same year, the great expedition to the Crimea was executed; and with reference to it the following facts are mentioned, in order to give an idea of its magnitude:—
September 14, 1854, an army of fifty-eight thousand five hundred men and two hundred pieces of artillery was landed near Eupatoria, composed of thirty thousand French, twenty-one thousand five hundred English, and seven thousand Turks. They were transported from Varna to the place of landing by three hundred and eighty-nine ships, steamers, and transports. This force fought and gained the battle of the Alma, (September 20,) and thence proceeded to Sebastopol. The English took possession of the harbor of Balaklava and the French of Kamiesch: these were the points to which subsequent reinforcements and supplies for the army in the Crimea were sent.
November 5, at the battle of Inkermann, the allied army numbered seventy-one thousand men.
At the end of January, 1855, the French force was seventy-five thousand men and ten thousand horses. Up to the same time, the English had sent fifty-four thousand men to the Crimea, but only fifteen thousand were alive, present, and fit for duty.
February 4, the French numbered eighty-five thousand; the English, twenty-five thousand fit for duty; the Turks, twenty-five thousand.
May 8, 1855, General La Marmora arrived at Balaklava with fifteen thousand Sardinians.
In the latter part of May, an expedition of sixteen thousand men was sent to Kertch.
In August, the French force at Sebastopol had risen to one hundred and twenty thousand men.
September 8, the final assault took place, which resulted in the evacuation of the place by the Russians. The allies had then in battery more than eight hundred pieces of artillery.
The fleet which co-operated with the land-forces in the artillery attack of October 17, 1854, consisted of twenty-five ships. There were present and prepared to attack in September, 1855, thirty-four ships.
October, 1855, an expeditionary force of nine thousand men was sent to Kinburn, which place was captured.
Marshal Vaillant, in his report, as Minister of War, to the French emperor, says there were sent from France and Algeria three hundred and ten thousand men and forty thousand horses, of which two hundred and twenty-seven thousand men returned to France and Algeria.
The marshal's report gives the following striking facts, (he refers only to French operations:-)
The artillery matériel at the disposal of the Army of the East comprised one thousand seven hundred guns, two thousand gun-carriages, two thousand seven hundred wagons, two millions of projectiles, and nine million pounds of powder. There were sent to the army three thousand tons of powder, seventy millions of infantry-cartridges, two hundred and seventy thousand rounds of fixed ammunition, and eight thousand war-rockets.
On the day of the final assault there were one hundred and eighteen batteries, which during the siege had consumed seven million pounds of powder. They required one million sand-bags and fifty thousand gabions.
Of engineer materials, fourteen thousand tons were sent. The engineers executed fifty miles of trenches, using eighty thousand gabions, sixty thousand fascines, and one million sand-bags.
Of subsistence, fuel, and forage, five hundred thousand tons were sent.
Of clothing, camp-equipage, and harness, twelve thousand tons.
Hospital stores, six thousand five hundred tons.
Provision-wagons, ambulances, carts, forges, &c, eight thousand tons.
In all, about six hundred thousand tons.
It is not thought necessary to add similar facts for the English, Sardinian, and Turkish armies.
In 1859, the Spaniards made a descent upon Morocco with a force of forty thousand infantry, eleven squadrons of cavalry, and eighty pieces of artillery, using twenty-one vessels of war with three hundred and twenty-seven guns, besides twenty-four gun-boats and numerous transports.
In 1860, a force of English and French was landed on the coast of China, whence they marched to Pekin and dictated terms of peace. This expedition is remarkable for the smallness of the numbers which ventured, at such a great distance from their sources of supply and succor, to land upon a hostile shore and penetrate into the midst of the most populous empire in the world.
The French expedition to Syria in 1860 was small in numbers, and presented no remarkable features.
Toward the close of the year 1861, the government of the United States sent an expedition of thirteen thousand men to Port Royal, on the coast of South Carolina, one of the seceding States. The fleet of war-vessels and transports sailed from Hampton Roads, under command of Captain Dupont, and was dispersed by a violent gale: the losses of men and matériel were small, however, and the fleet finally reached the rendezvous. The defenses of the harbor having been silenced by the naval forces, the disembarkation of the land-troops took place, General Sherman being in command.
England, France, and Spain are now (January 16, 1862) engaged in an expedition directed against Mexico. The first operations were the capture, by the Spanish forces, of Vera Cruz and its defenses: the Mexicans offered no resistance at that point. The future will develop the plans of the allies; but the ultimate result of a struggle (if, indeed, one be attempted by the Mexicans) cannot be doubted, when three of the most powerful states of Europe are arrayed against the feeble and tottering republic of Mexico.]
FOOTNOTES:
Richard sailed from England with twenty thousand foot and five thousand horsemen, and landed in Normandy, whence he proceeded by land to Marseilles. We do not know what fleet he employed to transport his troops to Asia. Philip embarked at Genoa on Italian ships, and with a force at least as large as that of Richard.
See the account of the expedition to the Crimea.—TRANSLATORS.
INDEX
A.
Abercrombie's descent on Egypt,
.
Accidental lines,
.
Action, concert of, how secured,
.
Active armies and sieges, relation between,
.
Advanced guard,
,
.
attack of the enemy's, in retreats, [243].
in armies meeting unexpectedly, [208].
Advance, line of, how determined,
.
Advantages of awaiting invasion,
.
of elevated points for observation, [276].
Aggressive wars for conquest,
.
Agincourt, order of battle at,
.
Albis, position of,
.
Alcazar, battle of,
.
Alexander the Great,
,
.
Alfred the Great,
.
Algiers, French descent on, in 1830>,
.
Spanish descent on, [382].
Alise, investment of, by Cæsar,
.
Allies, at Bautzen,
.
defeat of, at Zurich, [112].
error of, in 1793, [107], [108].
failure of diversion of, in 1805, [219].
in war, [18].
march of, upon Leipsic, [123].
Alps, passage of, by Francis I.,
.
American Revolution, French maritime efforts during,
.
Anglo-Russian expedition to Holland,
.
Angoulême, Duke of, expedition of,
.
Antony, retreat of, from Media,
.
Antwerp, English expedition to,
.
Archduke Charles,
.
concentric retreat of, in 1796, [238.]
interior lines of, [136].
opinion of, as to small-column formation, [350].
opinion of, as to the valley of the Danube, [162].
Archduke Ferdinand,
.
Armada, Spanish,
,
,
.
Armament, French, at Eylau and Marengo,
.
superior, importance of, [47], [48].
Armies, auxiliary,
.
central, observations on, [126].
command of, [52].
French, in the Revolution, [135].
how to act, [75].
in intrenchments, [154].
in peace, how preserved, [47].
large, fitness of central lines for, [125].
large, organization of, [286].
meeting unexpectedly, advanced guard in, [208].
morale of, [60], [178], [322].
movements of, points to be attended to in, [254-256].
of French Revolution, how subsisted, [142].
of Louis XIV. and Frederick II., how subsisted, [142].
of Napoleon, operations of, [136].
promotions in, [47].
standing, effect of, on distant invasions, [171].
surprises of, [209].
two, on interior lines, [117].
two, on the same frontier, [116].
unexpected meeting of two, [207].
Armor, defensive, for cavalry,
.
Arms and organization of cavalry,
,
.
Arms for irregular cavalry,
.
Army, best means of organizing the command of,
.
Army corps, system of,
.
Army, defensive, proper course for,
.
defensive, when it has the advantage, [202].
head-quarters of, when the most important point, [107].
how perfected, [43].
importance of a good, [44].
number of men in, often determines battle-formation for, [285].
Army of Boulogne,
.
of four corps, [281].
of seven corps, [281].
offensive, proper course for, [324].
of invasion, line of defense important to, [99].
of the Rhine in 1800, [115].
permanent, necessary condition of, [49].
proportion of cavalry in, [304].
pursuing, has the advantage, [241].
Artillerists, directions for, in battle,
.
Artillery, concentration of fire of,
in offensive line of battle, [290].
employment of, [315-318].
heavy, in defensive line of battle, [290].
importance of, to infantry, [290].
matériel of the French army in the Crimea, [388].
Napoleon's, at Wagrani, [289], [316].
post of, in line of battle, [289].
proportion of, [318].
protection of infantry from the enemy's, [303].
rules for use of, in battle, [316-318].
use of, in the offensive, [316].
who should command, [318].
