The Boy's Own Book of Indoor Games and Recreations / A Popular Encyclopædia for Boys

by C. Stansfeld Hicks; John Nevil Maskelyne; Gordon Stables

CHAPTER XX.—THE MAGIC-LANTERN, AND ALL ABOUT IT.

I.—Pleasant Hours with the Magic-Lantern.—By A. A. Wood, F.C.S.

1.—ALL ABOUT LANTERNS.

The magic-lantern is of very respectable antiquity. As early as the seventeenth century a Jesuit, named Kircher, had constructed one. He was not unwilling to excite the fears of the persons who witnessed the effects of his apparatus, and not only did he apply the word magic to his lantern, but when exhibiting it he had the darkened room divided into two compartments, in one of which was the lantern, and in the other the spectators. These gazed on the shadowy forms before them in amazement, and were unable to perceive how they were produced.

Kircher’s lantern consisted of a large wooden box, with a door on one side and an opening in front for the reception of a tube containing a magnifying lens. The light was obtained by means of an oil lamp with a polished brass reflector, the smoke of the lamp being conveyed away by a chimney in the top. The pictures exhibited were painted on long strips of glass, and were passed through a groove in the front tube, and although the effects thus obtained must have been of the most imperfect character, yet from their novelty they produced a most profound impression.

There are reasons to believe that the lantern was in use even earlier than the seventeenth century, and that the mysterious figures which the old astrologers produced in the smoke of their mystic fires were produced in the same way as Kircher’s, the smoke forming the screen. With this brief description of the history of the magic-lantern, we must be content. Our main business is to describe the construction and use of the lantern as manufactured now.

2.—VARIOUS KINDS OF LANTERNS.

The magic-lantern, as now constructed, consists of a box or chamber of japanned tin-plate, with a lamp for the source of light, a large lens to converge the light, and a smaller lens to magnify the object to be exhibited. The large lens is called the condenser, and the smaller lens is designated the objective. Between the condenser and the objective, immediately in front of the former, an aperture is provided for the reception of the painted slide. This aperture is called the slide-holder. We may separate magic-lanterns into three great divisions, the distinguishing difference between them being the kind of light employed. In the first division the lamps are constructed to burn colza or sperm oil; in the second division a mineral oil (purified paraffin) takes the place of the sperm or colza oil; and in the third division some form of lime-light is employed. We will describe these varieties in order.

First, then, let us deal with the lanterns illuminated by a lamp burning colza or sperm oil. Of these lanterns there are two subdivisions, those whose condensing lenses are of a size suitable for exhibiting the standard slides (slides three and a quarter inches in diameter), called phantasmagoria lanterns, and lanterns of a smaller size, which may be described as toys, and for which but a very limited variety of slides can be obtained. We give an illustration ([Fig. 1]) of one of these small lanterns, from which it will be seen that the lamp is of very simple construction, and provided with a silvered reflector behind it. Magic-lanterns, the condensing lenses of which are from one and a half inch to two and a half inches in diameter, are calculated to produce discs of light from four feet to six feet in diameter. Such discs are usually obtained when the distance of the lantern from the screen is about one-third more than the desired diameter of the disc. Lanterns such as these are described, according to their size, by number, and include all from Nos. 1 to 6.

Fig. 1.

In preparing this lantern for use the lenses should be carefully cleaned with a soft cloth, and the lamp freshly trimmed. The cotton must be long enough to reach to the bottom of the lamp, and be freshly and evenly cut; the oil should be supplied to the lamp an hour before it is lighted, that the wick may become thoroughly saturated. The best oil to use is sperm oil in which camphor has been dissolved in the proportion of one ounce to one pint of oil. The object of the addition of the camphor is to increase the brilliancy of the light. If, however, sperm oil cannot be obtained, colza oil may be substituted, and this should be treated with camphor in the same way.

The room in which the exhibition is to take place should be entirely darkened, and a clean white screen or sheet hung up for the reception of the magnified pictures. The lantern is to be placed in front of the screen, upon a table or other suitable support, and at such a distance as will produce the required disc or circle of light.

The painted slide must be placed in the slide-holder upside down, and if the representation on the screen be not clear and sharp, the objective (the front lens) must be moved towards or away from the slide-holder, until the picture is well defined, or, as it is called, properly focused.

3.—THE PHANTASMAGORIA LANTERN.

We have given a description of the simpler forms of the magic-lantern burning sperm or colza oil with a solid wick, and now we will explain the construction of that known as the phantasmagoria lantern. The term ‘phantasmagoria’ was originally applied to a lantern exhibition, in which the figures on the screen varied suddenly in their dimensions, seeming at one time as though they were rushing on to the spectators, and at another vanishing away in the distance. At present this name is used as the distinctive title of a particular form of magic-lantern, otherwise known as the ‘No. 8.’

In the phantasmagoria lantern the condenser consists of two lenses (usually a meniscus convex and a double convex) fitted into a brass cell and placed in the lantern with the concave side towards the lamp. The objective is also formed of two lenses fitted into a brass tube with a diaphragm in front. This tube slides into a brass jacket fixed in front of the lantern, and the lenses are placed in the tube with their convex sides towards the condenser.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

The lamp employed for illuminating the phantasmagoria lantern is the Argand fountain lamp, with hollow cylindrical wick ([Fig. 2]). In preparing this lamp for use, a new cotton should be fitted to it. To do this with facility the cotton should be put on to a taper-stick ([Fig. 3]), on to the base of which the brass wick-holder fits, the cotton can then be pushed on to the wick-holder without any difficulty. The wick-holder and wick are to be replaced in the lamp and screwed down to the bottom, and if there be any superfluous wick standing above the top of the lamp it is to be ignited and allowed to burn itself out. (This must be done before any oil is supplied to the lamp.) The wick being ready, the cistern at the back of the lamp is to be lifted out and inverted, and then filled with oil. The plug or valve which serves to close the orifice in the cistern through which the oil has been poured is to be pulled up and so held while the cistern is replaced in the lamp. The oil should be supplied to the lamp about half an hour before it is required for use, in order that the wick may be thoroughly saturated, and camphorated sperm oil is decidedly the best oil to be used in this lamp. When the lamp is first lighted the wick should be raised but a short distance above the tube that supports it, and after it is ignited all round, the lamp should be replaced in the lantern, the glass chimney (which is screwed on to a metal oxydator and gallery) placed on it, and the wick turned up as high as it will admit of without smoking. The lantern is then to be placed on the stand or table in front of the screen, at a distance of from nine to twelve feet off, a disc of six feet in diameter being obtained at the former distance, and eight feet diameter at the latter. After the lamp has been placed in the sliding tray provided for it at the bottom of the lantern, its position has to be adjusted. If the lamp be too near to the condenser, the centre of the disc will be darkened; if too far off, the margin of the disc will be obscured; the proper distance will be easily ascertained when the lamp is lighted and placed in the lantern.

4.—THE EUPHANERON LANTERN.

