The American Nations, Vol. I. / Or, Outlines of a National History of the Ancient and Modern Nations of North and South America

by C. S. Rafinesque

Chapter I.

General Introduction.—Natural Regions of America.—Ancient and Modern Nations.—Historical Periods.

Since our Globe is better known, it is no longer divided into 4 Continents; but must be divided into 3 great parts of the world or Tholomeres, each containing 3 lesser divisions or Geotomes, viz:

I. Protholia or Tholarkon, the ancient world, containing, 1. Asia, 2. Africa, 3. Europe, which are continents.

II. Neotholia or Hesperia, the new world, containing, 1. Atalia or North America, 2. Columbia or South America, which are two continents ... and 3. the Antilles or West Indies, the Archipelagos to the East and North, Carib and Lucayes islands.

III. Oceania or Tholonesia, the Oceanic or Insular world, containing, 1. Australia, which is a continent, 2. Meganesia or the great Islands from Japan till Ceylan and Madagascar, 3. Polynesia, the small Eastern Islands. These two last form immense groups of archipelagos, or clustered islands.

Therefore the terrestrial world includes 6 continents, and 3 groups of archipelagos, forming 9 geotomes.

It is of Neotholia that I write the history, of this third of the world, named likewise [pg 014] America, or the two Americas; a double continent, crowned in the East and towards the two poles by archipelagos.

Such an extensive part of the world, reaching nearly to both poles, offers to our notice and researches a crowd of objects, nations and events. If our universal histories which are confined to a small part only of the old world, form already bulky collections; it would be equally so with America, if we had complete annals of it. But, notwithstanding the scanty materials which have reached us on its ancient history; the modern annals and the old traditions of the nations dwelling there, afford many facts: and many auxiliary means contribute to enlarge the previous history, in unfolding the origins and revolutions of the nations and empires of both Americas. Thus, we shall often have to make a choice or abridge these materials, particularly in these outlines of a general history.

Formerly, historians wrote chiefly chronicles of the empires, kingdoms and republics; which were often mere biographies of monarchs and chiefs, conquerors and tyrants. We begin now to think more of mankind and the nations. I shall follow this principle, and trace at last a national history of America; this subject is so new, that we have not even yet a good history of mankind in Europe, much less in Asia and Africa.

Having dwelt in this continent since 1802, [pg 015] having settled in it since 1815, and having travelled in it every year to study the monuments and productions thereof: it was since 1818 that I began to conceive the possibility of raising the veil that was thrown over the annals of this third of the world. I have visited the public libraries of Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New-York, Boston, Albany, Lexington, &c. to consult all the historical works on America, and every other part of the world. I have read nearly all the travels in America and other distant countries. In the Ebeling library deposited in that of Cambridge University near Boston, I have found many ancient works on America, often unique in the United States, and very rare even in Europe. There is but a small number of rare works, which I have not yet been able to see; I shall give a list of them, in order that it may be ascertained whether they contain facts that have escaped me. My researches upon the languages and monuments of America, will compensate this unavoidable neglect, since they exceed whatever had been undertaken of the kind. I have thus endeavored to collect and compare all the facts relating to my subject.

I have not imitated, therefore, the lazy writers, who have pretended to give us histories of America, and have commonly produced mere sketches of it, full of neglects and defects. Such were Robertson, Holmes, Touron, Herrera, &c., with a crowd [pg 016] of imitators and compilers, which confine themselves to some years, or a single region, or the mere first Spanish invasions. They have, however, acquired some reputation either by style or manner; but they have degraded history, by giving sketches instead of it. We must except Herrera, who does not shine by the style; but is at least a faithful annalist of the Spanish deeds and colonies during 62 years, from 1492 till 1552. But Robertson, although praised for his style, is only his unfaithful and imperfect imitator, and the obvious slanderer of the American nations.

A complete criticism of the writers on America, would be desirable; but cannot enter into the plan of these historical outlines; although it may find a place in ulterior illustrations. It will be sufficient now to indicate that the best works, or those which furnish the greatest number of historical materials, are the old writers and travellers, since the modern historians and travellers (except Humboldt and a few more) appear to forget whatever has already been written on America.

