Water Pur­i­fi­ca­tion.

The impurities of water consist of two classes, insoluble and soluble. The former can be readily removed by processes of settling and filtration. For this purpose most paper-mills are provided with large ponds capable of holding several days’ supply. These are sometimes supplemented by filtering beds. Insoluble impurities can also be removed by passing the water through filter-presses.

Fig. 80 is an illustration of Rœckner’s patent clarifier, which may also be applied to this purpose.

The cylinders C dip below the surface of the water to be purified, which is contained in the reservoir A. They are open at their lower ends, but are closed at the top by the domes D. These are connected with the pump I by means of the pipes H. On starting the pump the water rises slowly in the cylinders. As soon as it reaches the level of the top, the action of the pump is stopped and the cocks K opened, when the water commences to flow down the pipes G, which together {212} with the cylinders form a kind of siphon. If the reservoir A be kept full, the siphons can be made to act continuously. The flow of water being slow, insoluble impurities have time to subside.

The impurities may from time to time be removed by means of the small pump L connected with the bottom of the reservoir.

The clarifier can also be used for the purification of the effluent water from paper-mills.

FIG. 80.

Insoluble impurities can be removed from water by means of the Stanhope purifier, shown in Fig. 81.

The soluble impurities of water consist mainly of carbonate and sulphate of calcium and iron, and occasionally organic matter. It is a moot point among paper-makers {213} whether or not the presence of the two former in a water is objectionable. For boiling and bleaching purposes it undoubtedly is, as when mixed with caustic soda or bleaching liquor they form a precipitate of carbonate of calcium, which lines the insides of boilers, breakers, and potchers as a hard scale, which is always liable to become detached, and to find its way into the finished paper. Moreover, carbonate of calcium is precipitated in the fibre, and carries with it a certain quantity of colouring matter, the subsequent removal of which is difficult.

Carbonate of calcium, though practically insoluble in pure water, is soluble in water containing carbonic acid. When this carbonic acid is neutralised by lime or soda, the carbonate is precipitated. The sulphate of calcium is unacted upon by lime, but by the action of caustic soda is converted into free lime and sodium sulphate. The lime then neutralises the free carbonic acid in the water, and forms carbonate of calcium, which is of course precipitated.

These reactions may be represented by the following equations:—

1.

CaCO3

Calcium
carbonate.

+

CO2

Carbonic
acid.

+

CaO

Lime.

=

2 CaCO3.

Calcium
carbonate.

2.

CaSO4

Calcium
sulphate.

+

2 NaOH

Caustic
soda.

=

CaH2O2

Calcium
hydrate.

+

Na2SO4.

Sodium
sulphate.

CaH2O

Calcium
hydrate.

+

CO2

Carbonic
acid.

=

CaCO3

Calcium
carbonate.

+

H2O.

Water.

If sodium carbonate be used instead of caustic soda, the decomposition will take place thus:—

CaSO4

Calcium
sulphate.

+

Na2CO3

Sodium
carbonate.

=

CaCO3

Calcium
carbonate.

+

Na2SO4.

Sodium
sulphate.

It will be seen from the above equation that in the boiling processes the lime salts are removed from the water at the expense of an equivalent quantity of caustic soda. The amount thus decomposed is not sufficiently large to make it advisable {214} on that account to purify the water. It is indeed so small that processes of purification, based upon the use of lime and caustic soda, are now largely used, the cost for chemicals rarely exceeding 1d. per 1000 gallons. But for the reasons we have stated above, and also from the fact that it serves to remove dissolved iron and organic matter from a water, such a purification process is in certain cases advisable.

The processes now in use consist, as we have indicated, in the addition to the water of lime and caustic soda or carbonate of soda, the quantities being regulated according to the hardness of the water, and the relative proportions of carbonate and sulphate of calcium.

The method of removing carbonate of calcium from water by the addition of lime is due to the late Dr. Clark, of Aberdeen, and the process is still called after him. It is in use in its original form in many places. The plant necessary consists simply of a tank for mixing the water and the lime, and of large settling tanks in which the carbonate of calcium subsides.

Various modifications of this process have been proposed, chiefly in the direction of improved plant.

In the Porter-Clark process the carbonate of calcium is removed by passing the water after the addition of lime (in the form of lime-water) through a filter-press.

FIG. 81.

In Fig. 81 is shown the Stanhope purifier, which is largely used for the purpose of softening water. The following details will render its action clear: A is a store tank containing caustic soda solution. B is a tank into which the water to be treated flows, and which is maintained at a constant level by means of a valve and float. C and C are two tanks which are used alternately, and in which lime water is prepared. A definite quantity of caustic soda solution is added from B; this mixture forms the reagent by which the softening of the water is ac­com­plished. D is a small tank for the purpose of maintaining a constant head of reagent. The reagent and the water are mixed together in the pipe F, the quantities being regulated by the cocks {216} shown at H. The pipe F leads into the vessel E, which is fitted with a number of

-shaped shelves, placed at an angle of 45°, and riveted alternately to opposite sides of the vessel. This arrangement causes the water to take a serpentine course. The position of the shelves is indicated by the dotted lines.

As soon as the mixture of water and reagent flows down the pipe F, and enters the vessel E, the calcium carbonate commences to precipitate and settles upon the

-shaped shelves. At the top of the tank a layer of wood shavings, inclosed in wire-netting, is placed as shown by the dotted lines. This acts as a filter, and intercepts any particles that may not have subsided. The clear purified water passes away by the pipe I.

The precipitate that collects on the

-shaped plates is from time to time drawn off by the cocks shown at G; this may be done without interfering with the working of the apparatus. While there can be no doubt that the use of soft water is advantageous in the boiling, washing, and bleaching processes, and also of course for supplying steam boilers, it is probably an advantage to use a hard water for diluting the pulp before running it into the machine.

In the case of papers which are loaded with any of the forms of calcium sulphate (pearl-hardening, crystal-hardening, &c.) the use of very soft water is objectionable from the fact that a certain quantity of calcium sulphate is dissolved. This would not take place to the same extent with water which is already charged with sulphate and carbonate of calcium.

The removal of soluble iron from a water is effected by the softening processes described.

{217}

CHAPTER XVI. ACTION OF CUPRAMMONIUM ON CELLULOSE. PREPARATION OF WILLESDEN PAPER.

The action of a solution of copper oxide in ammonia upon cellulose has been already referred to (see p. [5]). Celluloses, and also lignocelluloses, when treated with such a solution, gradually gelatinise and finally dissolve. On evaporating the solution to dryness, a gummy amorphous mass is obtained, containing the cellulose intermixed with copper oxide.

If the cellulose be in excess, e.g. when the solution is evaporated on the surface of paper, calico, &c., merely dipped in the solution, the copper oxide is often not formed at all, but a green varnish-like mass of cellulose combined with copper oxide, which coats the surface of each filament, welding and cementing them together. This cement-like cupro-cellulose, as it may be termed, being insoluble in water, communicates water-resisting properties to the material so treated: moreover, the presence of copper renders the fabric less prone than before to be attacked by insects and mould, so that animal and vegetable life of a parasitic nature and fungoid growths are rarely, if ever, to be observed, even when the material is kept under conditions where boring worms, ants, rot, and mould, would be likely to attack it.