The phantasmagoria lantern continued for some years to maintain its character as the best lamp-lit lantern ever made. And this might have still continued, but for the discovery that the art of photography could produce transparent slides suitable for the magic-lantern.

The necessity for a superior illuminating arrangement was at once experienced, and attention was given to the lamps that were fed with the mineral oils, instead of animal or vegetable oils. Although various forms of mineral oil lamps were tried, they were not successful, until Mr. L. Marcy, of Philadelphia, conceived the idea of constructing a lantern sufficiently small to make one chamber serve as the lantern and the lamp. He used for his wick two flat cottons parallel to one another, with the tops almost in contact, and the edges of the wicks turned towards the condenser. This lamp he charged with mineral oil, and thus obtained an instrument surpassing anything of the kind previously constructed.

Since then many improvements have been made, each modification receiving a distinctive title. We have thus ‘The Silber Light,’ ‘The Triplexicon,’ ‘The Duplexicon,’ ‘The Refulgent,’ ‘The Euphaneron.’ It will not be necessary to explain each of them in detail, as they have many things in common, and it will suffice to describe ‘The Euphaneron,’ which is perhaps the best of the series.

The Euphaneron (that which shows well) differs in several important particulars from the phantasmagoria lantern. The body of the lantern (which serves to support the condenser and objective) is made of Russian plate iron, which neither rusts nor blisters. The condenser consists of two 4-in. lenses of the form we have already described, and the objective is a double achromatic combination. The outer lens of the objective, designated the ‘front lens,’ is in form a plano-convex lens. The inner lens, called the ‘back lens,’ consists of two separate lenses, one an unequi-convex lens, the other a meniscus-concave lens. This combination gives a beautifully-defined picture on the screen, with flatness of field and abundance of light.

The lamp is entirely distinct from the body, and will burn equally well either outside or inside the body of the lantern, the chimney being attached to the lamp and not to the body. The cistern of the lamp forms its base, and is filled with mineral oil. From the top of the cistern rise two rectangular tubes, sloping together as they rise; these contain the two wicks. The wicks do not stand parallel to each other, but form an acute angle with the base of the triangle towards the condenser, and this is the peculiarity that brings about the equal illumination of the disc. The wicks are raised and depressed by the action of two milled heads at the back of the lamp. Now, instead of surrounding the flames with a glass chimney, as is ordinarily the case, a metal combustion chamber is provided, and to this chamber the chimney is attached. The ends of the chamber are open, the front being closed by a glass plate, the back by a silvered reflector. Attempts have recently been made to add a third wick to this lamp, but they have not been very successful, the lantern being rendered very much hotter without affording a corresponding gain in brilliancy. The Euphaneron exhibits photographic slides in a most satisfactory manner on a disc 10 ft. in diameter. The disc is uniformly illuminated, and the picture well in focus all over the screen.

Directions for trimming the Euphaneron Lamp.—Remove the lamp from the lantern, carefully clean the front glass and the mirror. Turn back the combustion-chamber on its hinge, so as to expose the tops of the wicks. These should be cut quite smooth and straight, without any projecting filaments. The cistern should be nearly filled with the best mineral oil, and the wicks turned up a little way and lit. The combustion chamber should be now restored to its place, the lamp put into the lantern, and the chimney fixed on. The wicks should then be gradually raised as high as they will bear without smoking. In putting the oil into the lamp care should be taken not to spill any on the outside. The general directions already given for showing the pictures are then to be followed in using the Euphaneron.

5.—DISSOLVING VIEWS.

The lanterns that we have hitherto been describing have been those capable of exhibiting single pictures only; we have now to explain the production of dissolving views.

Fig. 4.

Dissolving views, as the name implies, is an exhibition of pictures in which there is a fading away of one and the appearance of another, as though the one picture grew out of the wreck of the other. To produce these results, two lanterns of similar size are required (see [Fig. 4]), together with some contrivance for diminishing the light forming the first picture, until that has quite faded away, simultaneously allowing that forming the second picture to fall upon the screen until this one has arrived at its complete intensity, and the first picture is no longer seen. This latter contrivance is known as the mechanical dissolver, and it consists of two serrated plates attached to a movable bar fixed to the front edge of the base upon which the lanterns are supported. These plates come immediately in front of the lanterns, and require to be so arranged that when the whole of the light from one lantern is seen on the screen, the light from the other is entirely stopped. By means of a rack and pinion motion, the plates can be moved simultaneously, and each lantern alternately closed and opened.

In order to make the discs of light produced by the two lanterns coincident, the lanterns must be slightly inclined towards each other.

There is another class of results obtained by the dissolving-views apparatus, which may be designated as the production of ‘composite’ pictures or ‘effects,’ as, for instance, a soldier is seen asleep by the watch-fire, he dreams, and the subjects of his dream appear, one after the other, on the screen, and then fade away. A ship is seen at sea; day turns into night; the moon rises; a violent storm comes on; the lightning flashes, and the ship is set on fire. A water-mill is shown with the stream running and the wheel revolving; a swan appears on the water and moves across the stream; night comes on, the wheel ceases to revolve, and the windows of the house are lit up; clouds flit across the sky; the moon rises—day returns, but the scene has changed to winter; the water is frozen, and its surface occupied by skaters, and a fall of snow takes place.

To produce such effects as these, both lanterns are required to be open at the same time, and the serrated plates forming the dissolver must be so contrived that the one which would otherwise obscure the fixed picture is turned aside, or removed altogether, and therefore only one lantern is alternately opened and closed. The foundation picture (the sleeping soldier, for example) is placed in the lantern that remains constantly open, and to this the addition (the dream) are made with the second lantern.

For dissolving views proper, only two lanterns are required, and for the simpler form of effects two lanterns suffice; but for very complex pictures, three, four, or even five lanterns are required. Any two lanterns of equal size and power may be employed to produce dissolving views; but the phantasmagoria lantern is the smallest that can be advantageously used.

6.—THE LIME-LIGHT.

We have described the typical oil-lit lanterns, and now we shall explain the production of the lime-light in its two principal modifications of the ‘oxycalcium’ and the ‘oxyhydrogen’ light. The lime-light is obtained by intensely heating a piece of lime, in which condition it emits a most brilliant light. The lime is generally used in the form of a cylinder seven-eighths of an inch diameter and one and a quarter inch long, having a hole along its centre from end to end; these cylinders are sold in tin boxes, each containing twelve.

When a box containing lime cylinders has been opened, it is best to transfer the cylinders to a wide-mouth stoppered bottle, and keep the same in a dry place, as moisture causes the lime to crumble to dust. As the lime is only required to furnish some solid material capable of being rendered incandescent, many other substances can be used for this purpose—the best substitute, if lime cannot be obtained, being chalk.

The oxycalcium light requires for its production a large loose flame, a jet of oxygen gas, and a cylinder of lime. The two instruments now to be described—one known as the oxycalcium jet and the other as the oxycalcium lamp—fully realise these conditions, and although accomplishing the purpose in somewhat different ways, each form of instrument possesses some special advantage.