The historian of such an extensive continent, should not be a mere annalist; but he ought to know well all the comparative sciences, sisters of history, such as chronology, geography, biography, archeology, ethnography, philology, &c. He ought also to be a philosopher and a philanthropist, to know the natural sciences which [pg 017] become connected with history by civilization, agriculture, and geology; he ought, above all, to be impartial and a good critic, in order to discard national prejudices, and avoid the blunders of credulity or imposture. What historian has ever united such acquirements? I have tried to acquire them: Have I succeeded? I offer my writings as the answer.

My method has been to make copious extracts of all the authors that I read. These materials already form a collection of over one hundred books of 6000 pages on the history of the earth and mankind: whereof I avail myself for all my historical works. I have formed besides another collection of iconographic illustrations, maps, plans, monuments, views, portraits, alphabets, symbols, implements, costumes, &c.; which may serve for proofs and atlas of these works, published or manuscript. This tellurian iconography, chiefly American, consists already in ten great books or portfolios; having little hope to be enabled to publish them, I wish they might be deposited in a great public library, where they might be consulted.

Instead of beginning this history of the Americans by generalities, I should wish to conclude the work by such results; but it may frequently be needful to deviate from this plan, and present results as they happen to arise from the facts and events.

The different parts of the Western Hemisphere [pg 018] are often distantly remote, and insulated, or little connected in their historical relations. Austral America and Boreal America have for instance hardly any historical connection: they are as widely separated as China and Europe; but all the central parts of America are intimately connected, above all the mountain regions from Mexico to Chili, which offer the same relation of civilization, languages and annalogies, as the Hindu-European regions and nations.

The Neotholian Hemisphere contains many distinct regions; but the natural or physical regions are not always identic with the historical regions. The isthmus of Panama or valley of Choco does not divide the nation as it does the two continents of America: and many groups of nations are intermingled throughout. The group of ancient Aruac nations extended from near Florida through the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil to Tucuman and Magellania. The elder group of Tala or atlantic nations could be traced from the Ohio to Mexico, Guatimala and South America in the west.

Notwithstanding this fact, it is useful to keep in mind the great natural regions of America, so as to trace through them the vicissitudes of mankind in ancient and modern times. Thus we find six such regions in North America, and six in South America, with 3 in the Antilles.

1. Boreal region, or region of the lakes, [pg 019] stretching across North America, from the streight of Behring and peninsula Alaska in the west, to Labrador, Canada and Nova Scotia in the east. It is distinguished by a rocky soil, many large lakes and millions of small ones, surrounded near the pole and on either side by groups of islands. Its southern limits are undefined, but Lake Erie forms one of them.

2. The Californian or Oregon region, stretching from north to south along the Pacific Ocean from Fuca Strait to Mexico and Guatimala. It is a region of plains and hills.

3. The Mexican region or central mountains and table lands from the sources of the Missouri to Lake Nicaragua, distinguished by volcanoes, a dry lofty soil, &c.

4. The Missouri region, extending in vast grassy plains from latitude 50 to the Gulf of Mexico.

5. The Alleghany region, stretching in woody hills and mountains from Maine to Alabama and Illinois. The Ozark mountains and the whole of New England appear detached portions of it.

6. The Literal Atlantic region, stretching from Long Island to Florida, Mexico, Yucatan and Honduras, forming a long but narrow region of level plains, sands and marshes, skirted by sandy shores and islands.

The Antilles or West Indies, are all islands; divided into 3 very natural groups.

1. The large and hilly Islands of Jamaica, Cuba, Hayti, Boriquen.

2. The Lucayes or Bahama Islands north of them, low and chiefly of coral formations.

3. The Carib Islands east and south, commonly volcanic.

The regions of South America are 1. That of the Andes or high volcanic mountains extending from Santa Marta to the Island of Chiloé, stretching branches east as far as Cumana, and east of Peru. The hills of Panama from Nicaragua to Choco, are a detached part of it, probably once an island of the size of Cuba. Also the Magellanic or Austral region, including the hills and islands south of Chili, all detached from the Andes, with the archipelagos of Chiloé, Chonos, Fuego, Austral, Falkland, &c. often volcanic.