Art of war, definition of,
.
principal parts of, [66].
Assailant, advantages of,
.
Assailant's best means of victory,
.
Assault, beat formation of infantry for,
.
of field-works, instances of well-arranged, [212].
Athens, naval power of,
.
Attack, cavalry column of,
.
close, formation for, [301].
column of, in two lines, [292].
columns of, of single battalions, [298].
five methods of forming troops for, [292].
formation for, at Turin, [213].
in columns, order of, [194].
in front, [201].
in rear, [207].
of field-works, directions for, [211], [212].
of fortified places, [210].
of intrenched lines, [214].
on flank, [203].
on Sank, cavalry, [310].
when order in squares suitable for, [297].
Attacks and marches, arrangements of,
.
in half-deep order, [302].
Audenarde, battle of,
.
Augustus, armament of,
.
Aulic Council,
.
Austerlitz,
,
,
.
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Austria, course of, in the French Revolution,
.
force of, in the French Revolution, [106].
fortresses of, [149].
interest of, in the French Revolution, [105].
intervention of, in 1813, [21].
Austrian army, situation of, in 1800,
.
camp before Mayence, [157].
order at Essling and Fleurus, [200].
Austrians, surprise of, by Turenne,
.
why victorious in 1753, [107].
Austria's adaptation to parallel retreats,
.
Authority of counselors,
.
B.
Balloons, difficulties in use of,
,
.
how they might be useful, [275].
used at Fleurus, [275].
Barbarossa,
.
Bard, fort of,
,
.
importance of defile of, [87].
Base of operations, where to be established,
.
Bases of operations, definition of, 77
of operations, how to be chosen, [79], [80].
of operations, plurality of, [78].
temporary or eventual, [84].
temporary, when necessary, [132].
with two faces, [83].
Bassano, Napoleon's march on,
.
Battalions, deployed, in checkerwise order,
.
Battalion squares,
.
Batteries,
.
Battle, advanced guard in,
,
.
calculation of distances in, [334].
classification of orders of, useful, [197].
combinations of, [187].
concave order of, [191].
convex order of, [192].
critical moment of, [203].
decisive moment of, [334].
defensive arrangements for, [201].
Battle-field, decisive point of, how determined,
.
decisive point of, [187].
strategic point of, when important, [187].
Battle-formation in small columns,
.
influence of topography upon, [299].
Battle, formation of troops for,
.
influence of orders of, on result of engagements, [197].
line of, arrangement of cavalry in, [288].
line of, before the French Revolution, [277].
line of, definition of, [179].
line of, distribution of troops in, [287].
line of, post of artillery in, [289].
lines of, for two infantry corps, different formations of, [282-284].
oblique order of, [190].
of Agincourt, [192].
of Alcazar, [378].
of Audenarde, [53].
of Austerlitz, [170], [179], [198], [206].
of Bautzen, [187], [196], [317].
of Blenheim, [303].
of Cannæ, [191].
of Crécy, [192].
of Ecnomos, [363].
of Essling, [192], [193], [200], [350].
of Fossano, [168].
of Leipsic, [158], [192], [193], [198], [267], [305].
of Lepanto, [378].
of Leuthen, [140], [190], [229], [342].
of Millesimo, [111].
of Mollwitz, [348].
of Ramillies, [312].
of Rivoli, [179], [198], [205].
of Torgau, [205].
of Turin, [53].
of Ulm, won by strategy, [198].
of Waterloo, [127], [129], [130], [181], [182], [183], [196], [198], [206], [294], [295], [303-306], [354], [358], [359].
offensive, object of, [188].
offensive order of, [200].
order of, [186].
order of, at Leipsic, [193].
order of, definition of, [180].
orders of, [188].
parallel order of, [188].
reinforced, [189].
when suitable, [189].
with crotchet, [189].
perpendicular order of, [190].
position for, [341].
posting troops in line of, [277].
results of, depend on what, [178].
rules for use of artillery in, [316-318].
Battle-order for cavalry,
.
Battle-orders, various,
.
Battles,
.
defensive, [179].
elements of uncertainty regarding, [197].
great difficulty of tactics of, [196].
influence of musketry-fire in, [348].
offensive, [186].
of Napoleon, orders of, [198].
rules for scientific, [200].
success in, depends on maneuvering, [360].
three kinds of, [179].
what may interfere with success of, [196].
Bautzen, battle of,
,
.
French at, [196].
Bellegarde,
.
Benningsen, movement of, in 1807,
.
Benningsen's artillery reserve at Eylau,
.
base on Königsberg in 1807, [152].
position in 1807, [171].
mixed system at Eylau, [352].
Beresina, passage of,
,
.
Berg-op-Zoom, assault of,
.
Berthier at Leipsic,
.
Berthier's error at Wagram,
.
error in campaign of 1809, [265].
Blenheim, battle of,
.
Blücher,
,
.
"Boar's head" of the ancients,
.
Bonaparte's career in Italy,
.
expedition to Egypt, [383].
Borodino, Napoleon's order of battle at,
.
Boulogne, army of,
.
camp of, [279].
Bravery, first requisite for a leader,
.
Bridges, how to secure, against fire-ships, &c.,
.
in retreats, [244].
means of destroying, [245].
protection of, after passage, [229].
Bridge-trains, importance of,
.
Brienne, Napoleon's order of battle at,
.
Buntzelwitz, camp of,
.
Burgundy, Duke of,
.
C.
Cæsar's investment of Alise,
.
maritime expeditions, [365].
Campaign, Napoleon's, of 1800,
.
of 1793, [107].
of 1799, [111].
of 1800, [112].
of 1812, Napoleon's error in, [172].
of the Spaniards in Flanders, [171].
of the Swedes in Germany, [171].
Campaigns in mountains, instances of,
.
in winter, [68].
of 1799 and 1800, [162].
Camp at Kehl,
.
intrenched, influence of, [155].
intrenched, on which side of a river, [157].
intrenched, on river, [156].
of Boulogne, [279].
of Drissa, [157].
Camps and lines, intrenched, defense of,
.
fortified, [154].
intrenched, connection of, with strategy, [154].
intrenched, instances of, [210], [211].
intrenched, maxims on, [155], [156].
intrenched, Prussian system of, [158].
intrenched, use of, [156].
intrenched, where to be established, [155].
strategic square for, [99].
Candia, siege of,
,
.
Turkish descent on, [379].
Cannæ, order of battle at,
.
Cantonment of Napoleon on the Passarge,
.
Cantonments,
.
duty of staff officers in, [256].
rules for establishing, [246].
selection of positions for, [247].
Canute,
.
Capitals as strategic points,
.
Capital, when the center of power,
.
Capture of posts, means for,
.
when important, [216].
Carbine, in cavalry-charges,
.
Carnot,
.
operations of, [136].
Carthage, destruction of,
.
Carthaginians, expeditions of,
,
.
Cavalry,
.
advantages of large corps of, [309].
arms and organization of, [307], [308].
arrangement of, in line of battle, [288].
at Ramillies, [312].
battle-order for, [312].
best formation of infantry against, [294].
charge at Hohenfriedberg, [305].
charge, general, [305].
charges, four kinds of, [306].
charges of the Turks, [307].
defensive armor for, [308].
divisions of five regiments, [311].
duties of, [304].
encounters of, against cavalry, [311].
flank charges of, [307].
formations of, [309-311].
importance of, in retreats, [243].
importance of, to infantry, [290].
influence of, in a war, [313], [314].
in the defensive, [306].
irregular, [313].
light, advantages of, [314].
morale of, [312].
must be supported by infantry, [304].
proportion of, in an army, [304].
when it should charge a line of infantry, [305].
Center, when proper point of attack,
.
Central armies,
.
line of Napoleon in Saxony, [124].
lines, application of, to large masses, [125].
position, when untenable, [331].
Chæronea,
.
Charges, irregular cavalry,
.
Charles V. of Spain, expedition of,
.
VIII., retreat of, to Naples, [233].
X. of Sweden, expedition of, [379].
XII. of Sweden, descent of, on Denmark, [382].
Checkerwise formation of cavalry,
.
order, infantry, [301].
Chief of staff,
,
.
China, English and French expedition to,
.
Choice of objective points,
.
Circumvallation, lines of,
.
Civil wars,
.