Fig. 5.

The oxycalcium lamp is represented at [Fig. 5], and it consists of a vessel with an aperture in its base, is provided with a valve to close the same when needed, and is capable of holding about a half-pint of spirits of wine. This is called the cistern, and it is placed valve downwards into a second or outer cylinder rather deeper than itself. This operation opens the valve of the cistern, and allows a sufficiency of spirit to flow out so as to fill the space between the bottom of the cistern and the bottom of the outer cylinder. From this outer cylinder proceeds a long horizontal tube, terminating in a small chamber that holds the wick, and it is here that the lamp is lighted.

Behind the wick is a steel pin for holding the cylinder of lime, and in front of the wick is the small end of a bent tube (marked o o), carrying the oxygen gas. This oxygen gas tube passes along the under side of the tube connecting the outer cylinder with the wick chamber, and extending some little distance behind the outer cylinder, there terminates in a tap. This tap is to be connected with the bag containing the oxygen gas by means of a flexible pipe.

In arranging the oxycalcium lamp for use the cistern should be filled with spirits of wine, and the wick cut off smooth. The lime cylinder is to be placed on the support, and the tap o connected with the bag containing the oxygen gas.

A weight equal to about 40 lb. or 50 lb. is to be placed on the bag, and the apparatus is ready for use. The lamp is to be lighted at the wick and the gas admitted by gradually turning the tap at the end of the tube o; the tap attached to the bag having been previously turned fully on. The oxygen gas now issues from the point of the tube in front of the flame and forces the flame against the lime, producing thus the oxycalcium light.

The quantity of gas admitted requires to be regulated to the size of the lamp flame, for if the gas be in excess, the lime will be cooled down and the light diminished. A similar loss of light will result from having too little gas; so that some attention will be required to enable the operator to adjust the apparatus satisfactorily.

The wick should be carefully put into the wick-holder in straight lengths, not twisted together, and not too tightly packed. A slight separation should be made in the top of the wick to allow the stream of gas to pass freely. The point of the jet should be about one-tenth of an inch below the top of the wick, and should not project into the wick. The wick should be kept up close to the point of the jet, and not be allowed to bend towards the lime cylinder.

The spirit to be used with the oxycalcium lamp is to be alcohol or the best methylated spirit; paraffin spirit will not do. It is best to renew the wick each time the lamp is used.

Fig. 6.

It is now necessary to describe the other form of oxycalcium light—the oxycalcium jet.

The oxycalcium jet is shown at [Fig. 6], and it will be seen that the cistern and wick-holder required by the oxycalcium lamp are both dispensed with. There are, instead, two horizontal tubes lying side by side, each having a stopcock at one end, the other end of each tube being turned up, one—the hydrogen tube—at right angles and inserted into the stem of a sort of oblique T-shaped tube. The end of the other horizontal tube—the oxygen tube—is bent into a bow form, so that it may pass through the crosspiece of the oblique T-shaped tube before mentioned. The stopcock of the oxygen tube is to be connected with the bag containing the oxygen gas, and the stopcock of the hydrogen tube is to be attached by a flexible tube to any of the gas-fittings in the room where the apparatus is to be used. By this arrangement a stream of ordinary hydrogen or street gas will pass through the hydrogen tube into the oblique T-shaped tube, and will issue out at its open end, where it is to be lighted. This flame, by the action of the stream of oxygen issuing from the end of the oxygen tube, will be forced against the lime cylinder, and produce, as in the former case, the oxycalcium light. The same attention to the adjustment of the quantity of oxygen gas to the size of the hydrogen flame that was necessary for the oxycalcium lamp is equally needed with the oxycalcium jet, and by means of the two taps this can be managed with the greatest facility. It is usual to drill a hole through the flat part of the key of the oxygen stopcock, so that it may be readily distinguished. It sometimes occurs that the gas-fittings from whence the supply of hydrogen is to be obtained have immovable nipples. In this case it will be found advantageous to connect, by means of a T-piece, two or even more of the nipples with the tube that is to convey the hydrogen to the jet; closing, of course, those that are not thus used.

It is obvious that in using the oxycalcium jet the operator is dependent for his flame upon a supply of the ordinary hydrogen or street gas, and therefore this modification of the oxycalcium apparatus cannot be employed in any place unprovided with the means of obtaining the same. The oxycalcium lamp, on the other hand, as it carries with it the means of producing the required flame, can be used anywhere. The light obtained by the oxycalcium arrangement, although not equal to the oxyhydrogen light, is admirably adapted for exhibitions on a moderate scale, and it requires only one gas-bag.

In both of the oxycalcium arrangements the lime cylinder does not need any alteration of position while in use. The proper distance between the oxygen jet and the surface of the lime varies from one-eighth of an inch to one-quarter of an inch.

7.—OXYHYDROGEN JET.

Having explained the oxycalcium lamp and jet, we have now to describe the oxyhydrogen jet, by which the brightest form of lime-light is produced. The oxyhydrogen jet differs from those previously described in one important particular, viz. that the two gases are mingled together as gases before being ignited. Like the oxycalcium jet, it consists of two tubes lying side by side (see [Fig. 7]), having a tap at one end of each. The ends of these tubes are inserted into the base of a small chamber, from which proceeds a single curved tube, which rises up in front of the holder upon which the lime cylinder is placed. The end of this tube is contracted by a platinum point screwed into it, and this forms the jet. Two bags are required for this light, one containing hydrogen gas (common house gas will do), and the other bag filled with oxygen gas, and these bags are to be connected with the taps at the end of the jet by means of flexible tubes in the usual manner. The two gases are thus kept separate until they enter the chamber at the base of the curved pipe. This chamber is provided with layers of wire gauze, so as to facilitate the admixture of the gases, which eventually issue thoroughly mingled from the point of the jet. In this condition they are capable of being ignited, and as soon as the flame impinges on the lime cylinder a most intense light results.

Fig. 7.

The lime-holder of the oxyhydrogen jet is made to slide, so as to be capable of being moved towards or away from the point of the jet. This adjustment is necessary to rectify any slight difference in the diameter of the lime cylinders, for, in order to obtain the full amount of light, the face of the lime cylinder requires to be brought as close to the point of the jet as it can be without being in contact with it. In addition to this movement, the stem on which the lime cylinder is supported is also made to revolve, in order to provide a fresh surface of lime to be presented to the action of the flame. The heating power of the flame of the oxyhydrogen gases is so intense that a cavity is soon burnt in the face of the lime cylinder, and if this part of the cylinder were to be allowed to continue opposite to the jet, the light would be greatly diminished and the general effect marred. To provide against this, the stem of the lime-holder is made with a screw at its lower end, this screw working in a corresponding socket, so that by turning the stem of the lime-holder round on its axis a second motion in a perpendicular direction is also given to it. By this means the face of the lime passes before the point of the jet in a spiral direction, and consequently the same part of the lime cylinder is not brought a second time under the action of the flame. In order to facilitate the rotation of the lime cylinder, the screw is sometimes set in motion by clockwork; but the better plan is to turn the lime by means of a horizontal rod with bevel wheels.