As has been already indicated (p. [5]), the solution of cu­pram­mon­ium hy­drox­ide is preferable to one containing cu­pram­mon­ium salts; not only is the action on cellulose more energetic, but various other advantages are obtained.

Preparation of the Copper Solution.—The cu­pram­mon­ium solution is prepared according to the patent of Dr. C. R. Alder Wright (No. 737, 1883). {218}

A series of cast-iron towers, two to three feet in diameter and ten to twelve feet high, is so arranged that a current of air can be blown by a powerful engine successively through the whole series. The towers are then nearly filled with fragments of metallic copper (crumbled up sheet, cuttings, &c.), and solution of ammonia: the air-current being turned on, oxidation of the copper and solution of the oxide so produced are rapidly effected.

The ammonia solution employed is previously impregnated with a considerable quantity of copper by passing a stream of water over scrap copper in similar towers, a current of ammonia gas mixed with a suitable proportion of air being at the same time forced in. The liquor passing from one tower is used over again to supply a second instead of water, and so on through the series: finally the liquor is brought up to full copper strength in the series of towers described above.

The spent air issuing from the towers carries with it a notable quantity of ammonia; this is intercepted by means of an “exhaust” scrubber containing copper, and well supplied with water, whereby a comparatively weak solution of ammonia and copper is obtained, which can be used instead of water in the first series of towers.

In order to produce the maximum effect on the cellulose, the solution should contain from 100 to 150 lbs. of ammonia, and from 20 to 25 lbs. of copper per 100 gallons.

By decomposing a cu­pram­mon­ium solution by means of metallic zinc, a corresponding solution of zinc-ammonium hydroxide can be obtained. This solution is also capable of gelatinising cellulose, but not to the same extent as the copper solution. It may, however, be advantageously employed in certain cases in conjunction with a copper solution. Such a solution can be conveniently prepared by substituting brass for copper in the dissolving-towers. It is worthy of note that although, as we have seen, zinc has the power of replacing copper in a cu­pram­mon­ium solution, iron is without any action, although it readily replaces copper in a solution {219} of copper sulphate. This fact is of very great industrial importance, as it enables the manufacturer to employ vessels and machinery of iron.

The “Willesden” goods may be divided into two classes. Goods of the first class, such as rope, cordage, netting, &c., are prepared by simply dipping the made-up materials in a bath of cu­pram­mon­ium solution, using certain precautions as to the mode of immersion and its duration, and the strength of the solution. On subsequently drying the dipped fabrics, they are obtained coated and impregnated with cupro-cellulose, which thus not only forms a kind of varnish-like surface dressing, but further adds strength to the fibres by more or less intimately cementing them together.

Goods of the second class constitute a much more important group to which at present the Willesden Company more especially devotes its attention. These fabrics are essentially of three kinds, viz. Willesden Canvas, Willesden Scrim, and Willesden Paper. The two former of these classes are prepared in much the same way as the goods just described, saving that the fabric to be treated is usually unwound from one roller and rewound upon another, after passing through the bath and over a succession of drying cylinders.

Willesden Paper.—This may be divided into two departments, viz. (1) Willesden unwelded; (2) Willesden welded, the first class being prepared from a single web of paper by passing it through the bath, rolling and drying. Certain coarse varieties furnish a waterproof material excellently adapted for lining packages, &c. Finer qualities furnish envelopes and stationery, possessing the valuable property of not being affected by water. Letters written on such paper would remain perfectly legible, even after prolonged immersion. It may be interesting to point out here that the cu­pram­mon­ium solution offers a very simple means of fastening envelopes in such a way as to be proof against any attempts at tampering. The method consists in using a concentrated solution as the fastening material; the envelope {220} is then closed and ironed with a warm flat-iron, whereby the gelatinised cellulose is converted into an insoluble cupro-cellulose, and the cover is fastened so securely that the only possible mode of opening is by tearing the paper.

Willesden Welded Goods are prepared by simultaneously dipping two or more sheets of paper and pressing them into one compact homogeneous sheet whilst the surfaces are still in a gelatinous state. In this way a continuous length of fabric of extraordinary durability is produced that is scarcely affected by water, even when heated in it for some weeks at a pressure of 60 lbs. per square inch.

As, on drying fabrics treated with cu­pram­mon­ium solution, the whole of the ammonia in the solution absorbed by them is volatilised, it is necessary, in order to make the process economical, to collect and re-use this ammonia. This is effected by conducting the drying process in closed chambers, from which the ammonia gas is conducted by suitable appliances and recovered.

In addition to the advantages already mentioned, it may be stated that Willesden paper is much less inflammable than ordinary paper.

Among the many uses to which Willesden goods can be applied, the following may be cited:—Roofs and sheds; huts and tents; partitions; tanks and pipes; damp-proof foundations; underlining slates; sails, awnings, &c. &c.

{221}

CHAPTER XVII. STATISTICS.

Raw Materials.

The statistics concerning the trade in raw materials for paper-making are not published in a detailed form, all the various kinds of fibre, &c., being grouped under two heads, viz. rags (linen and cotton), and esparto (which embraces other fibres, and probably wood pulps). The figures for recent years are shown in the accompanying tables:—

tons.l.
1880.29,642451,782
1881.26,773396,274
1882.21,200303,349
1883.28,543401,922
1884.36,233487,866
1885.35,470466,928
tons.l.
1880.228,5801,642,903
1881.238,0431,626,800
1882.251,5941,784,078
1883.288,5491,943,732
1884.260,5441,638,564

But a portion of these imports was exported again, the figures being as follows:—

tons.l.
1880.55,792673,523
1881.50,488563,460
1882.49,352526,554
1883.51,293502,851
1884.60,924562,903
tons.l.
1880. 6,965102,499
1881.10,183146,101
1882. 7,004 84,515
1883.11,561121,992
1884.26,498274,664

The relative proportions of raw material furnished by the various countries in 1884 (the latest available return) are shown in the subjoined tables:—

FromTons.£
Germany21,280294,883
Holland 4,406 56,537
Belgium 2,867 34,713
Turkey 2,036 16,228
France 1,875 28,133
Russia 1,784 33,293
Channel Islands   282  3,972
Norway   261  3,377
Denmark   198  3,020
British South Africa   133  1,615
Australasia   113  2,245
Canary Islands    96  1,043
Spain    93  1,009
Argentine Republic    64  1,280
Other countries   745  6,518
36,233487,866
FromTons.£
Algeria 88,357  515,232
Spain 40,159  314,927
Tripoli 33,930  172,282
Tunis 20,526  117,374
Other countries  1,033    5,738
184,0051,125,553
FromTons.£
Norway47,923276,204
Belgium 7,169 58,383
Holland 6,484 46,104
Sweden 5,178 48,523
Germany 3,732 36,582
France 2,128 14,667
Denmark 1,205 13,332
British India 1,046  7,735
Egypt   870  4,933
Other countries   804  6,544
76,539513,011

A considerable export of raw material for paper-making also takes place from British shores, the figures, embracing rags and other materials, for 1884 being as below:—

ToTons.£
United States59,222550,924
Holland   649  2,703
British America   390  4,255
Germany   262  1,673
Other countries   401  3,348
60,924562,903
(b) Exports of foreign produced ditto in1884:
(i.) Linen and cotton rags.
ToTons.£
United States14,191167,801
Other countries   514  5,519
14,705173,320
(ii.) Esparto and other fibres.
ToTons.£
All countries   140    701
(iii.) Pulps and other materials.
ToTons.£
United States11,290 97,620
Other countries   363  3,023
11,653100,643