Clairfayt, victories of,
.
Clausewitz, erroneous assertion of,
.
opinion of, as to movements in mountainous countries, [166].
Coalition against France in 1793,
.
Frederick the Great, [36], [37].
Louis XIV., [36].
Coasts, influence of, on descents,
.
Coblentz, fortification of,
,
.
towers of, [159].
Coburg, Prince of,
,
.
Column of attack, cavalry,
.
of attack in two lines, [292].
Columns of attack,
,
,
.
of attack of single battalions, [298].
of four divisions in three ranks, [294].
Combinations of battle,
.
strategic, [72].
Combined use of the three arms,
,
,
.
Commander, difficulty of selecting,
.
essential qualities for a, [55].
importance of, [54].
Commander, first care of, on taking the field,
.
of artillery, duties of, [319].
Command of an army, best means of organizing,
.
of armies, [52].
Commissariat, connection of, with system of marches,
.
of Louis XIV. and Frederick II., [142].
the, and strategy, [141].
Committee of Public Safety,
.
Concave order of battle,
.
Concentration of artillery-fire,
.
in retreat, advantages of, [238].
Concentric lines,
.
retreats, instances of, [238], [239].
system, [126].
Concert of action, how secured,
.
in action, importance of, [42].
Conquest, difficulties of, in national wars,
.
wars for, instances of, [22].
Conrad III., Crusade of,
.
Constantinople, expeditions against, by the Russians,
.
siege of, by the Crusaders, [373].
siege of, by Mohammed II., [375].
Contempt for the enemy,
.
Contravallation, lines of,
.
Control of operations,
.
Convergent operations,
.
Converging lines more advantageous than divergent,
.
Continuous intrenched lines,
.
Control of the sea, importance of, in an invasion,
.
Convex order of battle,
.
Copenhagen, siege of,
.
Cordon system,
.
Corps, organization by, likely to be permanent,
.
organization of an army in four, [281].
organization of an army in seven, [281].
system of, [279].
two, one behind the other, [285].
Cossacks,
,
,
,
.
Council of war at seat of government,
.
Councils of war, value of,
.
Counselors, authority of,
.
Coup-d'oeil, strategic,
.
Coups de main,
.
Crécy, order of battle at,
.
Crimea, details of the allied expedition to,
.
Crimean War,
.
Critical moment of battles,
.
Crossing a river in presence of an enemy,
.
Crotchet, parallel order of battle with,
.
Crotchets, danger of,
.
Crusade of 1203,
.
Crusades,
,
.
Cuirass,
,
.
Cuirassiers,
.
Culm,
.
Cyprus, Turkish expedition against,
.
D.
Danes, incursions of,
,
.
Danger of two wars at once,
.
Dangers of auxiliary armies,
.
Danube, Napoleon's passage of,
.
valley of, key of Southern Germany, [162].
Decisive direction,
.
moment of battle, [334].
point at Bautzen, [187].
point, how affected by arrangement of forces, [187].
point of battle-field, [187].
point of battle-field, how determined, [88], [186].
points, [337].
points, defiles as, [87].
points of the theater of war, [85].
Deep columns,
.
at Waterloo, [359].
order, disadvantages of, [298].
Defeat,
.
of the French at Waterloo, causes of, [359].
Defense, in mountainous countries,
.
line of, important to an army of invasion, [99].
line of, should be short, [98].
of frontiers, [146].
of intrenched camps and lines, [215].
rivers, mountains, and defiles as eventual lines of, [96].
second lines of, [147].
should not be passive, [185].
tactical, of Switzerland, [169].
maxims for frontier, [148], [149].
Defensive armor for cavalry,
.
army has the advantage, when, [202].
army, proper course for, [324].
arrangements for battle, [201].
battles, [179].
best formation of infantry for, [298].
cavalry in, [306].
characteristics of infantry formation for, [297].
in descents, duty of, [251].
line of battle, heavy artillery in, [290].
Defensive movements, when advised,
.
-offensive war, [74].
or offensive system, either may be employed, [185].
the, in a level country, [164].
Defiles as decisive points,
.
as eventual lines of defense, [96].
in retreats, [243].
Definitive lines,
.
Dennewitz, Ney's error at,
.
Deployed battalions in checkerwise order,
.
lines in two ranks, [294].
lines, two, formation of infantry in, [292].
Depots, establishment of, on march,
.
command of, [263].
lines of, [263].
of supplies, [141].
of supplies, general maxims, [143].
Descents,
.
cases where made, [250].
difficulties of, [250].
duty of defensive in, [251].
effect of modern inventions on, [248].
more extensive in ancient times, [248].
precautions after landing, [252].
rules for conducting, [251].
D'Estaing's fleet,
.
Detached orders of Napoleon,
.
works, importance of, [154].
Detachments, field of operations of, should be large,
.
four kinds of, [217].
great, instances of, [221], [222].
great, why made, [220], [221].
multiplication of, must be avoided, [221].
necessary when there is a double strategic front, [220].
of Napoleon in 1805, [222].
precise rules for, cannot be laid down, [222].
requisites in officers of, [224].
small, how useful, [224].
Detachment to form strategic reserve, illustration of,
.
Détours,
,
.
Difficulty of applying theories in war,
.
Diplomacy in invasions,
.
Direction, lines of, their importance illustrated,
.
of lines of operations, [115].
Discipline, importance of,
.
importance of, in retreats, [242].
Distances in battle, calculation of,
.
Distant expeditions,
.
invasions across extensive territories, [171].
invasions, maxim for, [173].
invasions to aid an ally, [170].
Distribution of troops in line of battle,
.
Divergent lines,
.
Duke of York's expedition to Dunkirk,
.
to Holland in 1799, [91].
Dumouriez, errors of, in 1792,
,
.
Dunkirk, expedition to,
.
Duties of cavalry,
.
of staff officers, [254-256.]
Duty of a general,
.
of statesmen in offensive wars, [17].
Diversions in zone of operations, when advantageous,
.
Division, improper use of the term,
.
Divisions, cavalry, of five regiments,
.
defects of system of, [278].
remedied by Napoleon, [278].
formation by, when preferable, [286].
organization of, [279], [280].
system of, [278].
Doctoroff, warning given to, in 1812, by Seslawin,
.
Double line of operations, when applicable,
.
when necessary, [116].
lines of operations, [102], [110].
when advantageous, [123].
lines to be avoided, [330].
passages of rivers, [230].
strategic front, [95].
wars, [36].
wars of Napoleon, [37].
Dragoons,
.
concentration of, by Emperor
Nicholas, [309].
Drepanum,
.
Dresden,
.
intrenched camp at, [155], [211].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
victory at, [124].
Drissa, camp of,
,
.
Divergent lines, when advantageous,
.
operations, [126].
retreats, when admissible, [239].
Diversions,
.
instances of, [218].
when useful, [218].
E.
Eccentric lines,
.
retreat. Bulow's use of the term,
237.
Eccentric system,
.
Echelon, order of battle by,
.
Echelons, order in,
.
squares in, [297].
Ecnomos, victory of,
.
Edward III. of England,
.
Egypt, expedition of John of Brienne against,
.
Ehrenbreitstein,
.
Elchingen, Ney at,
.
Elective governments, weakness of,
.
Elevated points, advantage of, for observation,
.
Elongated squares,
,
.
Employment of artillery,
Encounters of cavalry against cavalry,
.
Enemy, bodies of, near line of operations,
.
contempt for, [63].
how dislodged, [188].
how to drive from his position, [201], [202].
should not be paid to leave a country, [242].
Enemy's movements, importance of knowing,
.
England controls the sea,
.
invasion of, by Sweyn, [370].
projected invasion of, by Napoleon, [249], [250], [386].
England's attack on Washington in 1814,
.
English and French expedition to China,
.
English, descents of, on France,
.
expedition against Napoleon in 1815, [385].
expedition in 1762 against Havana, [382].
maritime expeditions, [384-390.]
squares at Waterloo, [294].
Enthusiasm, importance of,
.
not military spirit, [62].
Epaminondas,
.
Error of Napoleon in campaign of 1812,
.
Error of the allies in 1793,
,
.
Errors in strategy,
.
Essential bases of military policy,
.
Essling,
,
,
,
.
Napoleon at, [158].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
order of battle at, [192], [193].
Eugene at Turin,
.
march of, [141].