Having described the various forms of apparatus constructed for producing the lime-light by means of oxygen and hydrogen gases, a few general observations will not be out of place. It should be borne in mind that oxygen gas is a supporter of combustion, and is neither explosive nor inflammable. The hydrogen gas will ignite, but will only do so in the presence of oxygen. With the oxycalcium lamp and oxycalcium jet, there is complete safety from explosion. In the oxyhydrogen jet there is also complete safety if care is taken not to fill up the hydrogen-bag with oxygen, and vice versâ. Such an admixture is explosive, and nothing can prevent an explosion when a light is applied. The contents of one bag will not pass into the other during an exhibition, and even if the weights were to fall off the bags, the only effect would be to put the light out.

8.—THE GAS AND GAS-BAGS.

Several times in describing the production of the lime-light reference has been made to gas-bags; and now we will explain more fully what they are. Gas-bags are usually made of stout india-rubber cloth, wedge-shaped, their length being half as much again as their width, and the base usually equal to their width. A tap is provided and attached to the apex of the bag, so as to allow of the admission and expulsion of the gas. In order to press out the gas from a filled bag, two boards are used. These boards are of similar dimensions to the bag, and being hinged together along one edge, can be separated to allow of the introduction of the inflated gas-bag. A projecting ledge is fixed on the outside of the upper board, about eight inches from its end, against which the weight required to press out the gas can rest. The weights should be square-shaped, and the most convenient size is a half-hundredweight. When two bags are required (as in the case of the oxyhydrogen light), the double pressure-board ([Fig. 8]) should be employed; the two bags are then placed one above the other, and one set of weights only is required instead of two sets. The weight required to be used with a bag of eight feet capacity when employed for the oxycalcium lamp or jet should be about 56 lbs., but at least three times that amount should be placed on the bags for the production of the oxyhydrogen light.

Fig. 8.

It is not desirable to keep either oxygen or hydrogen gas in india-rubber bags for any length of time. Oxygen can be kept for a few days or a week, but any hydrogen gas that may remain in the bag after an exhibition should be expelled before the bag is refilled. When two bags are in use, each should be marked; O on the oxygen bag, and H on the hydrogen bag; and the bags should not be used interchangeably; i.e., hydrogen gas should not be put into an oxygen bag, nor oxygen into the hydrogen bag. In arranging the apparatus, place the pressure boards and bags where they will not be meddled with. Let the weights be securely placed on the pressure boards, so that they may not slide or roll off during the exhibition. Do not on any account allow any one to stand upon or press the boards with his foot as a substitute for, or in addition to, the weights. The lime cylinder should be wiped clean from dust before it is put upon the holder, and it should be exposed to the flame of the lamp or simple hydrogen flame some minutes before the oxygen is turned on, so that it may not fracture when the light is being produced. When all arrangements are complete, the hydrogen should be turned on and lighted, and oxygen should be gradually turned on until the requisite degree of light is obtained. With the oxycalcium light some exhibitors use the compressed oxygen, the gas being compressed into an iron cylinder, and thus bags, boards, and weights are not needed. This arrangement has the advantage of portability, but the cylinders have to be filled by means of a steam pump—a thing not always to be obtained. When a cylinder is used it should be placed as close to the jet as possible, and the flow of gas must be regulated by the valve of the cylinder, and not by the tap of the jet.

9.—OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN.

The two gases, oxygen and hydrogen, required for the production of the lime-light need now some separate notice, as it often occurs that those who use these gases for dissolving-view exhibitions have to prepare the one—sometimes both—for themselves.

Oxygen gas is a simple elementary body, and is most extensively diffused throughout our earth. It is one of the constituents of the atmosphere surrounding our globe, and also of water, as well as of nearly all the substances known as acids. It has never yet been met in its separate or uncombined state, and therefore it can only be obtained by decomposing some substance of which it is a constituent.

The material most convenient for obtaining oxygen gas for lime-light purposes is chlorate of potassa. Two parts of this material (by weight) is mixed with one part of powered black oxide of manganese (this is known as ‘oxygen mixture’). The oxide of manganese does not supply any of the oxygen, but its presence facilitates the decomposition of the chlorate of potassa. The apparatus used for generating the gas is shown at [Fig. 9]. It consists of a copper or iron vessel (A), forming the retort or generator, a glass bottle-shaped vessel (B), which is the purifier, the two being connected together by a flexible tube. It will be seen that there are two tubes proceeding from the top of the purifier, one of which reaches nearly to the bottom of the vessel, and the other only just enters into the top. The former, or long tube, is the tube by which the purifier is attached to the retort; the latter, or short tube, is that which connects the purifier with the bag.

Fig. 9.

The method of charging the apparatus is as follows. Put into the retort about a pound and a half of oxygen mixture; pour into the purifier a sufficient quantity of water to about two-thirds fill it. Place the retort on a clear but not fierce fire, or over a gas furnace, and unite it to the long tube of the purifier (B). Attach the short pipe from the purifier to the gas-bag, and open all the taps, so that there may be a free passage-way from the retort to the bag. In a few minutes the gas will be given off, and will manifest itself by rising in bubbles through the water in the purifier. If a fierce fire be employed, the gas will be given off with undue rapidity and will pass through the purifier in volumes, so that it only becomes partially washed. A rapid but regular succession of gas is most to be desired. Should the gas come off with great violence, the retort should be lifted from the fire without disarranging the apparatus, and when the excessive rapidity is moderated it can be replaced. It is not, however, desirable to remove the retort from the fire if it can be avoided, for it not unfrequently happens that when the retort cools down, with only partially decomposed material in it, waste is the consequence, as it is not quite easy to re-establish the decomposing process. When the gas has entirely come off—which may be known by the cessation of the bubbles in the purifier—the top of the bag should be closed, the retort taken from the fire, detached from the purifier, and stood aside to cool. When cold, the residuum may be readily washed out with water, and when dry, the retort is ready for use again. The purifier should be emptied and washed out also. Always blow through the flexible tubes leading from the retort to the purifier, and wash out the metal tube of the retort in order to remove any solid material that may have been deposited there from the gas.

There has recently been manufactured a very neat oxygen gas-generator and gas-burner combined. The inventor proposes to prepare the oxygen in the room where the exhibition is taking place, and while using the lanterns. But as this apparatus would be very difficult to manipulate with, even by an experienced operator, it cannot be recommended for general use.

With regard to the hydrogen gas, it is always best to use the ordinary house gas, or if that cannot be obtained, to use the oxycalcium lamp, as the preparation of the pure hydrogen gas is troublesome, and not quite free from danger.

10.—SLIDE PAINTING, ETC.