2. The Atacama region, or lowlands along the Pacific Ocean from the valleys of Darien and Choco to Chili, distinguished by sterility.

3. The Pampas or region of unwooded plains east of the Andes from the strait of Magellan to Paraguay and Chaco.

4. The region of Brazil, distinguished by fertile hills, mountains and valleys, forming a vast group of high lands connected to the Andes by an isthmus.

5. The region of Guyana or Parima, of shady hills perfectly insulated (once a large island) by the plains of the Maranon and Oronoc.

6. The vast equinoctical plains of Oronoc and Maranon, surrounding the mountains of Parima: where deserts, swamps and forests are mixed.

These 15 regions are quite natural, distinguished by peculiar physical, and geological features; but they do not coincide with the ethnological regions, where the American tribes have spread and intermixed. It would be difficult to state here even the most striking of these last. It will be the aim of this work to seek for them, and ascertain their limits; which have often varied anciently: while in modern times the European colonies and states have invaded them in all directions.

Meantime the population of both Americas, must be distinguished in ancient and modern.

In proceeding from the known to the unknown: we ascertain that a multitude of nations have come to America since 1492, as colonists or visitors. The principal were

1. Spanish: who have colonized or conquered from New Mexico to Chili, and from Florida to Buenos Ayres. But they came not alone, and have brought along with them as auxiliaries. 1. Italians, 2. Flemish, 3. Biscayans, 4. Canarians, &c., while as slaves 5. Moors of Mauritania, and 6. Many African-negro nations.

2. Portugueze: who have colonized the whole of Brazil, and brought there besides many Negro nations, some Moors, Gypsies, Chinese, &c.

3. English: Who have colonized the whole eastern side of North America, Jamaica and other islands of Antilles, with parts of Yucatan, Honduras, Guyana, &c. But they have brought with them, the Welsh, Scotch, Irish, Germans, Jews and many African nations.

4. French: They colonized Canada, Lousiana, Hayti, several Carib islands, Cayenne in Guyana, &c., and although conquered in North America and Hayti, their language remains. They brought along the Provençals, Bretons, Basks, speaking distinct languages, with several African nations.

5. Scandinavians: Who partly settled in North America since the 10th century, did laterly colonize again Groenland, with Delaware and some Carib Islands. They include the Norwegians, Danes and Swedes.

6. Dutch-Hollanders: Sent colonies to New-York, Surinam, Curazao, &c. brought Gypsies, Germans and Africans.

7. Russians: Have invaded and partly settled the north west shores and islands of North America; bringing there Cozacs, Calmucs, and several other Tartarian subjects.

8. Besides these, several other nations have laterly visited America, or settled therein, blending with the above. All the nations of Europe, even Hungarians, Polanders, Greeks and Turks, have been brought there. Pirates of all nations, even [pg 023] Algerines, have wandered to America. Almost all the nations of Africa have been led there in slavery. Asia has sent Jews, Hindus, Gypsies or Zinganis, Chinese and Tartars: while Oceania has sent Malays, Madagascars, Hawayans, &c.

This well known fact of the various and anomalous modern population of both Americas within 3 or 4 centuries, will greatly help us to form a more correct estimate of the ancient population and colonization of such vast countries during many thousand years previous to 1492.

It is not yet suitable to give here a complete list of all the ancient nations, who have, or may have colonized the Western hemisphere: this can only be done afterwards as a result of the instituted enquiries on the subject. Meantime I state as highly probable, even by mere analogy, that all the nearest nations of the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans, in the Eastern hemisphere, have either visited or colonized the Americas; particularly from the east, the bold navigators, Atlantes, Pelagians, Phenicians, Lybyans, Etruscans, &c., and from the west the ancient tribes of Tartars and Chinese, the Polynesians, &c. We shall throughout these historical outlines find ample proofs of this fact, exploding the erroneous belief that a single nation could have populated the whole of the Western Hemisphere. It shall appear also that these early settlers must have brought along many foreign tribes, as auxiliaries, vassals or slaves.