{224}

Our imports of “rags and other paper-making materials” from Norway increased from 23,483 tons, value 138,098l., in 1880, to 48,199 tons, 279,679l., in 1884, mainly owing to the development of the wood-pulp industry. Later figures will probably show a similar increment. The same articles from Denmark grew from 359 tons, 3406l., in 1880, to 1403 tons, 16,352l., from the same cause. German statistics have even a stronger upward tendency: 11,587 tons, 196,051l., in 1880, against 196,051 tons, 331,591l., in 1884. Our receipts of esparto from Algeria show an advance, but not a marked one, being 60,612 tons, 421,343l., in 1880, and 88,357 tons, 515,232l., in 1884. But shipments of the same fibre from Spain show a decline from 51,413 tons, 454,713l., in 1880, to 40,159 tons, 314,927l., in 1884; and from Morocco they have fallen away from 2879 tons, 18,231l., in 1880, to 260 tons, 1290l., in 1884; while the figures relating to Tunis and Tripoli also show a disposition to recede, though not at such a rapid rate.

The wood-pulp industry of Norway for the year 1886 shows a very large increase upon the figures of a few years back, albeit prices have ruled very low. This latter circumstance is attributed, not so much to over-production, as to excessive competition among the sellers of this article. The quantity exported during the year 1886 is about 120,000 tons; in the year 1885 it was 107,651 tons; 1884, 88,220 tons; 1883, 70,464 tons; 1882, 58,884 tons; 1881, 42,194 tons; 1880, 26,055 tons. Several of the old works have extended their production during the past year, and several new establishments are in the course of erection, so the production this year may probably be put at 150,000 tons wood pulp with 50 per cent. water. The greatest part of the Norwegian wood pulp is exported to England, France, and Belgium; in Russia, the increase in the duty has stopped business, and the same can almost be said of Germany. America, too, has drawn part of her supply from Norway, but this trade is not expected to continue. {225}

Manufactured Material.

Our import trade in manufactured paper has been growing of late years, as the following figures will show:—

cwt.l.
1880.1,021,9521,159,646
1881.1,065,9121,138,943
1882.1,098,1181,202,905
1883.1,160,1041,245,861
1884.1,447,3351,403,446

At the same time, our exports of manufactured paper, though amounting to only about one-third the weight, have very nearly as high an aggregate value as the imports, and have increased in much the same proportion in corresponding years. Thus:—

cwt.l.
1880.  472,1681,106,996
1881.  555,2191,242,962
1882.  584,9471,305,025
1883.  597,9231,284,862
1884.  670,7601,374,392

The above figures relate to paper manufactured in the United Kingdom. In addition, there were re-exports of paper of foreign and colonial manufacture to the following amounts:—

cwt.l.
1880.   68,843  108,426
1881.   68,861  101,197
1882.   50,403   82,464
1883.   49,526   76,620
1884.   51,467   78,785

Taking the latest year for which detailed statistics are available, viz. 1884, we find that the importations of paper {226} are derived from foreign states in the following proportions:—

Imports of paper in 1884—

FromCwt.£
Germany   92,681  129,112
Belgium   42,139   68,370
Sweden   27,747   36,682
Holland   26,507   34,884
France    6,463   28,925
Austria    5,399    9,314
Norway    4,300    4,771
Other countries    3,174    5,655
  208,410  317,713
FromCwt.£
Germany  139,156  209,916
Sweden  116,488  120,793
Belgium   82,263  124,476
Holland   54,594   84,699
Norway   32,294   26,765
France   19,328   69,763
United States   10,980   31,201
Austria    5,927   12,012
Spain      736    4,059
Japan      421    4,736
Other countries    3,547    5,995
  465,734  694,415
FromCwt.£
Holland  439,749  201,894
Germany  235,658  116,185
Belgium   51,235   25,350
Sweden   32,331   20,241
Norway    8,260    5,726
France    3,262   19,259
Other countries    2,696    2,663
  773,191  391,318

The exports of home-made paper in the same year were distributed as follows:— {227}

Exports of home-made paper in 1884—

ToCwt.£
Australasia  280,024  545,830
France   44,427  101,833
Bengal and Burma   33,963   71,834
Bombay and Scinde   29,767   64,227
British South Africa   16,900   33,041
British North America   14,871   44,511
Madras   10,532   25,651
Argentine Republic    8,683   30,954
United States    6,985   31,722
Sweden and Norway    6,101   11,870
Belgium    5,981   13,926
Germany    5,969   14,188
British West Indies    4,706   13,411
Ceylon    4,668   10,919
Other countries   31,397   93,454
  504,9731,107,371
ToCwt.£
Australasia   14,542   20,771
Bengal and Burma    5,147    4,589
Bombay and Scinde    4,572    4,134
France      987    2,309
Other countries    5,571   13,367
   30,819   45,170
ToCwt.£
Australasia   62,731   81,385
British South Africa    9,341   11,809
Bombay and Scinde    7,146   10,389
Argentine Republic    6,283    8,113
Germany    5,147   11,394
Belgium    5,122   11,300
France    5,052   16,238
Bengal and Burma    5,006    6,678
United States    4,841   14,668
British America    3,737    7,801
Holland    2,410    5,529
Other countries   18,152   36,547
  134,968  221,851

{228}

The re-exports of foreign and colonial-made papers during the same period went to the following destinations:—

Re-exports of foreign paper in 1884—

ToCwt.£
British India   10,488   14,643
Australasia    4,908    7,695
Other countries    3,236    7,554
   18,632   29,892
ToCwt.£
British India    5,852    7,354
Egypt    5,167    7,751
Australasia    2,131    4,398
Russia    1,560    7,829
Other countries    8,465   15,825
   23,175   43,157
ToCwt.£
All countries    9,660    5,736

{231}

CHAPTER XIX. ADDENDA.

The Yaryan Process of Evaporation.

This process, the invention of Mr. H. J. Yaryan, of Toledo, Ohio, U.S.A., has been considerably developed in America in its several applications, and as we have authentic information of its successful working for the recovery of soda in some of the largest paper-mills in the States, we think it deserving of mention. The principle of the process is that of “multiple effects,” upon which, indeed, all the modern methods of economic evaporation are based. The principle may be briefly explained as follows:—A liquid is converted into vapour under ordinary conditions of boiling, by overcoming the pressure of the atmosphere upon its surface. The quantity of heat required to vaporise, as also the temperature of the ebullition, will be less as the pressure to be overcome is less. Further, the vapour continuously driven off carries with it a quantity of heat, which is its heat of condition or latent heat. This heat it imparts to any colder body (e. g. a further quantity of the same liquid) with which it comes in contact, direct or indirect; if the quantity of the latter be relatively small, it will raise its temperature approximately to that of the ebullition of the first liquid. If now the pressure (atmospheric) on the surface of the latter be slightly reduced, by any means, it will boil. The vapour from this can be made to boil a third quantity of the liquid, under a further diminished pressure.