Eventual bases,
.
lines of defense, [96].
Expediency, wars of,
.
Expedition of Prince Koudacheff,
.
to the Crimea, details of, [387-389.]
Expeditions, assistance of fleets in,
.
distant, [169].
marine, in modern times, [249].
maritime, [361-390.]
of the ancients, [248].
of the Middle Ages, [171].
partly on land, partly by sea, [173].
Extended movements, when dangerous,
.
Exterior lines of operations,
.
Extermination, wars of,
.
Eylau,
,
,
,
.
French armament at, [47].
Napoleon's march on, [94].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Russian artillery reserve at, [289].
Russian order at, [295].
F.
Famous retreats, instances of,
.
Field, strategic, of 1806,
.
Field-works, directions for attack of,
,
.
instances of well-arranged assaults on, [212].
Final reserves,
.
Financial considerations,
.
Fire-arms, influence of improvements in, on war,
,
,
.
Fire-signals, how used,
.
Flank attack,
.
attack, cavalry, [310].
charges of cavalry, [307].
marches, where inadmissible, [140].
tactical maneuver by, [140].
Flanks of companies, movement by,
,
.
protection of, in tactical positions, [182].
Fleets, assistance of, in expeditions,
.
Fleurus,
,
,
.
balloons used at, [275].
order of battle at, [192].
Foot-artillery in line of battle,
.
in the offensive, [316].
Forests, advantages of, in retreats,
.
Formation by divisions, when preferable,
.
for attack at Turin, [213].
for battle in small columns, [350].
for battle, Napoleon's system, [278], [279].
for battle often determined by size of army, [285].
for battle, Prussian and Austrian system, [354].
for close attack, [301].
of infantry for attack, five methods of, [292].
in two ranks, [356].
of troops for battle, [347-350.]
Formations of cavalry,
of lines of battle for two infantry corps, [282-284.]
various, for infantry, [285].
Fortification of Coblentz,
,
.
Fortifications, remark upon,
.
Fortified camps,
.
places, attack of, [210].
places on the sea-coast, importance of, [152].
places, when a misfortune, [152].
Fortresses at Mayence,
.
greatest advantages of, [150].
large, when preferable, [150].
number and position of, [149].
of France and Austria, [149].
on frontiers, [148].
relation of, to strategy, [148], [150].
Forts in a mountainous country,
.
purposes of, [146].
Fossano, battle of,
.
Four-rank formation of infantry,
.
France adapted to parallel retreats,
.
coalition against, in 1793, [37].
course and error of, in 1792, [105].
fortresses of, [149].
intention of, when declaring war in 1792, [105].
invasions of, by the English, [376].
Francis I., passage of the Alps by,
.
Frederick the Great,
,
.
at Leuthen, [229].
at Prague, [205].
at Torgau, [206].
commissariat of, [142].
defensive-offensive operations of, [74].
maneuver of, at Leuthen, [141].
military genius of, [16].
Frederick II., Crusade of,
.
French and English expedition to China,
.
French armies in the Revolution,
.
armies, situation of, in 1800, [112].
at Bautzen, [196].
at Fleurus, why successful, [193].
at Waterloo, [196].
capture of Vera Cruz by, in 1838, [386].
causes of defeat of, at Waterloo, [359].
cavalry, [313].
columns at Waterloo, [351].
defeat of, at Stockach, [111].
descent on Algiers in 1830, [386].
errors in 1795, [136].
expedition to Syria, [390].
in Bohemia in 1742, [171].
invasions of 1766 and 1795, [120].
French, maritime efforts of, during American Revolution,
.
operations in Italy, [112].
operations of, at close of 1793, [331-333.]
operations of, in 1794, [108].
order at Essling and Fleurus, [200].
order at Minden, [278].
plan in 1799, error of, [110].
Revolution, [26-28].
Revolution, armies of, how subsisted, [142].
Revolution, course of Austria in, [106].
Revolution, course of Prussia in, [105], [106].
Revolution, interest of Austria in, [105].
Revolution, lines of operations in the wars of, [104].
Revolution, relation of Italy to, [104].
Revolution, relation of Prussia and Austria to, [104].
Revolution, theater of operations in, [104].
Revolution, zones of operations in, [105].
Frontier defenses, maxims for,
,
.
when a permanent line of defense, [96].
Frontiers, defense of,
.
disadvantage of fortresses on, [148].
how to be fortified, [152].
mountains as, [146].
rivers as, [147].
Front of operations,
,
.
of operations, extent of, [98].
of operations, how varied, [93].
strategic, change of, [94].
strategic, not to be too extended, [98].
Fronts of operations,
.
Fronts, strategic,
.
Fundamental principle of war,
.
maxims of, [70].
principles for employment of troops, [328].
G.
Gallop, when best for cavalry charge,
,
.
General advanced guard, how composed,
.
cavalry charge, [305].
General, essential qualities of a,
.
importance of a skillful, [43].
one of the greatest talents of, [74].
qualities of a skillful, [334].
what constitutes a, [327].
General principle of war, manner of applying,
.
staff, employment of, in time of peace, [49].
staff, usefulness of, [57].
Genoa, panic at siege of,
.
Geography, military,
.
Geographical objective points,
.
Germanicus, expedition of,
.
Girondists,
,
.
Gosa, French charge on,
.
Governments, elective, weakness of,
.
should not be unprepared for war, [46].
Grand tactics,
,
,
.
principles of, [360].
Great detachments,
,
,
.
Grouchy,
.
Guard, advanced,
,
.
in unexpected battles, [208].
Gunpowder, effect of invention of, on distant invasions,
.
Gustavus Adolphus, expedition of,
.
H.
Half-deep order, infantry-formation,
.
attacks in, [302].
Halts and departures in retreats, hours of,
.
Halts in retreats to relieve rear-guards,
.
Hannibal at Cannæ,
.
at Zama, [179].
Harold,
,
.
Head-quarters of the army, when the most important point,
.
Heights to be secured in mountainous countries,
.
Hengist,
.
Henry V. of England, descents of, on France,
.
Hoche's expedition to Ireland,
.
Hochkirch,
.
surprise of, [209].
Hohenfriedberg,
.
Hohenlinden,
,
.
Holland, expedition to,
.
Horse-artillery in line of battle,
.
in the offensive, [316].
Houchard,
.
Hougoumont,
.
Hungary, strategic character of the mountains of,
.
Hypotheses as to the enemy's movements,
.
Hypotheses of the author in 1806,
.
how events justified them, [272].
I.
Igor, expeditions of,
.
Illustrations of importance of logistics,
Improvements in fire-arms, effect of, on infantry formations,
.
effects of, on war, [347], [355], [359].
Industrial pursuits secondary to heroic virtues,
,
.
Infantry, battle-formation of, in two lines,
.
best formation of, for assault, [298].
best formation of, for the defensive, [298].
cavalry must be supported by, [304].
checkerwise formation, [310].
formation of, in two deployed lines, [292].
formations, effect of improvements in fire-arms on, [299].
importance of, [290].
in three-rank formation, [293].
in what movements should be exercised, [300].
lines of battle for, [282-284.]
mixed order, [295].
mounted, [308].
needs support of cavalry and artillery, [290].
protection of, from enemy's artillery, [303].
supports of artillery, [316], [317].
three-rank formation of, [291].
various formations for, [285].
when a line of, should be charged by cavalry, [305].
Information from partisans,
.
of enemy's movements, rules for gaining, [273], [274].
of the enemy's movements, four means of acquiring, [269].
Initiative, advantages of,
.
Institutions, military,
.
Interior and simple lines, advantage of,
.
Interior lines, observations on,
.
of Archduke Charles, [136].
of operations, [102].
of operations, why preferable, [127].
should not be too much extended, [117].
two armies on, [117].
Intervention, instances of,
.
kinds of, [19].
reasons for, [19].
wars of, [19].
wars of, essentials in, [21].
Intestine wars,
.
Intrenched camp, on which side of a river,
.
Intrenched camps and lines, defense of,
.
connection of, with strategy, [154].
how differ from têtes deponts, [160].
influence of, [155].
on river, [156].
Prussian system of. [158].
use of, [156].
where to be established, [155].
Intrenched lines,
,
.
attack of, [214].
continuous, [213].
Intrenched positions,
.