The preparation of magic-lantern slides for home use (although, perhaps, not equalling the bought ones in quality) is a great source of pleasure, and a few hints on this part of our subject will probably be acceptable. A number of very amusing slides may be made by cutting grotesque or other figures out of black paper, and pasting them on glass slips, and after the pictures are dry, giving a little detail by slashing the picture with a sharp penknife in places where needed. If these figures be first drawn on tissue paper, coloured, and then cut out, the effect is still more pleasing. Or, if preferred, sheets of these figures in black can be bought, and thus the trouble of drawing them will be saved.

A very efficient set of astronomical slides may be constructed out of blackened cardboard with the aid of a few punches, some different-sized needles, and some of the coloured gelatine bon-bons. Having cut the card of a size suitable for the lantern, and marked on it a circle of the same diameter as the lantern condenser, prick holes in the card by aid of the needles, so as to represent the principal constellations and nebulæ, illustrations of which will be found in most works on astronomy. The relative positions of the planets may be shown by punching holes in the cardboard and covering them over with gelatine. When the holes are punched, the orbits may be traced by a very minute row of holes, pricked with a fine needle, the circles having first been marked with a pair of compasses.

For larger diagrams representing the planets singly, a sharp penknife and a pair of compasses would, combined with a steady hand, produce wonders.

The painting of magic-lantern slides on glass is a rather more difficult task, and some knowledge of the rules of the art of painting in general will be found most useful. The colours and brushes to be used are sold in boxes, and the number of colours can be readily increased by mixing. The following articles may be considered necessaries. Easel, glass to paint on, pencils, dabbers, etching-needles, fixing varnish, and the following colours: Blue, Nos. 1 and 2, crimson, amber, brown, mauve, black, light green, dark green, orange, purple, and scarlet. Having obtained these articles, proceed as follows. Make a drawing of the picture required, of the right size, on white paper, and place this under the glass upon which the picture is to be painted. The outline is then to be traced on the glass in Indian ink with a fine pen. This part of the work, however, can be dispensed with if the glasses be bought having pictures already outlined on them. If the subject of the picture be a landscape, the outlined glass is to be turned upside down, and the sky filled in first, commencing at the horizon with a pale tint, which is to be increased in density as the edge of the picture is approached. To remove any superfluous colour, a dabber is used.

When this colour has dried, the other parts of the picture are painted in succession with appropriate tints, warm tints being employed for the objects in the foreground, neutral or cool tints for the background.

This having been done, the picture has then to be coated with the fixing varnish, either using a brush or pouring it on as a photographer would do; or, when it has covered the surface, allowing it to run back into the bottle from one of the corners. The varnish is then allowed to dry, after which the picture is again to be examined, the shadows of the buildings and the trees are to be filled in, and the colour strengthened where the picture seems to need it. Snow and moonlight effects are produced chiefly by removing the colour in places by means of a knife and needle-point.

The rules given above apply also to the colouring of photographs for the magic lantern.

II. How to Make a Cheap Magic-Lantern.
By Frank Chasemore.

If you were to go to a shop to buy a lantern like the one I am going to describe, it would cost thirty-five shillings, but you will be able to make it for fourteen or fifteen. I will tell you what mine cost me, including the slides. The lantern cost me fifteen shillings.

	£	s.	d.
Lantern	0	15	0
Colours	0	10	6
Glass	0	5	0
Paper	0	1	0
Varnish	0	1	0
	£1	12	6

With these colours and glass I have painted 250 slides, which to buy would cost two shillings each, and the cost of lantern and 250 slides would thus be:—

	£	s.	d.
Lantern	1	16	0
250 slides at 2s.	25	0	0
	26	15	0
	1	12	6
	£25	2	6

making a clear saving of £25.

Besides this, you have the double pleasure of making the lantern and painting the slides, and showing it as your own work. The picture shown by this lantern will be nine or ten feet in diameter, and will be large enough to show full-sized slides if you should at any time buy any. If you do buy, I should recommend the uncoloured photographs (1s. 6d. each), to be got at all shops where they sell lanterns. By making two of these lanterns you can use them for dissolving views, which is by far the best way to exhibit the slides. Many brilliant effects can be obtained with two lanterns that it would be impossible to do with a single lantern. I should certainly advise you to try this. Both lanterns can be made at the same time; the directions for one will do for both. But we must get on with our description.

First of all get a carpenter to cut you a deal board, free of knots, six feet six inches long, nine inches wide, and half an inch thick. This must be planed smooth on both sides. If you have a plane, do this yourself. Now with a fine saw cut four pieces off the board, each twelve inches long, and two pieces nine inches long. These are to make the body of the lantern with. Take two of the long pieces and the two short pieces, and reduce the width to six inches. These will be the top, bottom, back, and front of the lantern. Now you must put the pieces together by dovetailing; or you had better get the carpenter to do this for you, as unless you are used to this work you would be sure to make a mess of it. Do not glue the pieces together yet. Take the piece of wood that is to serve for the top, and draw lines with a pencil from opposite corners, like [Fig. 1]. Now with a pair of compasses, open one inch and a half apart, put one point at the point where the two lines cross each other, and mark a circle with the other point. This circle must be cut out either with a keyhole saw or with a gouge, smoothing off with a rough file.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 2.

Now take the piece of wood that is to be used for the front of the lantern and draw a pencil line across it, two inches from the top end, and then cross the other part with pencil lines ([Fig. 2]), as you did the top, and with the compasses open an inch and three-quarters make a circle as before and cut it out. Now take the piece of wood to be used for the right side of the lantern and mark it thus ([Fig. 3]). Draw lines across each end two inches from the edges, and along the side one inch and a half from the edges. Cut out the middle portion evenly up to the lines. This will form the door, and if you have cut the piece out with a keyhole saw it will do to be fastened on with hinges. If not, you must make another piece for the door. Now, round the bottom of the two sides and back bore holes with a half-inch centrebit. These holes must be one inch and a half from the centre of the hole to the edge of the wood. Three in the back piece and four in each side will be enough. These holes are to supply air for the lamp. Now you will want some sheet tin to line the lantern with. This you must buy. Get two and a half sheets of thin, and two and a half of very stout. The thin will be threepence each, the stout sixpence each. Cut pieces from the thin tin to line the lantern with—two pieces eight inches by ten inches, two pieces five by eight, one piece five by ten, and one piece five by eleven. Punch holes all round each of these pieces. This can be done with the sharp end of a file. Put the tin in its place on the top, front, and right side, and mark on it, through the holes, their exact size, and cut the tin away a little larger than the holes. Now you can put the linings in their places and fasten on with small tacks. Those used by upholsterers are the best. The tin at sides, back, and front, is cut short, so as not to cover the holes at the bottom. The tin can be easily cut with a large pair of scissors. The door must be lined with tin. When all the parts are lined you can glue the joints and put the body together, fastening with small brads. This can now be put on one side to dry and set firm, as we shall next set to work to make the stage and nozzle.