The successive effects in economic evaporation consist, therefore, in utilising the latent heat of a vapour given off from a liquid under a certain pressure (e. g. that of the atmosphere) to vaporise a further quantity of the liquid under a pressure maintained by mechanical means below that of the first. In the ordinary methods the vapour does its work in the successive effects by passage through systems of tubes, the liquid to be heated being in contact externally; in the Yaryan system, on the other hand, the arrangement {232} is reversed. The liquid to be evaporated traverses the system of tubes which are heated externally by the vapours. At the end of each effect, the liquid is caused to impinge, in a special chamber, upon a disc: in this way a complete separation of liquid and vapour is effected, each then passing on to the next effect, the former through the tube-system, the latter to the chamber inclosing these. The flow of liquid is maintained by a force-pump, and the diminished pressure by a vacuum-pump suitably disposed. This system differs from that described on page [180], in that the evaporation is continuous, the dilute liquors entering the apparatus and the highly concentrated liquors leaving it in an unbroken stream. The rate of flow is such that the evaporation of the caustic liquors from wood boiling from 8–10° to 80° Twaddell, in a quadruple effect, requires only a few minutes. At the latter concentration it is ready for the incineration process, which by means of a rotary furnace, such as that of Mr. J. W. Hammond, of the firm of S. D. Warren and Co., is also effected continuously. It is found, moreover, that the excess of heat available from this process is sufficient for the evaporation.

Ferric Oxide Causticising Process.

The principle of this process is the expulsion of the carbonic acid from sodium carbonate by ferric oxide at high temperatures; this oxide playing the part of a weak acid, entering into a loose combination with the soda, which is overcome by water in the subsequent lixiviation process, the ferric oxide being regenerated and a solution of caustic soda obtained.

The ferric oxide is therefore continuously available. The main features of the process, disregarding the question of commercial economy, are (1) that it leaves no by-products to be disposed of, (2) that it enables the manufacturer to produce directly, without evaporation, a highly concentrated caustic lye.

This process has been worked out under the auspices of Messrs. Brunner, Mond, & Co., and there is every reason to expect an extensive application of so simple a method.

INDEX.

Abaca, see Manilla hemp

Abies pulp, [60]

Acetic acid in bleaching, [114]

Acid, action on paper, [163]

— in alum, estimating, [207]

— — —, evils of, [163]

— processes for wood, [69]

— radicles and cellulose, [8]

Acids added in bleaching pulps, [112]

— and cellulose, [12]

Adansonia fibre, [53]

— —, boiling, [103]

— —, cutting, [103]

— —, willowing, [103]

Adipo-cellulose, [26]

Adulterating paper, [130]

Agalite loading, [133]

Agave americana fibre, [33], [44]

Alkali boiled with rags, [82]

— process for isolating cellulose, early methods, [65]

Alkaline processes for isolating cellulose, [62]

Alkalis and cellulose, [14]

— and ligno-cellulose, [21]

Aloe fibre, [33], [39], [44], [46]

— —, dimensions, [39]

— perfoliata fibre, [39]

Alum, action on cellulose, [163]

—,— on gelatine, [163]

—, analysing, [206]

— cake, analysing, [206]

—, estimating acid in, [207]

—, freedom from acid, [163]

— in sizing, [139]

—, proportion required, [141]

— solutions, table of strengths, [143]

Alumina resinate, [137]

Alumina sulphate, analysing, [206]

— — in sizing, [140]

Aluminous cake, [140]

Ammoniacal solution of cupric oxide, [5]

Amyloid, [12]

Analysis of plant substances, [42]

Analysing alum, [206]

— — cake, [206]

— alumina sulphate, [206]

— antichlor, [208]

— bleaching powder, [205]

— caustic soda, [205]

— dyes, [209]

— gelatine, [208]

— loading material, [203], [209]

— paper, [199]

— pigments, [209]

— recovered soda, [205]

— size, [203]

— soaps, [208]

— soda ash, [205]

— sodium sulphite, [208]

— — thiosulphate, [208]

— starches, [208]

— wood pulp, [201]

Ananassa sativa fibre, [44]

Aniline blues, [141]

— colours, solutions, [37]

— for diagnosing plant substances, [43]

— pinks, [142]

— sulphate solution, [37]

Animal cellulose, [7]

Annandale’s damping method, [159]

Antichlor, analysing, [208]

—, lime and sulphur, [129]

—, proportion required to neutralise bleaching powder, [128]

—, removing bleaching liquor by, [127]

Antichlor, sodium hyposulphite, [127], [129]

—, — sulphite, [125]

—, — thiosulphate, [127], [129]

—, testing, [130]

Apparatus for microscopic examination of fibres, [35]

Ash of cotton pulp, [136]

— of esparto pulp, [136]

— of linen pulp, [136]

— of paper, estimating, [134]

— of paper, natural, [136]

— of straw pulp, [136]

— of wood pulp, [136]

Aspen for mechanical wood pulp, [108]

Available chlorine in bleaching powder, [110]

Bachet and Machard’s process forwood, [69]

Baobab fibre, [53]

— — composition, [54]

Barium hydrate and cellulose, [7]

Bark fibres, [2]

Barley straw, [98]

Barre’s acid process for wood, [69]

Bast fibres, [34]

— —, dimensions, [39]

— filaments, [34]

—, nature of, [2]

— tissues, [53]

Beater bed-plate, [120]

— knives, [120]

— —, cutting in situ, [121]

—, lead-lined, [120]

Beaters, [117]

—, direct-driven, [126]

—, engine for driving, [126]

—, water for, [125]

Beating esparto, [117]

—, proportion of water to pulp, [118]

— pulp, [117]

— —, duration of, [119]

— wood pulp, [117]

Bed-plate of beater, [120]

Beech, composition, [61]

Bertram’s beater, [122]

— damping cylinder, [159]

— direct-driven beaters, [126]

Bertram’s rag boiler, [82]

— smoothers, [158]

— strainers, [148]

Bibliography, [229]

Birch, composition, [61]

—, pulp yield, [77]

Bisulphite, action on cellulose compared with soda, [76]

—, colour of pulp produced by, [77]

— process, advantages, [76]

— processes for wood, [71]

Bleached pulp, freeing from bleach, [114]

— —, improving colour, [114]

Bleaching, acetic acid in, [114]

— action should be confined to non-cellulose, [113]

— by chlorine, [114]

—, electrolytic, [115]

— pulp in potchers, [111]

— pulps, [110]

— rags, [115]

— refractory pulps, [114]

—, time required by, [113]

—, with sodium hypochlorite, [113]

Bleaching-liquor, clear, [111]

—, removing by antichlor, [127]

—, removing from half-stuff, [127]

—, storing, [111]

—, strength, [111]

—, washing out from half-stuff, [127]

Bleaching-powder, accelerating action of, [112]

—, analysing, [205]

— and cellulose, [10]

—, available chlorine in, [110]

—, keeping, [111]

—, neutralising by lime and sulphur, [129]

—, — by sodium hyposulphite, [127], [129]

—, — by sodium sulphate, [128]

—, — by sodium thiosulphate, [127], [129]

—, preparing, [110]

—, proportion of antichlor required to neutralise, [128]

—, quantities needed, [112]

Blitz’s sulphide process, [67]

Blondel’s acid process for wood, [69]

Blotting paper, starching, [139]

Blue colours, [141]

Boehmeria, [50]

— nivea fibre, [39]

— puya fibre, [44]

Boilers for esparto, [90]

— for resolving wood, [74]

— for straw, [99]

—, iron, [76]

—, lead-lining, [75]

Boiling adansonia fibre, [103]

— esparto, [89], [91]

— jute, [103]