Intrenchments, armies in, 154
Invaded country, how made to contribute to success,
.
Invasion, advantage and disadvantage of,
.
advantages of awaiting, [17].
army of, line of defense important to, [99].
control of the sea important in, [30].
difficult in national wars, [144].
how rendered feasible, [106].
of a mountainous country, [169].
of England contemplated by Napoleon, [249], [250], [386].
of Turkey by Russia, [23].
two kinds of, [22].
wars of, when advantageous, [17].
Invasions, diplomacy in,
.
distant, across extensive territories, [171].
distant, effect of standing armies on, [171].
distant, how affected by invention of gunpowder, [171].
distant, maxim for, [173].
distant, to aid an ally, [170].
how to be carried on, [24].
neutrality of states adjoining the theater of war important in, [174].
of neighboring states, [174].
of Spain, [23].
when excusable, [23].
Investing a city, false system of,
.
force, how strengthened, [153].
Irregular cavalry,
.
arms for, [313].
Islamism, wars of,
.
Italy, operations of the French in,
,
.
parallel retreats in, [241].
relation of, in the French Revolution, [104].
Ivar, expedition of,
.
J.
James II., expedition of, in Ireland,
.
Jemmapes,
.
Jena, battle of, won by strategy,
.
maneuvers at, [90].
Napoleon's march on, [94].
Ney's charge at, [305].
Jourdan,
.
at Stockach, [205].
balloons used by, at Fleurus, [275].
Jourdan's passage of the Rhine in 1795,
.
Julian, retreat of, from Parthia,
.
K.
Kagoul, panic at,
.
Katzbach,
.
Kehl, intrenchments at,
,
,
.
Kolin,
.
Koudacheff's expedition,
.
Koutousoff,
.
Krasnoi, combination at,
.
Kray,
.
Kunnersdorf,
.
L.
Lance, importance of,
.
when best for cavalry, [307].
when useful, [306].
Lender, bravery the first requisite for,
.
League, wars of the,
.
Leipsic as a decisive and strategic point,
.
battle of, [192], [193], [267], [305].
march of the allies upon, [123].
march on, modified, [140].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
order of battle at, [193].
Lepanto, battle of,
.
Leuthen, battle of,
,
,
.
maneuver of Frederick at, [140].
Level country, defensive in, 164
Light cavalry, advantages of,
.
Ligny,
.
Line of advance, how determined,
.
of battle, arrangement of cavalry in, [288].
of battle before the French Revolution, [277].
of battle, definition of, [179].
of battle, defensive, heavy artillery in, [290].
of battle, distribution of troops in, [287].
of battle, offensive, concentration of artillery fire in, [290].
of battle, posting troops in, [277].
Line of battle, post of artillery in,
.
of defense important to an army of invasion, [99].
of defense should be short, [98].
of operations, double, when necessary, [116].
of operations, how protected, [132].
of operations, single, when advantageous, [116].
of retreat, [261], [341-343.]
Lines and camps, intrenched, defense of,
.
and points, strategic, [85].
central, application of, to large masses, [125].
deployed, in two ranks, [294].
double, to be avoided, [330].
eccentric, [237].
interior, observations on, [123].
interior, two armies on, [117].
intrenched, attack of, [214].
of battle for two infantry corps, different formations of, [282-284.]
of circumvallation, [152].
of contravallation, [152].
of defense, second, [147].
of defense, eventual, [96].
of defense, permanent, [95].
of defense, strategical and tactical, [95].
of depots, [263].
of direction, importance of, illustrated, [116].
of maneuver, importance of, [114].
of operations, [100-103].
of operations at home and in hostile countries, contrasted, [121].
of operations, best direction of, [115].
of operations, change of, [118].
of operations, converging and divergent, [118].
of operations, double, [110].
of operations, double, when advantageous, [123].
of operations, great art of directing, [120].
of operations, how established, [114].
of operations, how influenced, [119].
of operations, illustration of, by strategic field of 1806, [113].
of operations in fertile and barren countries, contrasted, [122].
of operations in the wars of the French Revolution, [104].
of operations, maxims on, [114].
of operations, rivers as, [76].
of operations, selecting of, [80].
Lines of operations, to have a geographic and strategic direction,
.
of Stollhofen, [154].
of Turin, [153].
of Turin, capture of, [213].
parallel, [200].
strategic, of Napoleon in 1796, [131].
Linz, towers of,
.
Lloyd's proposed fourth rank in infantry formation,
.
Logistics,
,
.
derivation of the term, [253].
faulty, instances of, [265-267.]
illustration of importance of, [263-268.]
of battle of Leipsic, [267].
principal points of, [254-256.]
Louis VII., Crusade of,
.
IX., Crusade of, [374].
IX., expedition of, to Tunis, [375].
XIV., coalition against, [36].
XIV., commissariat of, [142].
Louvois,
.
Lyons as a strategic and decisive point,
.
M.
Macdonald's column at Wagram,
,
.
error at Katzbach, [124].
Mack,
,
.
at Ulm, [53].
Magnesia, victory of,
.
Malplaquet,
.
Malta, descent of Mugtapha on,
.
Maneuvering, success in battle depends on,
.
Maneuver line,
,
.
lines, [103].
lines of, their importance, [114].
objective points of, [88].
pivots of, [98].
tactical, by flank, [140].
Maneuvers,
,
,
.
at Ulm and Jena, [90].
for breaking through a line, [197].
must conform to strategic principles, [333].
objective points of, [89].
of Napoleon in 1814,118.
simplest, most likely to be successful, [196].
strategic lines of, [128].
sudden, generally better than predetermined, [196].
transversal, [163].
Maneuvers, turning, rules for,
.
Mantua, siege of,
.
Wurmser at, [156].
March, establishment of depots on,
.
Marches and attacks, arrangements of,
.
effects of systems of, [138].
flank, [139].
instructions to generals commanding corps in, [260], [261].
particulars to be considered in, [260].
rapid, [176].
rules for, [257-263.]
transversal, in mountainous countries, [163].
two kinds of, [260].
Marengo, French armament at,
.
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Maritime expeditions,
Marmont at Salamanca,
.
Marsin,
.
Masonry towers, Archduke Maximilian's system of defense by,
.
Massena, position of, in Switzerland in 1799,165,
.
Massena's position of the Albis,
.
Matériel of war,
.
should be inspected by staff officers, [257].
Maurice of Saxony,
.
Maxim for distant invasions,
.
Maxims for frontier defenses,
,
.
of fundamental principle of war, [70].
on intrenched camps, [155], [156].
on lines of operations, [114-122.]
on operations in mountainous countries, [163].
on strategic fronts, [98], [99].
on strategic operations, [90].
relative to supplies, [143-146.]
Mayence, Austrian camp before,
.
fortresses at, [150].
intrenched camp at, [211].
Mexico, expedition against, in 1862,
.
Middle Ages, expeditions of the,
.
Military education important to a ruler,
.
geography and statistics, importance
of a knowledge of, [40].
geography, Lloyd's essay on, [40].
institutions, [43].
institutions of Rome, [61].
instruments, signals by, [276].
operations influenced by a cabinet, [42].
policy, [38].
policy, essential bases of, [49].
sciences, study of. [49].
spirit, how encouraged, [61].
spirit, how maintained, [63].
spirit of nations, [60].
statistics and geography, [39].
Militia as cavalry,
,
.
Millesimo, effect of the battle of,
.
Minden, French order at,
.
Mithridates,
,
.
Mixed order, infantry formation,
.
system of Benningsen at Eylau, [352].
Modern inventions, effect of, on character of naval armaments,
.
marine expeditions, [249].
Mohammed II.,
.
Molitor, General,
.
Mollwitz, battle of,
.
Montesquieu, opinion of, as to great enterprises,
.
Moors, invasion of Europe by,
.
Morale of armies,
,
,
.
of cavalry, [312].
Moreau at Engen,
.
base of operations of, in 1800, [82].
retreat of, in 1796, [233].
Moreau's diversion toward Kastadt in 1800,
.
passage of the Rhine in 1800, [224], [225].
Morocco, Spanish descent on, in 1859,
.
Moscow, retreat of the French from,
.
Mountain-campaigns, instances of,
.