In my Atlantic Journal of 1832 will be found a kind of classification of the ancient nations of both Americas, divided into 25 groups, 14 in North, 11 in South America. But this first attempt, cannot be perfect: it requires a close study of all the American languages, before we can ascertain correctly all their mutual affinities, and reduce each to the real parent group. Meantime this attempt, and the further correction of it in this work, will become very useful historical bases. I give therefore the list of the 25 groups, with a well known nation and language as the type, to which others may be gradually reduced.

In North America 1. Uski or Innuit, type the Esquimaux.

2. Ongwi, type the Hurons and Iroquois.

3. Linni, type the Lanapi or Delawares.

4. Wacash, type the Chopunish, and Nutkas.

5. Skerreh, type the Panis.

6. Nachez, type the Cados and Chetimachas.

7. Capaha, types the Washas or Ozages, and Dacotas or Sioux.

8. Chactah, types the Chactahs and Chicasas.

9. Otali, Tzulukis or Cherokis.

10. Atalan, type the Tarascas.

11. Otomi, type the Otomis.

12. Anahuac, type the Aztecas.

13. Maya, types the Mayas and Huaztecas.

14. Chontal, type the Tzendals and Chols.

In South America 15. Aruac, types the Haytians, Aruacs, Taos, &c.

16. Calina, types the Caribs and Tamanacs.

17. Puris, type the Maypuris.

18. Yarura, types the Guaraos and Betoys.

19. Cuna, type the Dariens.

20. Mayna, type the Panos.

21. Maca, type the Muyzcas.

22. Guarani, type the Tupis and Omaguas.

23. Mara, type the Quichuas and Aymaras.

24. Lulé, types the Vilelas and Mbayas.

25. Chili, type the Chilians.

Notwithstanding the condensed form of these outlines, the ample materials to be brought together, will extend them perhaps beyond the desirable limits. In order to lessen this difficulty and yet omit nothing that is new or important, the work will be divided into three series.

1st. The annals of South America, where many generalities will be introduced, that need not be repeated in the 2d series, on the annals of North America.

3d. Illustrations of these outlines, where will be thrown and collected all the collateral proofs, documents, vocabularies of languages, manuscript facts and events, [pg 026] essential quotations, and results of all the investigations.

The Peruvian and Austral regions of South America will first be introduced, because of paramount importance. By the Peruvian region is meant the whole western part of South America from the equator to the southern tropic, and by Austral America, the whole of it from that tropic to the Magellanic Islands. The gulf of Rio Plata and the river Paraguay, appear to divide these regions from Brazil, both physically and historically. Austral America includes the countries and nations of Chili, Tucuman, Chaco, Buenos Ayres, Patagonia and Magellania; but it shall often be needful to mention their neighbors, with whom they are more or less related, and even distant nations that are not always strangers to them.

The ancient nations of Austral America are the least known on many accounts, and those on whom most fables and systems have been based. It is there that dwell the Patagons, who have been believed a peculiar species of giants; and those tribes of Chaco, &c., which Azara has deemed peculiar men, with languages without affinities with any other: which will easily be proved to be quite false.

If America has had an aboriginal population, or Autoctons, men born from the soil: it is there they should be found, driven to the south and those remote climes [pg 027] by the ancient colonies of other nations; and they should offer features, complexions, languages and manners totally different from any other. If all the Americans derive from ancient colonies, it is still there that ought to be found the primitive tribes, driven on by the subsequent colonies and tribes. Therefore these Austral tribes are exceedingly interesting to study as the most ancient relics of American population.

But the origin of the American nations and tribes are only to be considered as a branch of their history. The accounts of their dispersion and successive settlements, the history of the events which they have remembered and transmitted to us by traditions or annals, those of the empires which have been founded there in ancient and modern times, the study of their civilization and ethnography ... offer surely much more interest, and a wide field of historical facts or enquiries.

It appears that as soon as we speak of the ancient Americans, we ought to cut the gordian knot, and say whence they came. I do not wish to explain beforehand, all my views on this subject. I wish to reserve them for the results of the enquiries to be pursued in this work. Yet to satisfy the general curiosity expressed on the subject, I may venture to say that I have not yet found in either Americas, any people or tribe totally different from any [pg 028] other, or without philological affinities: nor with features, complexions, and other physical characters quite peculiar. But instead, all the ancient American tribes have numerous affinities between each other, and with races of mankind in the Eastern hemisphere: both physical and moral, as well as philological.