— manilla hemp, [103]

— rags, [82]

— straw, [100]

Boiling-liquors, recovering soda from, [179]

Bombax heptaphyllum fibre, [39]

Books on paper-making, [229]

Bottoms, caustic, [177]

Broke paper, grinding mill, [105]

— —, using up, [104]

Bromine and jute, [18]

Broussonetia kæmpferia fibre, [54]

— papyrifera fibre, [39], [54]

Burning recovered soda, [186]

Calcining recovered soda, [186]

Calendering, [167]

Calenders, [158]

—, deflection, [171]

Calcium carbonate mud, [190]

— hypochlorite, removing from pulp, [114]

— sulphate, estimating, [203]

— — loading, [131]

Cannabis sativa fibre, [39], [49]

Carbonic acid bleaching, [115]

Carbonising recovered soda, [186]

Caustic soda, analysing, [205]

— —, brands, [178]

— —, commercial forms, [177]

— — drums, emptying, [179]

— —, prices, [179]

— — solutions, table of strengths, [109]

Causticisers, [188], [192]

Causticising, [187]

— by ferric oxide, [232]

—, lime used, [190]

—, oxygenating during, [191]

Cellular tissue in straw, [103]

Cellulose, [4]

—, absorption of acids and basic oxides, [7]

—, action of alum on, [163]

—, — of cu­pram­mon­ium on, [5], [217]

—, — of lime on, [84]

—, — of soda and bisulphite compared, [76]

—, — of sulphur on, [130]

—, — on light, [6]

— and acids, [12]

— and alkalis, [14]

— and barium hydrate, [7]

— and bleaching powder, [10]

— and chlorine, [10]

— and humus, [15]

— and hydrochloric acid, [13]

— and lead solutions, [8]

— and metallic salts, [8]

— and nitric acid, [13]

— and oxygen, [10]

— and sulphuric acid, [12]

— and water at high temperature, [14]

— and zinc chloride, [13]

—, animal, [7]

—, behaviour under Schweitzer’s reagent, [5]

—, bleaching should not affect, [113]

—, burning, [23]

—, characters, [4]

—, combinations, [7]

—, — with acid radicles, [8]

— compared with jute, [17]

—, composition, [4]

—, compounds, [7], [16]

—, decomposition, [12]

—, — by ferments, [15]

—, — by heat, [23]

—, destructive action of soda on, [64]

— di-nitrate, [10]

—, early form of alkali process for isolating, [65]

— formed by vinegar plant, [16]

—, formula, [4]

— gelatinised, [5]

—, general method of isolation, [4]

— hexa-nitrate, [9]

—, identification, [6], [18]

Cellulose in contact with iron, [13]

— in fibre, estimating, [42]

— in straw, [99]

—, isolating by sulphurous acid, [64]

—, — from plant substances, [62]

—, — from wood, Schultze’s method, [21]

—, lignification, [17]

—, mineral constituents, [5]

—, modifications of, in the plant, [16]

—, nitration of, [8]

—, oxidation, [10]

—, penta-nitrate, [9]

—, percentage yielded by jute, [19]

—, proportion in esparto, [96]

—, — of, in well-boiled pulp, [113]

—, reactions, [6]

—, soluble in Schweitzer’s reagent, [5]

—, — sulphides for isolating, [67]

—, solubility, [5]

—, synthesis, [15]

—, tetra-nitrate, [10]

—, triacetyl, [8]

—, tri-nitrate, [10]

—, yield from esparto, [95]

—, — from straw, [98]

Celluloses, compound, hydrolytic resolution, [63]

—, —, treating for paper, [63]

Cellulosic fermentation, [16]

Chapman’s evaporator, [184]

Chemical analysis of plant substances, [42]

— examination of paper, [201]

Chestnut, pulp yield, [77]

China clay, estimating, [203]

— — loading, [131]

— grass, [39], [46], [50]

— —, character, [50]

— —, composition, [51]

— — fibres, dimensions, [39]

— —, forms in which employed, [51]

— —, general chemical characteristics, [51]

— —, micro-chemical reaction, [51]

— —, microscopic features, [51]

Chlorinating straw pulp, [102]

Chlorinating wood tissue, [19]

Chlorine and cellulose, [10]

— and jute, [18]

— as a bleaching agent, [114]

—, available, in bleaching powder, [110]

— water solution, [37]

Clarifying water, [125]

Classification of paper as to strength, [197]

Cleaning straw, [100]

Closing plates of strainers, [150]

Cochineal lakes, [142]

Collodion pyroxyline, [10]

Colophony, [137]

Colour, improving, [114]

— of pulp produced by bisulphite, [77]

Colouring paper, [141]

Commercial statistics, [221]

Composition of paper, testing, [199]

Compound celluloses, hydrolytic resolution, [63]

— —, treating for paper, [63]

Conifer pulp, [60]

Constitution of plant fibres, [1]

Cooke and Hibbert’s beater, [123]

Corchorus capsularis fibre, [39], [44], [52]

— olitorius fibre, [39]

Cork, [26]

Cotton, [46]

—, classification, [46]

—, composition of raw fibre, [47]

— fibres, dimensions, [39]

—, forms in which employed, [48]

—, general chemical characteristic, [47]

— in paper, detecting, [199], [201]

—, micro-chemical reaction, [47]

—, microscopic features, [46]

—, nature of, [1]

— pulp, ash, [136]

— —, beaten, [118]

— —, dimensions of fibre, [119]

— rags, statistics, [221], [222]

— —, treatment for paper, [79]

— sections, [47]

Couch rolls, [156]

Cream caustic, [177]

Cross’s boiler, [76]

Crotalaria juncea fibre, [44], [50]

Crystal carbonate, [138]

Cuprammonium, [217]

Cuprammonium solution, preparing, [217]

Cuticular tissue, [26]

Cutting, [171]

— adansonia fibre, [103]

— beater knives, [121]

— jute, [103]

— manilla hemp, [103]

— rags, [81]

— straw, [100]

Dahl’s sulphide process, [67]

Damping-cylinders, [159]

Dandy roll, [155]

Dark paper from jute, [103]

Deckle, [144], [152]

Densities, Twaddle, and sp. gr., [109]

Detecting adulteration, [203]

Diagnosis of plant substances, [42]

Di­cot­y­le­don­ous stems, fibres of, [33], [46]

Direct-driven beaters, [126]

Discoloration of paper from mechanical wood pulp, [108]

Doctor, [157]

Draining bleached pulp, [114]

— boiled rags, [84]

— straw pulp, [100]

Drum washer for boiled rags, [85]

Dry pulp, preparing, [119]

Drying cylinders, [157]

Dusting rags, [82]

Dyes, [141]

—, analysing, [209]

Economy of sulphide processes, [68]

Edgerunner mill, [119]

Edgworthia papyrifera fibre, [54]

Ekman’s bisulphite process, [72]

— process, preparing wood for, [73]

Electrolytic bleaching, [115]

Emptying soda drums, [179]

Engine for driving beaters, [126]

— sizing, [137]

Esparto, [46], [55]

—, amount of bleaching powder needed by, [112]

—, beating, [117]

—, boiled, washing, [95]

— boiler, Roeckner’s, [93]

— —, Sinclair’s, [94]

—, boiling, [89], [91]

—, character, [55]

—, cleaning machine, [90]

—, composition, [57]

— fibres, dimensions, [39]