Mountainous countries as principal fields of operations,
.
countries, cavalry in, [304].
countries, defense in, [163].
countries, heights to be secured in, [167].
countries, strategic defense in, [164].
countries, strategic positions of, [76].
countries, the offensive in, [167].
countries, transversal marches in, [163].
country, character of a war in, [169].
country, forts in a, [151].
country, invasion of a, [169].
Mountains as eventual lines of defense,
.
as frontiers, [146].
campaigns in, [169].
importance of, when secondary, [161], [162].
of European countries, relation of, to warlike operations, [161].
strategic operations in, [160].
Mounted infantry,
.
militia, [315].
Movement by flanks of companies,
,
.
Movements, extended, when dangerous,
.
in which infantry should be exercised, [300].
of armies, points to be attended to, [254-256].
of the enemy, rules for gaining information of, [273], [274].
Murat, surprise of, at Taroutin,
.
Murray's descent in 1813,
.
Musketry-fire better for defensive,
.
influence of, in battles, [348].
N.
Nansouty's charge at Chateau-Thierry,
.
Naples, French army at,
.
Napoleon,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
and Grouchy at Waterloo, [127],130.
at Austerlitz, [206].
at Essling, [158].
at Ligny, [195].
at Ratisbon, [274].
at Wagram, [195].
double wars of, [37].
English expedition against, in 1815, [385].
his own chief staff officer, [264].
operations of the armies of, [136].
Napoleon's artillery,
.
artillery at Wagram, [316].
base of operations in 1806, [80-82].
battles, orders of, [198].
bold maneuvers in 1814, [118].
campaign of 1800, [137].
cantonment on the Passarge, [247].
central lines in Saxony, [124].
central position in 1813, why disastrous, [123].
changes of line of operations, [118].
choice of objective points, [89].
concentric retreat in 1796, [238].
defense in Champagne in 1814, [125].
detachments in 1805, [222].
error after his victory at Dresden, [124].
error in the campaign of 1812, [172].
favorite objective, [330].
front of operations in 1796, [93].
front of operations in 1813, [93].
infantry, panic of, at Wagram, [64].
line of defense in 1813, [93].
logistics in 1806 and 1815, [264], [265].
march on Bassano, [131].
Napoleon's march on Eylau,
.
march on Jena in 1806, [94].
march on Naumburg in 1806, [94].
march to Königsberg, [20].
mode of issuing orders, [259].
motives and necessities, [22].
operations, comments on, [116].
order at the Tagliamento, [295].
passages of the Danube, [226], [266].
passage of the Saint-Bernard, [168].
passage of the Po in 1800, [225].
projected invasion of England, [249], [250], [386].
reserves, [133].
retreat from Smolensk, [235].
return from Egypt in 1800, [112].
rule for the passage of an army, [147].
strategic lines in 1796, [130], [131].
strategic positions, [97].
system of formation for battle, [278], [279].
system of marches, [137].
victories and disasters, lesson taught by them, [23].
National wars, character of, in mountainous countries,
.
wars, definition of, [29].
wars, difficulties of conquest in, [31-34].
wars, effect of the nature of the country in, [30].
wars, how prevented, [33], [34].
wars, how success attained in, [33].
wars, invasion difficult in, [144].
wars, military precepts for, [27].
Nations, military spirit of,
.
Nature and extent of war, how influenced,
.
Naumburg, Napoleon's march on,
.
Naval armaments, effect of modern inventions on,
.
Neutrality of states adjoining theater of war, important in invasions,
.
Ney,
,
,
.
at Bautzen, [317].
at Dennewitz, [130].
at Elchingen, [182].
at Jena, [305].
Nicholas I., concentration of dragoons by,
.
O.
Objective point, how held,
.
point, manner of approach to, [67].
point of Napoleon in 1800, [87].
point, selection of, [66].
points, geographical, [88].
points, how chosen, [90].
Objective points in strategy, how determined,
.
points of maneuver, [88], [89].
points of operations, [85].
points, political, [91].
Objectives of operations,
,
.
Objects of war,
.
Oblique order,
,
.
order, antiquity of, [199].
order assumed by Napoleon at Marengo, [198].
order of battle, [190].
Offensive, advantage of the, in strategy,
.
army, proper course for, [324].
battle, object of, [188].
battles, [186].
characteristics of infantry formation for, [297].
line of battle, concentration of artillery-fire in, [290].
movements, when advised, [124].
or defensive system, either may be employed, [185].
order of battle, [200].
system to be followed in, [176].
the, disadvantages of, in tactical operations, [184].
the, in mountainous countries, [167].
use of artillery in, [316].
war, duty of staff officers in, [258].
war, reserves, how posted in, [133], [135].
wars, duty of statesmen in, [17].
wars, how conducted, [16].
wars to reclaim rights, [16].
Oleg, expedition of,
Open positions,
.
Operations, base of, where to be established,
.
bases of, definition of, [77].
plurality of, [78].
change of lines of, [118].
control of, [52].
divergent and convergent, [126], [127].
double lines of, [102], [110], [123].
exterior lines of, [102].
fronts of, [92], [330], [338].
in mountainous countries, maxims on, [163].
interior lines of, [102].
line of, how protected, [132].
lines of, converging and divergent, [118].
lines of, how established, [114].
lines of, how influenced, [119].
lines of, maxims on, [114].
military, influenced by a cabinet, [42].
objective points of, [85].
of 1809 and 1814, [176], [177].
of the French at the close of 1793, [331-333].
pivots of, [98].
simple lines of, [101].
system of, [72].
system of, how to be judged, [125].
system of, necessary in war, [50].
theater of, between the Rhine and the North Sea, [338-340].
theater of, how divided, [71].
zone of, [66].
zone of, how to select, [329].
Opinion, public, danger of,
.
wars of, [25].
Orchomenus,
.
Order, checkerwise, battalions deployed in,
.
half-deep, attacks in, [302].
half-deep, infantry formation, [295].
importance of, [42].
in deep masses, infantry formation, [295], [296].
in echelons, [193].
in squares, when suitable for attack, [297].
mixed, infantry formation, [295],
of attack in columns, [194].
of battle, [186].
of battle at Agincourt, [192].
at Cannæ, [189].
at Crécy, [192].
at Fleurus, [192].
at Leipsic, [193].
at Mollwitz, [348].
at passage of a river, [192].
by echelon, [193].
convex, [192].
definition of, [180].
oblique, [190].
offensive, [200].
of the generals of the Republic, [349].
of infantry as skirmishers, [292].
shallow, infantry, [292].
Orders, best mode of issuing,
.
how issued by Napoleon, [259].
inaccurate transmission of, [196].
of battle, [188].
of battle, classification of, useful, [197].
Orders of battle, influence of, on result of engagements,
.
of Napoleon's battles, [198].
should be clear, [258].
two methods of issuing, [258], [259].
Organization and arms of cavalry,
,
.
by corps, likely to be permanent, [287].
of an army in four corps, [281].
in seven corps, [281].
of very large armies, [286].
P.
Panics, cause and remedy of,
.
instances of, [64].
officers and troops to be warned against, [63].
Parallel lines,
.
order of battle, [188].
order of battle reinforced, [189].
order of battle, when suitable, [189].
order of battle with crotchet, [189].
retreat, [237].
retreats, countries adapted to, [240], [241].
retreats, when preferable, [239].
Partisans, information from,
.
Partisan troops, services of, illustrated,
.
Paskevitch's passage of the Vistula in 1831,
.
Passage of an army, Napoleon's rule for,
.
of a river, best position for, [226].
of the Beresina, [226], [245].
of the Danube by Napoleon, [266].
of the Rhine in 1795, [120].
of the Saint-Bernard by Napoleon, [168].
of rivers, double, [230].
of rivers, famous modern, [226].
of rivers in retreats, [243], [244].
of rivers in retreats, rules for, [245].
of rivers, rules for, [227].
of rivers, rules for preventing, [228].
Peninsular War,
.
Perfect army, essential conditions of,
.
Permanent lines of defense,
.
Perpendicular order of battle,
.
Peter the Great, expedition of, against Persia,
.
Peter the Hermit,
.
Peterwardein, panic at,
.
Philip II. of Spain,
.
Pichegru, movements of, in 1794,
.
Pistol-firing, in cavalry charges,
.
Pivots of maneuver,
.
Pivots of operations,
.
Points, decisive,
.
decisive and objective, [86].
decisive geographic, [87].
decisive, how affected by arrangement of forces, [187].
decisive, of battle-field, now determined, [186].
decisive strategic, [86].
of operations, objective, [85].