Before you can do so you must get your lenses and reflector. These will cost you more than any other part of the lantern twice over. The lenses will be 10s. 6d., and the reflector 2s. Ask for, or write for, a pair of lenses for No. 6A lantern, three and a half inches, and a four-inch reflector. First of all we must set the lenses. Take the largest, and cut a strip of thin tin half an inch wide, and long enough to go right round the lens and lap an eighth of an inch. The best way to measure this is with a piece of paper, cut into a strip and passed round the lens, and cut to the exact length of the circumference of it. Place this paper on your tin and cut the latter an eighth of an inch longer than the paper. You must now solder the ends of this strip of tin together to make a ring. To do this you must have a soldering bit, and as this is always useful you had better buy one.

Take a small piece of clean tin, put on it two or three drops of chloride of zinc, and in this put a small piece of solder. Put the bit in the fire to get hot—but not red-hot. When hot, rub the point with a file till it is bright, and put it on the solder, which will immediately flow and cover the point of the bit. This is called tinning the bit, and must always be done when the bit gets red-hot, as that burns off the tinning.

Put your bit in the fire to get hot, and while it is there bring the ends of the tin strip together so that they lap an eighth of an inch. Dip a camel-hair brush in the liquid and rub the joint between the lapping and an eighth of an inch outside. Put a small piece of solder at the top of the joint. Now if the bit be hot enough put it on the solder, and, as soon as it has melted it, draw it slowly along the joint, and the solder will flow after it and make a firm joint. In making joints like this, the parts of the tin lapping must touch each other closely. When the joint is cold, take a small hammer and turn in one edge all round a sixteenth of an inch. This will be easily done by gently tapping the edge with the hammer over a piece of wood, such as a toothpowder-box or ribbon-roller. In doing this you must be careful not to put the band out of the round. When this is done, put the lens inside, resting on the turned-in part. Now get a piece of brass wire a sixteenth of an inch thick, and about a quarter of an inch less in length than the tin strip was, and bend it into a ring, but do not fasten the ends together. Put the ring inside the band against the lens, and it will spring against the sides and hold the lens firmly in its place. This lens, with its setting, is to be placed inside the lantern in the large hole in the front of it, with the lens towards the back of the lantern.

Now we must set the other lens. Take a piece of the thin tin two and a half inches wide, and long enough to go round the lens and lap an eighth of an inch. In cutting this you must be careful to keep the sides and angles square, or it will not be true when made into a tube. Now get a roller for silks about an inch and a half thick and roll the tin round it to make a tube by bringing the shortest edges together. Be careful to make the tube nice and round and smooth; lap the edges an eighth of an inch, and solder them together as you did the other tube. Turn in one edge all round a sixteenth of an inch, put the lens inside, resting on the turned-in part, and fix it with a wire ring. Now take a strip of tin an inch wide and long enough to go round this last tube and lap an eighth of an inch. Bring the edges together, lapping an eighth of an inch, and solder.

This is the tube to be fixed in the nozzle, for the front lens tube to slide in, to regulate the focus. Round this little tube, half an inch from the edge, mark a line.

	Fig. 5.
Fig. 4.	Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.	Fig. 9.

Now we will get on with the stage. For this you will use your stout tin. Take one of the plates and mark on it a piece five inches by eight, being very careful to make it quite square at the corners. Cut this piece of tin out. Now draw a line across each end at half an inch from the edge, and another line an inch and a half from the edge ([Fig. 4]). Cross the middle portion by lines drawn from opposite corners, and with your compasses mark a circle three inches and a half in diameter. Cut out this circular portion, being careful not to bend the plate; but if you do you must straighten it again with a piece of wood, bend the ends down along the inner line till they are at right angles with the other part of the plate ([Fig. 5]). Now bend the tin outwards along the other lines till it is at right angles to the other part ([Fig. 6]). Punch two holes about an eighth of an inch wide in each of the turned-out parts. These holes are to screw the stage to the lantern by. Next you must get two pieces of clock-spring about a quarter of an inch wide and four inches and seven-eighths long. Bend them into bows about an inch high, and turn the ends outwards a little ([Fig. 7]). Solder these into the inside of the stage by the middle at the top and bottom of the hole ([Fig. 8]). Cut another piece of tin seven inches and seven-eighths by seven inches and a quarter, and cut a circular hole in the middle four inches in diameter. Mark a line across each end an inch and an eighth from the edge, and bend the plate at right angles at each end. This is to make the spring clip to hold the slides; it is put inside the stage, resting on the springs, and with the turned-out parts outside ([Fig. 9]).

In cutting the tin for the next part, you must be careful to keep the sides and angles square; also in bending it into a tube and soldering it. Mark out on your tin plate (stout tin) a piece eleven and a quarter inches long and four and one-eighth inches wide, turn this into a tube by bringing the shortest edges together round a bottle, lap them a quarter of an inch, and solder the joint; now very carefully turn out one edge all round, one-eighth of an inch, being careful not to disturb the round. This can be done against the edge of a flat-iron by gently tapping with your small hammer. Cut out a circular piece of tin three inches and a half in diameter, and in the centre cut out a circular hole exactly the size of the small tube the lens-tube slides in; pass this tube half way through this hole, and solder it in, being careful that it is squarely in; now put this piece into the end of the large tube, not the turned-out end, so that the side that is soldered is inwards, and solder this on the inside of the tube. Next solder this tube, which is the nozzle of the lantern, on to the outside of the stage, being careful that the holes in the stage and tube correspond. You had better strengthen the stage by soldering corner pieces in where the turn-out parts are ([Fig. 10]). Now the stage and nozzle is ready to be screwed into its place on the front of the lantern, being careful that the centre of the holes are all in the same straight line; but before screwing it on, all the tin visible must be blackened with dull black paint, which I will tell you how to make at the end of this section. The inside of the lantern must also be painted with this black paint, as well as the inside of the front lens-tube. In this tube there must be what is called a diaphragm. To make this, take a piece of thin tin an inch and a quarter wide, and long enough to go round the inside of the lens-tube; solder the edges together, and close the end with a circular piece of tin with a circular hole in the middle of it a little less than half an inch in diameter. Blacken this and push it into the tube, so that the little hole is about half-way in. The lens-tube is to be pushed into the nozzle with the lens inside. To make the chimney, take a piece of tin six inches wide and nine inches and three-quarters long, bend it into a tube, and lap a full eighth of an inch; solder up the joint; then cut four notches in the top about three-quarters of an inch deep ([Fig. 11]).