—, general chemical characteristics, [56]

— in paper, detecting, [199], [201]

— liquor, disposal of, [98]

—, micro-chemical reaction, [56]

—, microscopic features, [56]

— paper mill, arrangement, [210]

—, picking, [90]

—, presse-pâte system, [96]

—, pressure for boiling, [93]

—, proportion of cellulose in, [96]

— pulp, ash, [136]

— —, dimensions of fibre, [119]

—, quantity of soda for, [92]

— section, [56]

—, soda required by, [89]

—, statistics, [221], [222]

—, substances removed from, by caustic soda, [97]

—, time of boiling, [92]

—, treating for paper, [63]

—, yield of cellulose, [95]

Estimating acid in alum, [207]

— added mineral matter in paper, [136]

— mineral matter in paper, [134]

Evaporating soda liquors, [180], [231]

Evaporators, [180], [231]

—, Chapman’s, [184]

—, Roeckner’s, [181]

—, Porion’s, [182]

—, smell consumer, [183]

—, Yaryan, [231]

Felting, [31]

— caused in potchers, [113]

Fermentation, cellulosic, [16]

Ferments decomposing cellulose, [15]

Ferric oxide causticising process, [232]

Fibre bundles, [34]

—, interweaving to form paper, [30]

—, theoretical value in paper, [30]

Fibres, analysis, complete, [43]

— and cells, [1]

—, apparatus for microscopic examination, [35]

— classified according to iodine reaction, [46]

—, dimensions, [38]

—,— in pulps, [119]

—, estimating cellulose in, [42]

—, — purity, [39]

—, isolating for examination, [38]

—, microscopic features, [32]

—, nature of, [1]

— of di­cot­y­le­don­ous stems, [33]

— of mono­cot­y­le­don­ous stems, [33]

—, physical structure, [30]

—, raw, analysing, [42]

—, reagents for examining, [36]

—, sections for examination, [38]

—, separation, [34]

—, table of characters, [44]

—, — of length, [39]

—, Webster on analysis of, [42]

Fibrous tissue, [34]

Fibro-vascular bundles, [2]

— — —, dimensions, [39]

Filaments, [34]

—, dimensions of cells and fibres, [39]

—, table of lengths, [39]

Filter bags for water, [126]

— paper, starching, [139]

Filtering lime mud, [190]

Finish, [159]

Finishing-house, [175]

Fir pulp, [61]

Flax, [39], [44]

—, characters, [48]

—, composition of raw fibre, [48]

— fibres, dimensions, [39]

—, forms in which employed, [49]

—, general chemical characteristic, [48]

—, micro-chemical reaction, [48]

—, microscopic features, [48]

— sections, [48]

Forbes’ beater, [122]

Fourdrinier machine, [145]

Francke’s bisulphite process, [72]

Friction-glazing, [169]

Fry, Ransome, and Wilkie’s wood-splitting machine, [74]

Furfural, [21]

Gaskell and Deacon’s crystal carbonate, [138]

— sodium sulphite, [128]

Gelatine, action of alum on, [163]

—, analysing, [208]

—, estimating amount of, [204]

— for sizing, [161], [162]

— size, making, [162]

— with soap, [163]

Glaser’s straw pulp chlorinating process, [102]

Glazing, [167]

—, influence on strength, [198]

Gossypium fibres, [39], [46]

Gould’s beater, [122]

Greenbank soda, [178]

Grinding straw pulp, [101]

— wood to pulp, [105]

Guillotine cutter, [174]

Gun-cotton, [9]

Half-stuff defined, [88]

—, freeing from bleaching liquor, [127]

—, removing bleaching liquor from, by antichlor, [127]

—, washing out bleaching liquor from, [127]

Hand-made paper, [144]

Hartig-Reusch paper-testing machine, [194]

Hemp, [39], [46], [49]

—, characters, [49]

—, composition, [50]

— fibres, dimensions, [39]

—, forms in which employed, [50]

—, general chemical characteristic, [50]

—, micro-chemical reaction, [50]

—, microscopic features, [49]

—, section, [50]

Hermite’s electrolytic bleaching, [115]

Hibiscus strictus fibre, [44], [46]

Humus and cellulose, [15]

Hydracellulose, [12]

Hydrochloric acid and cellulose, [13]

— — — ligno-cellulose, [22]

— — in bleaching pulps, [112]

Hydrolytic resolution of compound celluloses, [63]

Igniting recovered soda, [186]

Iodine and jute, [17]

— — lignified tissue, [17]

— — starch paper, making, [130]

— reaction, details of manipulation, [40]

— solution, [36]

— —, testing, [36]

Iron boilers, [76]

— oxide causticising process, [232]

Jolly’s balance, [135]

Jordan beater, [121]

Jute, [33], [39], [44], [46], [52]

— and bromine, [18]

— — chlorine, [18]

— — iodine, [17]

—, boiling, [103]

—, character, [52]

— compared with cellulose, [17]

—, cutting, [103]

—, dark paper from, [103]

— fibres, dimensions, [39]

—, forms in which employed, [53]

—, general chemical characteristic, [53]

—, micro-chemical reactions, [52]

—, microscopic features, [52]

—, objection to acid in bleaching, [112]

—, reactions, [17]

—, treating for paper, [64]

—, willowing, [103]

Kaolin, estimating, [203]

—, loading, [131]

Kingsland beater, [121]

Knives for cutters, [171]

— of beater, [120]

— — —, cutting in situ, [121]

Knotter, [151]

Laid paper, [156]

Lead lining to beater, [120]

— solutions and cellulose, [8]

Leaden boilers, [75]

Leaf fibres, [2]

Lignification estimated by aniline, [43]

— of cellulose, [17]

Lignified tissue and chlorine, [18]

— — — iodine, [17]

Ligno-cellulose, [20]

—, aldehydic character, [25]

—, and dilute alkalis, [21]

— and dilute mineral acids, [20]

— and hot water, [21]

— and hydrochloric acid, [22]

— and mineral acids, [20]

— and nitro-sulphuric acid, [22]

— and sulphuric acid, [22]

—, animal digestion of, [23]

—, decay of, [23]

—, decomposition by heat, [23]

—, distribution, [23]

—, treating for paper, [64]

Lime, action on cellulose, [84]

— and sulphur for neutralising bleaching powder, [129]

— boiled with rags, [83]

— for causticising, [190]

—, milk of, [177]

— mud, [190]

— —, composition, [191]

— —, filtering, [190]

— salts in water, [212]

— sulphate loading, [131]

— unsuited for esparto, [89]

Lime-tree, composition, [61]

Linden bast fibres, [39], [54]

Linen, [46]

— in paper, detecting, [199], [201]

— pulp, ash, [136]

— —, beaten, [117]

— —, dimensions of fibre, [119]

— rags, statistics, [221], [222]

— —, treatment for paper, [79]

Linum usitatissimum fibre, [39], [44], [46]

Literature, [229]

Loading, estimating, [134]

— materials, analysing, [209]

— paper, [130]

— with agalite, [133]

— with china clay, [131]

— with lime sulphate, [131]

— with magnesium silicate, [134]

— with pearl-hardening, [131]

Loft-dried paper, [145]

Lunge’s bleaching method, [114]

Lygeum spartum fibre, [55]

Machine, [145]

Magnesium silicate loading, [134]

Manilla hemp, [44], [46], [59]