Political objective points,
.
objective points subordinate to strategy, [91].
wars, [26].
Po, Napoleon's passage of, in 1800,
.
Portable telegraphs,
.
Port Mahon, assault of,
.
Port Royal, expedition of U.S. government to,
.
Position, defensive, means of retreat to be considered in,
.
for battle, [341].
how to drive an enemy from, [201], [202].
strong, essentials for, [181].
system of wars of, [135].
tactical, protection of flanks in, [182].
Positions,
.
for cantonments, selection of, [247].
intrenched, [181].
open, [181].
strategic, [66], [97], [330], [331].
tactical, [181].
tactical, rules for selecting, [181].
Post, capture of, when important,
.
Posting troops in line of battle,
.
Posts, means for capture of,
.
Prague, battle of,
,
.
Preservation of armies in time of peace,
.
Prince, duty of, when not conducting his armies,
.
Prince Eugene,
,
,
,
.
of Coburg, error of, in 1794, [109].
Principle of decisive points of maneuver,
.
Principles of strategy,
.
of strategy always the same, [17].
Promotions in armies,
.
Protection by trees and brushwood,
.
Provisional lines,
.
Prussia, course of, in the French Revolution,
,
.
parallel retreat in, [241].
relation of, in the French Revolution, [104].
Prussian army at Waterloo,
.
reserves in 1806, [134].
system of forming columns, [294].
system of intrenched camps, [158].
Public opinion, danger of,
.
Punic wars,
,
.
Pursuit, rules for,
.
Pursuits,
.
Pyramids, Napoleon's order of battle at,
.
Pyrrhus, descent of, on Italy,
.
Q.
Qualities of a skillful general,
.
R.
Ramillies,
.
Ramrods,
.
Rapid marches,
.
Ratisbon, Napoleon at,
.
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Rear, attack in,
.
Rear-guard in retreat,
.
Rear-guards in retreat,
.
Rear-guard in retreat, duty of, in passage of rivers,
.
Reconnoissances,
.
give but limited information, [269].
to gain information of the enemy's movements, [268].
Religion, wars of,
.
Reports of prisoners,
.
Reserve, cavalry,
.
final, [203].
horse-artillery, advantages of, [289].
Reserves, cavalry,
.
in offensive war, how posted, [133], [135].
nature of, [133].
of Napoleon, [133].
Prussian, in 1806, [134].
Retreat along converging roads, 236
along diverging roads, [237].
along parallel roads, [236].
by several corps, [235].
difficulty of deciding method of, [231].
five methods of arranging, [234].
in single mass, when preferable, [234].
means of, to be considered in a defensive position, [183].
parallel, [237].
well effected, should be rewarded, [63].
Retreats,
.
at night, [231].
attack of the enemy's advanced guard in, [243].
bridges in, [244].
by diverging roads, danger of, [238].
cavalry in, [243].
circumstances influencing, [232], [233].
concentration in, [238].
concentric, instances of, [238], [239].
defiles in, [243].
divergent, when admissible, [239].
duty of staff officers in, [256].
firmness of Russians in, [64].
halts in, to relieve rear-guard, [236].
hours of departures and halts in, [236].
in daylight, [231].
instances of famous, [233].
measures to insure success of, [242], [243].
parallel, countries adapted to, [240], [241].
parallel, when preferable, [239].
passage of rivers in, [243], [244].
Prince de Ligne's remark on, [230].
should be slow, [232].
various kinds of, [231].
Reverse fire,
.
Rhine, passages of,
,
,
.
Rhodes, capture of, by the Turks,
.
Richard Coeur-de-Lion,
.
Richelieu, expedition of, against Minorca,
.
River, best position for passage of,
.
crossing of, in presence of an enemy, [120].
order of battle at passage of, [192].
Rivers as eventual lines of defense,
.
as frontiers, [147].
as lines of operations, [76].
double passage of, [230].
famous modern passages of, [226].
passage of, in retreats, [243], [244].
rules for, [245].
points of passage of, in presence of an enemy, [121].
rules for passage of, [227].
rules for preventing passage of, [228].
Rivoli
,
.
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Rocket-batteries, use of,
.
Rollo,
.
Roman legions, cause of the ruin of,
.
nation, cause of the decline of, [60].
Romans, naval expeditions of,
.
Rome, military institutions of,
.
Rossbach,
.
Ruler, a, should be able to arrange plans of operations,
.
Rules for conducting descents,
.
for fighting battles scientifically, [203].
for gaining information of enemy's movements, [273], [274].
for offensive or defensive operations, [185].
for passage of rivers, [227].
for passage of a river in retreat, [245].
for pursuit, [242].
for preventing passage of rivers, [228].
for use of artillery in battle, [316-318].
to be observed in selecting tactical positions, [181].
Russian army, firmness of, in retreats,
.
army, skirmishers in, [293].
base in 1828 and 1829, [84].
cavalry, [314].
expeditions in 1809, [385].
order at Eylau, [295].
retreat in 1812, [233].
system of forming columns, [294].
Russians, early maritime expeditions of,
,
.
S.
Saber, when best for cavalry,
.
when useful, [306].
Saint-Bernard, Napoleon's passage of,
.
Saint-Cyr at Stockach,
.
Saxons, expedition of,
.
Saxony, Napoleon's central lines in, in 1813,
.
Savoy, Duke of,
.
Scandinavians,
.
Science of marches, essential point in,
.
of marches, includes what, [138].
Sciences, military, study of,
.
Scipio,
.
Sea-coast as a base of operations,
,
.
Sea, control of, held by England,
.
control of, important in an invasion, [30].
Secondary lines,
.
Sebastian of Portugal, descent of, on Morocco,
.
Sebastopol,
.
Secondary depots,
,
.
Shallow order,
.
order, infantry, [292].
Shumla, camp of,
.
Siege, how covered,
.
of Copenhagen, [384].
of Mantua, [111].
Sieges and active armies, relations between,
.
duty of staff officers in, [256].
wars of, [146].
Signaling by fires,
.
Signals by military instruments,
.
simultaneous shouts as, [277].
system of, [274].
Simple and interior lines, advantage of,
.
lines of operations, [101].
Simultaneous shouts as signals,
.
Single line of operations, when preferable,
.
Sizeboli, capture of,
.
Skill, superiority in,
.
Skirmishers,
,
.
Skirmishing-order,
.
Small detachments, how useful,
.
Smolensk, Napoleon's retreat from,
.
Southern Germany, valley of the Danube the strategic key of,
.
Sovereign as commander,
.
Spain adapted to parallel retreats,
.
and Portugal, Wellington's tactics in, [358].
invasions of, [23].
war in, in 1823, [27].
Spanish Armada,
,
,
.
capture of Vera Cruz by, [390].
descent on Algiers, [382].
descent on Morocco in 1859, [389].
Spies,
.
best course for, [270].
difficulties in their way, [270].
use of, neglected in many modern armies, [270].
when especially useful, [270].
Squares in echelons,
.
infantry, [294], [296], [297].
in two ranks, [294].
Staff, chief of,
,
chief of, how selected, [57].
general, usefulness of, [57].
officers and general must act in concert, [257].
officers, duties of, should be defined, [253].
officers, duty of, in offensive war, [258].
officers should inspect matériel, [257].
officers, summary of duties of, [254-256].
Standing armies, effect of, on distant invasions,
.
State, how rendered secure,
.
Statesmanship, relation of, to war,
.
Statesmen, duty of, in offensive war,
.
Statistics, military,
.
St. Domingo, expedition to, in 1802,
.
Stockach,
,
.
defeat of the French at, [111].
Strategic defense in mountainous countries,
.
Stollhofen, lines of,
.
Strategical and tactical lines of defense,
.
Strategic combinations,
.
combinations, when better than tactical, [179].
coup-d'oeil, [337-345].
field of 1806, [113].
front and line of defense may coincide, [92].
front, change of, [94].
front, double, [95].
front not to be too extended, [98].
front of Napoleon in his march on Eylau, [94].
fronts, [92].
fronts, maxims on, [98].
lines and points, [85].
lines at Waterloo, [130].
lines of maneuvers, [128].
lines of Napoleon in 1796, [130], [131].
operations in mountains, [160].
operations, maxims on, [90].
point, Leipsic as a, [87].