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

Now mark on a piece of tin a circle four inches and a quarter radius, or eight and a half inches wide; cut this circle out. Now cut out a quarter of the circle ([Fig. 12]), bring the cut edges together, lap them a little, and solder the joint, so that it makes a small tin cone ([Fig. 13]). Put this on to the four points on the top of the chimney-tube, and solder those points into it securely, and your chimney will be finished and look like [Fig. 14]. This must be pushed into the hole at the top of the lantern.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

Now for the lamp, and your lantern will be finished. You had better make this, as it would cost you 10s. 6d. to buy, and you have nearly all the materials required. Cut a piece of stout tin nine inches and three quarters long and three inches and three quarters broad; make it into a tube by joining the short edges together, lapping them a little, about an eighth of an inch, and soldering the joint. For the bottom cut a piece of tin round, the exact size to fit tightly into the tube; in the middle of this cut a circular hole three-quarters of an inch in diameter, solder this in the lamp so that it is half an inch from the bottom end, and then cut the half-inch that projects like you did the top of the chimney. Now make a tube of tin to fit the hole in the bottom, and long enough to come level with the top of the lamp; solder this up, and into its place in the lamp ([Fig. 15]). Next you must get a short piece of brass curtain-rod that will just fit tightly over this last tube and be the same length. In this brass tube you must cut a spiral slot, running from top to bottom, and going once round. The slot is to be cut quite through the brass ([Fig. 16]). The best way to do this is to cut a piece of wood, about eight inches long, and thick enough to fit very tightly in the brass tube; then with a sharp file make your cut. The cut is to be about one-sixteenth of an inch wide. Now push this brass tube on to the tube in the lamp, and fix it by pressing the brass in a little.

The next thing to make is the wick-carrier. Make a short tube of tin three-fourteenths of an inch long, and to fit easily over the brass tube; round the bottom of this short tube put a band of stout tin one-fourth of an inch wide; through this band drill a hole one-sixteenth of an inch, and solder a sixteenth-of-an-inch wire through it, so that it projects one-eighth of an inch inwards, and one-eighth of an inch outwards. This little wick-carrier must be notched with a penknife ([Fig. 17]), so that it is covered with little points directed downwards; these points are to catch in the wick and hold it firmly.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.

If this wick-carrier is put on the brass tube in the lamp, with the inside point in the spiral slot, as it descends it will turn to the left, and as it is lifted up it will turn to the right; consequently if it is turned to the right or left, it will ascend or descend, according to the way it is turned. To turn this wick-carrier we must have the following contrivance: Cut out a circular piece of stout tin that will fit easily into the lamp, and in the centre cut out a circular hole that will allow the wick-carrier to pass easily through it. At one side of this circular hole cut a little slot one-eighth of an inch each way ([Fig. 18]). Next make a tube of tin that will fit inside this hole, and will let the carrier pass freely up and down inside, but the edges of the tin must not be joined, but be an eighth of an inch apart. Solder this tube in its place in the circular tin, projecting through about a quarter of an inch, and so that the opening down the side of the tube corresponds with the square slot in the top. Solder a band of tin one-eighth of an inch wide all round the bottom of this tube to keep it firm ([Fig. 19]). Punch a hole in the top about a quarter of an inch from the edge, and fix a one-sixteenth wire in it about half an inch long.

Fig. 20.

Put this tube over the brass tube, so that the slot at top corresponds with the top of the spiral slot. Put the wick-carrier in its place, with the inner point in the spiral, and the outer point in the slot in the tube; and by turning the top to right or left the wick-carrier will ascend or descend, and, when the wick is fixed to it, will raise or lower the wick. To turn this top something more is wanted—that is, a movable top to carry the lamp-glass; this can be made to turn the movable top to raise the wick-carrier. For this you must get a piece of sheet-brass or copper—brass will look best, but copper is easiest worked. Whichever you decide upon, it must be a circular piece three and a half inches in diameter, and less than one-sixteenth of an inch thick. This copper is to be worked into the shape of a felt hat, with a crown three-quarters of an inch high, and one and a half wide. To do this you must make a block of hard oak wood six inches square and three inches thick; cut a hole in the middle the shape and size of the crown of the hat; this is to be like half a ball ([Fig. 20]).

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

Now make another block two inches thick and six inches square, and bore a hole in each corner to screw the two blocks together by with four-inch screws. Make a hole right through the top block one inch and a half wide. Now make your copper red-hot and chill it in cold water—this will soften it; put it on the lower block with the centre of the copper exactly over the centre of the hole in the block, place the top block on the copper, and screw the two blocks together as tightly as you can. Now make a piece of oak three and a half inches long, and one inch and three-eighths thick, into a roller, and round one end. Put the rounded end in the hole, resting on the copper, and strike it repeatedly with a heavy hammer or mallet. This will drive the copper into the hollow in the bottom block. You must make the copper soft by making it red-hot repeatedly, and you will find that it will be easily worked into the hollow. As soon as it is forced quite into the hollow in the lower block you must unscrew the two blocks and finish the fitting by hammering with a round-faced hammer. Your copper will now be like [Fig. 21]. Now you must file off the top of the crown, so as to make a hole at the top three-quarters of an inch in diameter, like [Fig. 22].

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

Next you must cut the brim like [Fig. 23], making three projections three-eighths of an inch wide, and three-quarters of an inch long. Now one-sixteenth of an inch from the crown of the hat bore a hole one-sixteenth of an inch at the end of each projection. Bend the outer end of each projecting arm a little less than a quarter of an inch downwards, till it is at right angles to the other part. Make a ring of thin tin three-eighths of inch wide, and one inch and five-eighths in diameter; cut the bottom edge away, leaving three projecting points one-sixteenth of an inch wide and a quarter of an inch long, equidistant from each other, put these projections through the little holes round the crown of the hat, and bend them inwards underneath. This will hold the ring tightly in its place. Now put this hat on the top of the lamp, and mark on one of the arms the place where the iron wire in the movable lower top comes, and then bore in that arm a hole one-eighth of an inch in diameter, and put the top on, passing the upright wire through this hole. Your top will now be like [Fig. 24]. The ring is to hold the chimney, and should have four or five slits in it a quarter of an inch deep, to clip the glass.

Now solder a handle to your lamp. Make a ring of tin a quarter of an inch wide, and one inch and a quarter in diameter, and solder the two ends to the lamp.

Fig. 25.

On the other side you must make the loop to hold the reflector. Take a piece of tin one inch wide and three inches long, and bend the ends at right angles to the middle, each end to be three-quarters of an inch long. Solder these ends to the front of the lamp. On the front of this piece of tin solder another an inch and a quarter long and three-quarters of an inch wide, soldering only the ends. This will be the loop to slip the hook on the back of the reflector in, and will keep it in its place. Your lamp is now quite finished, and will be as represented in [Fig. 25]. In fastening on this slip care must be taken to put it in such a position that when the reflector is in its place the centre of the reflector will be one inch higher than the top of the lamp, that is, the cut crown of the hat.

When using the lantern the lamp must be placed under the chimney, and pieces of board put under it to bring the centre of the reflector opposite the centre of the lens.

Now put a wick in. These wicks are circular, and about three inches and a half long. When buying them, take your wick-carrier with you to get the right size. They should fit tightly over this. These wicks can be bought at the lantern-shops, and are one shilling or one-and-sixpence a dozen. Put oil in your lamp, about two-thirds full. Light your lamp and put it in the lantern. Put the chimney on, put the lenses in their proper places, and try the lantern. If it gives a clear, sharp disc on the wall your lantern is all right, and ready to show the slides. If the disc is cloudy or has dark patches, move the lamp about till you get it clear. Move the front lens till the end of the disc is sharp.