If the American nations sprung from ancient colonies; it is among the primitive population of the earth, that their parents must be sought and found: since America appears to have been partly peopled even before the flood. Therefore the systems which would derive them all from the Phenicians, Jews, Chinese, Tartars of later ages, or any single people whatever, must be absurd and improbable: since traces of many ancient nations are found in this western hemisphere.

It has always appeared probable to me that most of the ancient colonies to America, must have come there by the nearest and most direct way; the same nearly followed again by Columbus in 1492: either from north Africa or south Europe. This becomes still more probable if there were formerly a land or large islands in the Atlantic Ocean; of which we have ample proofs. Nearly all the nations from Florida and Mexico to Chili, appear to have reached America from the east, through the tropical islands or Antilles; but the [pg 029] ancestors of these emigrating tribes, dwelt once in Asia, which appears the cradle of mankind.

However, many nations of Brazil and Guyana are more recent and of African origin; while nearly all those of North America appear to have reached America by the opposite direction of Eastern Asia, through Alaska or the Streight of Behring, once an Isthmus. Therefore the Colonial tribes came here from the East, and the North West. It is more doubtful that any came from the West or Polynesia.

What is now needful, is to trace these colonies, their travels, epochas, and ascertain the nations which they have produced in both Americas. This I will endeavour to do, without being prevented by the difficulties of the task. I shall always seek to ascertain the true names of each nation or tribe: which have often been disguised under a crowd of nicknames and erroneous orthographies. These names when thus restored will often furnish an original key, to supply the scarcely known languages, or lost traditions.

The Brigands who brought desolation over both Americas during two centuries, and the careless travellers who visited them in search of wealth, took little notice of the languages and traditions of their victims or foes. Thus we have to regret the loss of many valuable materials, merely indicated. However, a few enlightened visitors, [pg 030] and the missionaries have preserved some of them. The first attempt of the kind was the outlines of historical songs and traditions of Hayti, collected as early as 1498 by friar Roman, at the request of Columbus; printed by his son, and by Barcias. Yet this valuable document has escaped the notice of nearly all the writers on America! evident proof of utter carelessness or neglect.

Piedrahita has given some of the historical traditions of the Muyzcas; Juarros the annals of the Toltecas of Guatimala; Ayeta and Herrera those of the Mayas of Yucatan. Yet they have been neglected by our historians. They have merely dwelt, and even sparingly, on the annals of Mexico and Peru. We have besides fragments on the early history of the Ongwis, Linapis, Apalachis, Caribs, Dariens, and a few more; but we have to regret the loss of the written annals of many civilized nations, the Tarascas, Huaztecas, Zapotecas, Nicaraguas, Chontals, Chilians, Panos, &c. Some of which may perhaps be yet partly recovered, as those of the Ongwis and Linapis have lately been.

It is only since last age that the study of comparative philology has begun to be appreciated: and quite recently that languages have been made subservient to historical researches. Pigafetta had, however, set the examples as early as 1520 to collect American vocabularies, of which he gave [pg 031] two, the Brazilian and Patagon: which are quite important, since by them we trace both tribes seen by him to the Aruac race. For lack of frequent ancient vocabularies, we must often grope in the dark; but I do not despair to be able to restore many lost languages, by fragments escaped from the common ruin. I have already succeeded with the Taino of Hayti, the Cahiri of Trinidad, Talega and Apalachi of North America, the Chontal of central America, the Colla of Peru, and the Séké of old Chili; whereby I shall draw some happy conclusions.

Asia has been the country of fables, Africa of monsters, and America of systems, for those who prefer opinions to reality. The systems and hypotheses of philosophy or ignorance upon America, exceed all the Asiatic fables. A crowd of prejudices, false opinions and fantastic theories, have been asserted on this hemisphere, often mistaking a small part of it for the whole. Some have declared all the Americans a red, beardless, naked and barbarous race, or a peculiar species of men. Others that they came out of the ground or from the clouds, or over a bridge, instead of boats or on the ice. Others that they are all Jews, or Malays, or Tartars. Lastly, even that Eden was here and Noah built the ark in America! All these systems and fifty more brought forth by ignorance or pride, are based upon the most absurd proofs, or [pg 032] a few insulated facts: while there are historical facts easy to prove that are neglected or forgotten.