— —, boiling, [103]

— —, composition, [60]

— —, cutting, [103]

— —, micro-chemical reaction, [60]

— —, microscopic features, [59]

— —, sections, [60]

— —, treating for paper, [64]

— —, willowing, [103]

Masson, Scott, and Bertram’s beater, [123]

— — — esparto-cleaning machine, [90]

— — — strainer, [149]

Mechanical wood pulp, [105]

— — —, quantitative estimation, [202]

Menzies and Davis’ smell consumer, [183]

Metallic salts and cellulose, [8]

Microscope equipment, [35]

Microscopic features of fibres, [32]

Microscopical examination of paper, [201]

Milk of lime, [177]

Mill, arrangement, [210]

—, site for, [210]

Millboard machine, [166]

Mineral acids and cellulose, [20]

— — and ligno-cellulose, [20]

— matter, added, estimating, [136]

— — in paper, estimating, [134]

Mixing pulps, [119]

Mono­cot­y­le­don­ous stems, fibres of, [33], [46], [54]

Mounting solution, [36]

Musa paradisiaca fibre, [44]

— textilis, [59]

Names in paper, [145], [156]

Nettle, [52]

Neutral mounting solution, [36]

New Zealand flax, [39], [44], [46], [59]

— — —, dimensions, [39]

— — — general chemical characteristics, [59]

— — — micro-chemical reaction, [59]

New Zealand flax, microscopic features, [59]

Nilgherry nettle, [44]

Nitric acid and cellulose, [8], [13]

Nitro-sulphuric acid and ligno-cellulose, [22]

Oak, pulp yield, [77]

Oat straw, [98]

Oxidising sodium sulphide, [191]

Oxycellulose, [13]

Oxygen and cellulose, [10]

Oxygenating liquors while causticising, [191]

Paper ash, estimating, [134]

—, broke, pulp from, [104]

—, colouring, [141]

— from mechanical wood pulp, faults of, [108]

—, hand-made, [144]

—, loading, [130]

—, loft-dried, [145]

— machine, [145]

— makers’ soap, [163]

— making and textiles, [3]

—, measuring strength, [193]

—, natural ash, [136]

—, printed, pulp from, [105]

—, sources of raw material, [1]

—, thickness, [153]

—, toned, [142]

— trade, statistics, [225]

— waste, pulp from, [104]

—, width, [152]

Paper-mulberry fibres, [39], [46], [54]

Partington’s bisulphite process, [72]

Patterns on paper, [145], [156]

Pearl hardening, [131]

— —, estimating, [203]

Pectic acid, [28]

Pecto-cellulose, [28]

— —, treating for paper, [63]

Phormium tenax fibre, [39], [44], [59]

Physical structure of fibres, [30]

Picking esparto, [90]

Pictet’s sulphurous acid process, [70]

Pigments, [141]

—, analysing, [209]

Pine, composition, [61]

—, pulp yield, [77]

Pine, white, for mechanical wood pulp, [108]

— wood fibre, [61]

Pineapple fibre, [44], [46]

Pink colours, [141]

Pinus fibre, [60]

Plant fibres, constitution, [1]

—, structural elements, [1]

— tissues mainly cellulose, [4]

Pochin’s aluminous cake, [140]

Poplar, composition, [61]

— fibre, [60]

Porion’s evaporator, [182]

Porter-Clark process for water, [214]

Potchers, felting caused in, [113]

— for bleaching pulp in, [111]

— for rags, [80]

Presse-pâte system for esparto, [96]

— — — for straw, [101]

Pressure for boiling straw, [100]

— in relation to soda, [64]

Prussian blue, [142]

Pulp, beating, [117]

—, bleaching, [110]

—, — refractory, [114]

—, colour of, produced by bisulphite, [77]

—, dimensions of fibre in, [119]

—, dry, preparing, [119]

—, duration of beating, [119]

—, freeing from bleach, [114]

—, improving colour, [114]

—, mixing, [119]

—, removing calcium hypochlorite from, [114], [127]

— saver, [114], [155]

— yield from straw, [99]

— — — woods, [77]

Purification of water, [211]

Rags, bleaching, [115]

—, boiled, draining, [84]

—, —, washing, [85]

—, boiling, [82]

—, — with lime, [83]

—, cutting, [81]

—, dusting, [82]

—, potchers, [89]

—, proportion of alkali, [83]

—, quantity of water for boiling, [84]

—, sorting, [80]

—, statistics, [221], [222]

—, time of boiling, [84]

—, treatment for paper, [79]

—, — in washer, [89]

—, willowing, [81]

Ramie fibres, dimensions, [39], [50]

Raw material for paper, [1]

Reagents for examining fibres, [36]

Recovered soda, analysing, [205]

— —, carbonising, [186]

— — causticising, [187]

— —, composition, [186]

Refractory pulps, bleaching, [114]

Repped paper, [171]

Resinate of alumina, [137]

Retree, [175]

Rhea fibre, [50]

Roeckner’s esparto boiler, [93]

— evaporator, [181]

— strainer, [150]

— water clarifier, [211]

Rosin, [137]

— soap, [137]

Rotary boilers unsuited to esparto, [90]

Rubbing test for paper, [197]

Rye straw, [98]

Salle, [175]

Salmon’s guillotine, [174]

Save-all, [154]

Schultze’s method of isolating cellulose from wood, [21]

Schurmann’s calender rolls, [171]

Schweizer’s reagent, [5]

Sections of fibres for examination, [38]

Seed hairs, [46]

— —, dimensions, [39]

Self-cleaning strainer, [149]

Settling ponds, [125]

Seventy per cent. white caustic, [178]

Sheave, causes of, [90]

Silk fibre, [31]

Sinclair’s esparto boiler, [94]

Single cylinder machines, [164]

— sheet cutter, [173]

Siphon washer for boiled rags, [87]

Site for mill, [210]

Sixty per cent. white caustic, [177]

Size, estimating amount of, [204]

—, — nature of, [203]

—, making with gelatine, [162]

Sizes of sheets, [175]

Sizing, [137]

Slicer, [151]

Smalts, [141]

Smell consumer, [183]

Smoothers, [158]

Smoothness, [159]

Soaking wood, [107]

Soap, analysing, [208]

— and gelatine, [163]

— for paper-makers, [163]

Soda, action on cellulose compared with bisulphite, [76]

— ash, analysing, [205]

— bicarbonate for accelerating action of bleaching powder, [112]

—, brands, [178]

— carbonate for sizing, [138]

—, commercial kinds, [177]

—, destructive action on cellulose, [64]

— drums, emptying, [179]

— for esparto, [89]

— for isolating cellulose, [63]

— in relation to pressure, [64]

— liquor from esparto, treatment of, [98]

— —, evaporating, [180], [231]

— —, removing sodium-sulphur compounds, [191]

—, prices, [179]

—, proportion for straw, [99]

—, recovered, analysing, [205]

— —, carbonising, [186]

— —, causticising, [187]

— —, composition, [186]

— recovery, [179]

— solutions, table of strengths, [109]

—, substances removed from esparto by, [97]

Sodium hypochlorite in bleaching, [113]

— hyposulphite, analysing, [208]

— — for neutralising bleaching powder, [127], [129]

— sulphide, oxidising, [191]

— sulphite, analysing, [208]

— — to neutralise bleaching powder, [128]