Lyons as a, [87].
point of a battle-field, when important, [187].
points, capitals as, [87].
position, essential conditions for, [99].
positions, [66], [97], [330], [331].
positions of mountainous countries, [76].
positions of Napoleon, [97].
square for camps, [99].
Strategy,
,
.
advantage of the offensive in, [184].
and the commissariat, [141].
battles of Ulm and Jena won by, [198].
connection of intrenched camps with, [154].
connection of têtes de ponts with, [154].
definition of, [66].
directs movements, tactics executes them, [175].
errors in, [91].
how it should be studied, [337].
illustration of, by operations of 1793, [331-333].
illustrations of, [339-341].
in what it consists, [328].
objective points in, how determined, [88].
one great end of, [177].
points embraced by, [68].
political objective points subordinate to, [91].
principles of, [331].
principles of, always the same, [17].
province of, [178].
relation of fortresses to, [148], [150].
science of marches in, [138].
system of, developed in 1800, [137].
the art of, [69].
Strong position, essentials for a,
.
Study of strategy, how made profitable,
.
Successful retreat, how to insure,
,
.
Surprises of armies,
.
difficulty of, [209].
Suwaroff,
,
.
Suwaroff's expedition in Switzerland,
.
Supplies, depots of,
,
.
Suza, position of Swiss and Italians at,
.
Svatoslav, expedition of,
.
Sweyn,
,
.
Switzerland, invasion of, by French Directory,
.
Massena in, in 1799, [165].
Suwaroff in, [166].
tactical defense of, [169].
Syria, French expedition to,
.
System, concentric or eccentric,
.
of corps, [279].
of divisions, [278].
of marches, [135].
of marches, effects of, [138].
of marches, includes what, [138].
of marches, relation of, to commissariat, [141].
of marches the result of circumstances, [135].
of operations, [72].
of operations, how to be judged, [125].
of signals, [274].
of strategy developed in 1800, [137].
of wars, change of, [135].
of wars of position, [135].
Systems modified by forms of government,
.
T.
Tactical combinations, guiding principle in,
.
defense of Switzerland, [169].
operations, disadvantages of the offensive in, [184].
position, protection of flanks in, [182].
Tactical positions,
.
positions, rules for selecting, [181].
Tactics,
.
executes movements, strategy directs them, [175].
of battles, great difficulty of, [196].
of Wellington in Spain and Portugal, [358].
Tagliamento, Napoleon's order at,
.
Taroutin, surprise of Murat at,
.
Telegraphs, portable,
.
Temporary bases,
.
bases, when necessary, [132].
Têtes de ponts,
.
connection of, with strategy, [154].
how differ from intrenched camps, [160].
Theater of operations,
,
.
of operations between the Rhine and North Sea, [338-340].
of operations, how composed, [75].
of operations, how divided, [71].
of operations in the French Revolution, [104].
of war, border of the, [80], [81].
of war, decisive points of the, [85].
of war, definition of, [74].
Theories, difficulty of applying, in war,
.
use of, in war, [323].
Thirty Years' War,
.
Three-rank formation of infantry,
,
.
Topographical and statistical reconnoissances,
.
Torgau, battle of,
.
Torres-Vedras, camp of,
.
intrenched camp at, [83].
Towers, masonry,
.
of Coblentz, [159].
of Linz, [158].
Transversal maneuvers,
.
marches in mountainous countries, [163].
Trees, clumps of, should be occupied,
.
Troops, distribution of, in line of battle,
.
employment of, [328].
Trot, when best for cavalry charge,
,
.
Turenne's surprise of the Austrian cantonments,
.
Turin, battle of,
.
intrenched camp at, [211].
Turkey, invasion of,
.
Turkish war of 1828 and 1829,
.
wars, squares in, [296], [297].
Turks, cavalry charge of,
.
naval expeditions of, [377], [378], [380].
Turning maneuvers,
,
,
.
maneuver, rules for, [204].
Two corps, one behind the other,
.
Two-rank formation,
.
Two wars at once, danger of,
.
U.
Ulm, battle of,
.
battle of, won by strategy, [198].
camp of, [154].
maneuvers at, [90].
Uncertainty regarding battles, elements of,
.
Unexpected battles, advanced guard in,
.
meeting of two armies, [207].
United States, capture of Vera Cruz by,
.
English expeditions against, in 1814 and 1815, [385], [386].
expedition to Port Royal, [390].
Use of spies neglected in many modern armies,
.
of the three arms combined, [203].
V.
Vandals,
.
Vandamme's disaster at Culm, lesson of,
.
Venice,
,
.
Vera Cruz captured by the Spaniards,
.
taken by the French, [386].
taken by the United States, [387].
Vessels, Roman,
.
Scandinavian, [366].
Victories, French, of 1793, why indecisive,
.
Victory, assailant's best means of,
.
on what it depends, [309], [310].
when it may be expected, [360].
Villages, importance of, on front of a position,
.
Villars's infantry, panic among,
.
Vistula, passage of, by Paskevitch,
.
W.
Wagram,
,
,
,
,
,
.
Macdonald's column at, [295], [296].
Napoleon's artillery at, [289], [316].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
panic at, [64].
War an art,
.
border of the theater of, [80], [81].
character of, from Middle Ages to French Revolution, [135].
circumstances which influence result of, [321].
council of, at seat of government, [59].
councils of, [58].
decisive points of the theater of, [85].
defensive-offensive, [74].
definition of the art of, [13].
fundamental principle of, [66], [70].
governments should not be unprepared for, [46].
how to be conducted, [15].
influence of cavalry in a, [313], [314].
influence of improvements in fire-arms on, [347], [355], [359].
manner of applying general principle of, [175].
matériel of, [49].
maxims of fundamental principles of, [70].
nature and extent of, how influenced, [14].
not an exact science, [344], [350].
objects of, [14].
of the Crimea, [387].
offensive and defensive, definition of, [72].
offensive, duty of staff officers in, [258].
operations of, how directed, [150].
principal parts of the art of, [66].
relation of statesmanship to, [14].
theater of, definition, [74].
use of theories in, [323].
Warsaw, intrenchments at,
.
Wars, aggressive, for conquest,
.
change of system of, [135].
civil, [35].
defensive politically, offensive militarily, [17].
double, [36].
for conquest, instances of, [22].
intestine, [35].
natural character of, in mountainous countries, [167].
national, definition of, [29].
national, difficulties of conquest in, [31-34].
national, effect of nature of the country on, [30].
national, how prevented, [33], [34].
national, invasion difficult in, [144].
offensive, how conducted, [16].
offensive, to reclaim rights, [16].
of expediency, [18].
kinds of, [18].
of extermination, [34].
of intervention, [19].
of intervention, essentials in wars of, [21].
of intervention, military chances in, [20].
of invasion, when advantageous, [17].
of opinion, [25].
of opinion, character of, [26].
of opinion, instances of, [25].
of opinion, military precepts for, [27].
of position, system of, [135].
of religion, [35].
of sieges, [146].
political, [26].
political part of, how modified, [17].
Turkish, squares in, [296], [297].
when most just, [16].
with or without allies, [18].
Waterloo,
,
,
,
,
.
Blücher at, [130].
English squares at, 294
formations at, [351].
French at, [196].
Napoleon's order of battle at, [198].
Ney at, [182],183.
strategic lines at, [130].
Wellington's position at, [181], [388].
Wellington,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
.
and Blücher at Waterloo, [127], [130].
at Salamanca, [206].
at Torres-Vedras, [83].
defensive-offensive operations of, [74].
Wellington's position at Waterloo,
.
Weyrother,
,
.
William the Conqueror,
,
.
Winkelried, column of,
.
Winter campaigns,
.
quarters, countries adapted to, [246].
quarters, when dangerous, [247].
quarters, when strategic, [97].
Woods, importance of possession of,
.
Wurmser at Mantua,
.
eccentric retreat of, in 1796, [238].
error of, [111].
X.
Xerxes,
.
army of, [362].
Z.
Zama, battle of,
.
Zimisces,
.
Zone of operations,
,
,
.
of operations, how to select, [329].
of operations in 1813, [101].
Zones of operations in the French Revolution,
.
Zurich, defeat of the allies at,
.
Map of portions of Germany, Switzerland & Italy.