Thus it is a positive fact that many ancient nations of the east, such as the Lybians, Moors, Etruscans, Phenicians, Hindus, &c. had heard of America, or knew nearly as much of it, as we did of Australia and Polynesia 100 years ago. It is as certain that America contained anciently, as even now, a crowd of distinct nations and tribes; some of which were quite civilized, perhaps as much as the Spaniards led by Columbus; the others more barbarous, but not entirely savage. There were but few, if any, real savages in America, dwelling in woods without social ties; most of them were wandering tribes of fishermen or hunters.

There were formerly in America as now, tribes of all complexions, as elsewhere: yellowish, olive, coppery, tawny, redened, brown, incarnate or white, and even blackened or negro-like. Tall and dwarfish men from 8 to 4 feet in size, called giants and pygmies—men with various frames, skulls, and features, of all the sorts found in the eastern hemisphere.

The Americans had long before Columbus, large cities; built of stones, bricks or wood, with walls, ditches, temples, palaces. Some of which were of immense size and population. One of them Otolum near Palenque was 28 miles long, equal to [pg 033] Thebes, Babylon and Kinoj in size and monuments. Nearly all the ancient sciences and useful primitive arts were known in America, as well as commerce and navigation, symbolic and alphabetic writing, nearly all the Asiatic religions, &c. The most civilized nations had even colleges and universities, canals and paved roads, splendid temples and monuments, &c.

It would be tedious to designate all what has not been told, or been very unworthily noticed, upon America. The whole of these outlines shall be comments upon the forgotten facts relating to this third of the world. Such as are found recorded by chance in one or few authors, scattered in 1000 volumes, unsought and unnoticed by nearly all the other writers.

Respecting the chronology of the American annals, it is rather obscure and doubtful; but perhaps not more so than that of all ancient nations except the Chinese. It frequently ascends as far as the floods and even the creation. The most ancient dates are found among the Tols or Toltecas and Atlantes, Mexicans or Aztecas, the Muyzcas, Ongwis, Linapis, &c. But it is difficult to make those dates agree among themselves, or with our oriental dates. However the American annals may be divided into great periods, which can be admitted as certain, and resting points of history at peculiar epochas.

Here is their tabular view.

I. Ancient history, ending with Columbus in 1492.

1. Antidiluvian period, beginning at the creation, about 6690 years before Columbus according to the Tols, and ending with the last cataclysm of Peleg, about 3788 years before Columbus.

2. Doubtful period, from that epocha till the reform of Tol astronomy, 1612 years before Columbus. This includes several subordinate periods and epochas.

About 3100 years before Columbus, settlement of the Linapis in Shinaki or Firland or Oregon in N. W. America.

About 2500 years before Columbus, wars of the Towancas and Ongwis, the hero Yatatan, &c. in North America.

3. Certain period, from 1612 till Columbus' arrival in 1492. Many lesser periods and epochas.

442, after Christ—End of the Tollan kingdom.

492,—Beginning of Atotarho dynasty of Ongwis.

558,—Empire of Tol-tecas begins in Anahuac, and lasts till 942.

840,—Beginning of the wars of Zipanas and Caris in South Peru.

947,—Foundation of the kingdom of Mayapan by Cuculcan in Yucatan.

985,—Discovery of America by the Norwegians.

1000,—Conquest of Quito by the Skiris.

1105,—Beginning of the Incas empire.

1322,—Foundation of Tenuchtitlan or Mexico.

II. Modern history, from 1492 till our days.

1. Colonial Period, from 1492 till 1776.

2. Independent Period, beginning in 1776. The foundation of the empire of Brazil in 1822 may begin a subordinate period.

Each age may bear the name of a wise legislator or eminent personage: the ages of modern history are those of 1. Columbus, 2. Las-Casas, 3. William Penn, 4. Washington, 5. Bolivar.