— -sulphur compounds in soda liquors, [191]

— thiosulphate, analysing, [208]

— thiosulphate for neutralising bleaching powder, [127], [129]

Soft water, objections to, [216]

Soluble sulphides for isolating cellulose, [67]

Solutions, alum, table of strengths, [143]

—, aniline colours, [37]

—, aniline sulphate, [37]

—, chlorine water, [37]

—, iodine, [36]

—, neutral mounting, [36]

Sorting, [175]

— rags, [80]

Specific gravity, Twaddle converted into, [109]

Spherical rag boiler, [82]

Stanhope purifier, [212], [214]

Starch and iodide paper, making, [130]

—, estimating, [203]

— paste for sizing, [138]

Starches, analysing, [208]

Starching blotting paper, [139]

— filter paper, [139]

Statistics, [221]

Steam and ligno-celluloses, [21]

Steaming wood, [107]

Stipa tenacissima fibre, [39], [55]

Strainers, [147]

—, closing plates, [150]

—, knotter, [151]

Straw, [46], [57]

—, amount of bleaching powder needed by, [112]

—, boiled, washing, [100]

—, boilers for, [99]

—, boiling, [100]

—, cellulose yield from, [98]

—, cleaning, [100]

—, composition, [59], [99]

—, cutting, [100]

—, dimensions of cells, [58]

—, general chemical characteristics, [58]

— in paper, detecting, [200], [201]

—, microscopic features, [57]

— paper, source of weakness, [103]

—, pressure in boiling, [100]

—, proportion of soda for, [99]

— pulp, ash, [136]

— —, chlorinating, [102]

— —, dimensions of fibre, [119]

— pulp, draining, [100]

— —, dry, preparing, [119]

— —, grinding, [101]

— —, yield, [99]

—, soda treatment, [98]

—, treating for paper, [63]

— washer, [101]

Strengths of alum solutions, table, [143]

— of paper, classification, [197]

— —, influence of glazing, [198]

— —, measuring, [193]

Sugar-cane fibre, [59]

Sulphide processes, economy of, [68]

— —, malodours of, [68]

Sulphite processes, objection to, [75]

Sulphur, action on cellulose, [130]

— and lime for neutralising bleaching powder, [129]

Sulphuric acid and cellulose, [12]

— — and ligno-cellulose, [22]

— — in bleaching pulps, [112]

Sulphurous acid for isolating cellulose, [64]

— — processes for wood, [70]

— — processes, objection to, [75]

Sunda, see Sunn hemp.

Sunn hemp, [44], [46], [50]

— —, characters, [50]

— —, composition, [50]

— —, general chemical characteristics, [50]

— —, micro-chemical reactions, [50]

— —, microscopic features, [50]

Synthesis of cellulose, [15]

Table of processes for resolving wood, [78]

— of strengths of alum solutions, [143]

— — — of caustic soda solutions, [109]

Teazing needles, [38]

Telegram paper, [104]

Test paper, making, [130]

Testing antichlor, [130]

— iodine solution, [36]

— paper, [193]

— — by rubbing, [197]

Textile trade waste, treating for paper, [62]

Thickness of paper, gauging, [153]

— — —, measuring, [198]

Thompson’s rag-bleaching process, [115]

Thune’s mechanical wood pulp, [107]

Tilghmann’s sulphurous acid process, [70]

Tilia grandifolia fibre, [39], [54]

Time of boiling rags, [84]

Toned paper, [142]

Trade statistics, [221]

Triacetyl cellulose, [8]

Tub sizing, [137]

— — on the machine, [160]

Twaddle degrees, converting into specific gravity, [109]

Ultramarine, [141]

Umpherstoil’s beater, [123]

Urtica dioica fibre, [52]

— heterophylla fibre, [44]

Vacuum strainer, [148]

Victory cutter, [174]

Vinegar plant forming cellulose, [16]

Vomiting boiler, [91]

Washing boiled esparto, [95]

— — rags, [85]

— — straw, [100]

— out bleaching liquor from half-stuff, [127]

Waste paper, pulp from, [104]

Water and ligno-cellulose, [21]

— at high temperature and cellulose, [15]

—, clarifier, [211]

—, clarifying, [125]

—, filter bags, [126]

— for beaters, [125]

—, lime salts, [212]

— marks, [145], [156]

—, Porter-Clark process, [214]

— proportion to pulp in beating, [118]

—, purification, [211]

—, quantity for boiling rags, [84]

— resolving wood by, [65]

—, settling ponds, [125]

—, soft, objections to, [216]

—, soluble impurities, [212]

Water supply, [210]

Web glazing, [167]

Webster on analysis of fibres, [42]

Weighing paper ash, [134]

Weight per ream, [176]

Weighting paper, [130]

Wet end of machine, [154]

— felt, [157]

Wheat straw, [98]

White fir fibre, [61]

— pine for mechanical wood pulp, [108]

Width of paper, gauging, [152]

Willesden canvas, [219]

— paper, [219]

— scrim, [219]

— welded goods, [220]

Willowing adansonia fibre, [103]

— jute, [103]

— Manilla hemp, [103]

— rags, [81]

Winding, [160]

Wire-cloth, [153]

— in rag washer, [87]

—, shifting, [156]

Wood, acid processes, [69]

—, amount of bleaching powder needed by, [112]

—, bisulphite processes, [71]

—, boiling with sulphites, [74]

—, chemical, in paper, detecting, [200]

—, cutting up for pulp, [105]

—, grinding, [105]

—, mechanical, in paper, detecting, [200], [201]

—, objection to acid in bleaching, [112]

— processes, table of, [78]

— pulps, [60]

— —, ash, [136]

— — beating, [117]

— —, dimensions of fibre, [119]

— —, dry, preparing, [119]

— — from aspen, [108]

— — from white pine, [108]

— —, mechanical, [105]

— —, —, quantitative estimation, [202]

— —, statistics, [224]

—, resolving by water, [65]

—, Schultze’s method of isolating cellulose from, [21]

—, soaking, [107]

— splitting machine, [74]

—, steaming, [107]

— suitable for Ekman’s process, [73]

—, sulphide treatment, [67]

—, sulphurous acid processes, [70]

—, treating for paper, [64]

Woods, pulp yield of, [77]

Wool fibre, character, [31]

Wove paper, [156]

Wrapping paper, [104]

Yankee machine, [164]

Yaryan evaporator, [232]

Young and Pettigrew’s acid process, [69]

Yucca gloriosa fibre, [44], [46]

Zinc chloride and cellulose, [13]

LONDON: PRINTED BY WM. CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE:

Original spelling and grammar have been generally retained, with some exceptions noted below. Original printed page numbers are shown like this: {52}. Footnotes have been relabeled 1–18, and moved from within paragraphs to nearby locations between paragraphs. The transcriber produced the cover image and hereby assigns it to the public domain. Original page images are available from archive.org—search for “gri_33125007981968”.

Some missing full stops have been inserted. Many ditto marks have been eliminated, replaced by repeated text. Enlarged curly brackets “}{”   employed to combine information in two or more lines or columns have been eliminated, by restructuring text if necessary. One such instance is the table on page [39]. The table on page [44] and some other large tables were moved from their original locations inside a paragraph of text to nearby locations between paragraphs. The page 44 table was also divided into two parts, after column six. Illustrations have also been moved from within paragraphs of text to nearby locations between paragraphs.