Fig. 26.

You can paint your lantern all over with black paint. Brunswick black is the best to do this with. It makes the tin parts look nice. If you prefer it, and I think it is far the best, you can make your lantern of mahogany instead of deal, and polish it, and blacken the tin parts only. Mahogany board can be got for this very little dearer than deal. If you were to solder a brass-wire ring round the outside of the edge of the tube that carries the front lens, it would make it stronger and easier to regulate the focus, besides giving it a more finished look. If the nozzle and focusing-tube were made altogether of this brass plate it would add to the finish.

III. How to Make the Slides for a Magic Lantern.

A magic lantern without slides is not of much use. These slides cost a good deal to buy, the price, ranging from two shillings to a guinea, being regulated by the time and skill expended in their production. In this section I will tell you how to make your own slides at a small outlay for materials. The time and skill you must supply yourselves.

The materials required are—a glass-cutter; some strips of patent plate-glass four inches wide—the glass of the thickness called eleven-ounce glass; thin black paper, crystal varnish, turpentine, tubes of water-colours, three or four sizes of sable-hair pencils; a good-sized camel-hair brush, with the hair cut straight off half-way down, for varnishing; some glue, two or three small dabbers made of fine linen or kid stuffed with wool, a palette, an easel, and a penknife.

The colours required are opaque black, warm brown, blue, dark green, yellow, and crimson. The palette can be made of a piece of glass six inches square, with a piece of white paper pasted on the back.

Fig. 1

The easel you can make for yourselves. [Fig. 1] will show how mine is made. A board twelve inches square and one inch thick forms the stand. To this, at about one inch from the front edge, is fastened by two hinges another smaller board, eight inches wide and eleven inches long from top to bottom, having a square hole six inches wide and nine inches long cut out of it, making it into a frame. This hole is filled with a plate of glass by glueing strips of wood all round inside the frame at the back for the glass to rest upon. The front surface of the glass must be flush with the front surface of the frame.

Up the front of both sides of the frame holes are bored about half an inch apart for the pegs in the shelf to fit into. This shelf is a piece of wood eight inches long and half an inch square. In the back of the shelf are fixed two iron pegs, which fit into the holes in the frame to keep the shelf in position. At each side of the frame is a wooden support screwed on to the outside by one end, so that it can be moved freely backwards or forwards, hinge fashion: the free end of each support fits into holes bored in the stand. By moving the supports backwards or forwards, and putting them in the holes in the stand, the easel can be lowered or raised at pleasure.

The upper surface of the stand is covered with white paper. You will require a hand-rest to keep the hand from touching the painting. This is made out of a piece of thin wood (cigar-box wood does nicely) eight inches long and one inch wide. To one side of this, at each end, glue a piece of the same wood one inch square, and in these pieces fix the iron pegs to fit into the holes in the frame of the easel.

When using the easel place it with its back to a window, or if you are painting by gas or lamp light place it so that there is a strong light on the white paper under the glass.

The glass to be painted is to be put on the glass of the easel resting on the shelf. When you have finished painting for the day you need not remove the picture from the easel if it is not finished, as by fixing the hand-rest over it and shutting down the easel you can cover the whole with a sheet of paper, and so protect it from dust. Now you have everything you want, and we will set to work at the painting.

First take your strips of glass, and with your glass-cutter cut them into pieces four inches square. Take one of these squares and well clean it on both sides. Put a little of each colour on your palette. Now place your glass over the design you wish to transfer to it, and very carefully go over the outline with your finest sable-hair pencil dipped into the opaque black moistened with a little water.

While this is drying mix in a small bottle some crystal varnish and turpentine in the proportion of one part varnish and two parts turpentine. When the outline is dry take it in your left hand, with the thumb on one edge and the fingers on the other. Dip the varnish brush into the varnish mixture, drain it partly on the mouth of the bottle, and carefully, with a light and free hand, go all over the glass, drawing the brush from top to bottom, beginning at the left-hand edge and working to the right.

Do not go over the varnish twice, or you may disturb the outline. Set the glass on one side to dry, but do not put it where it will get hot, or this may crack and streak the varnish.

While this is drying, take another glass, clean it, and trace outline of number two picture, varnish, and proceed with number three, and so on till you have six glasses outlined and varnished. It is better to have more than one picture to work upon at the same time; you do not then have to wait for the varnish to dry, as you can be colouring one while the other is drying.

When the varnish is dry, which will be in about a quarter of an hour, put one of the glasses, with the varnished side up, on to the easel, place the easel in a good light, and proceed to put in the colours. Put in the sky and background of the pictures first. The sky and all large surfaces must be put in as evenly as you can with the brush, and then you must go all over them with a fine dabber till you have got them perfectly even. In dabbing a surface such as a sky, do not mind dabbing the colour over other parts of the picture, as all the colour not wanted in it can be taken out with the moistened point of a brush before varnishing. When I paint my slides I sometimes purposely colour all over anything that projects into the sky, as I find I can get a more even surface by doing so.

When you have been all over the picture with the first coat of colour, varnish as before, and proceed with the second and third coats. You must be very careful in varnishing the colours, and not go over them twice. The colours are to be got at all artists’ colour shops. Ask for tubes of water-colours for glass-painting. Some of the larger firms also publish little books on glass-painting, in which you will find many useful hints.

When the colouring of the picture is finished, varnish it all over for the last time, and set on one side to dry. Now cut some squares out of your black paper the exact size of your glasses, and cut from the centre of each a circular hole three and a half inches in diameter; place one of these pieces on each of the varnished pictures (on the varnished side); take, and clean, six other glasses, and place one on each of the paper squares on the pictures; next fasten the two glasses together by glueing a narrow strip of paper all round the edges of each pair, and lapping on to each glass not more than one-eighth of an inch.

When they are quite dry your slides are ready for the lantern, and the pictures being inside between the two glasses, will be protected from injury from dust or scratches. In putting the slides into the lantern the painted glass should be nearest the light, if to be shown through a transparent screen; and the other glass nearest the light if to be shown on to a wall or opaque screen.

Fig. 2

These slides will be too small to use in the lantern by themselves, so you will have to make a wooden slider for them. This is made as in [Fig. 2].

Fig. 3

Take two pieces of board one-eighth of an inch thick, four and a half inches wide, and eight inches long, with a square hole cut in each three and three-quarter inches square. These boards make the back and front of the slider, and are joined together at the top and bottom by two narrow strips of wood eight inches long, a quarter of an inch wide, and one-eighth of an inch thick. This slider is pushed into the slide-stage of the lantern, and the glass slides pushed into it as in [Fig. 3].

The slider is rather smaller than the stage in the lantern, which allows of it being adjusted so that the centre of the picture is in a line with the centre of the lenses.

For making movable slides, such as slipping-slides, lever-slides, rack-slides, and chromatropes, you will require wooden frames.

To make these frames, get a carpenter to cut you some slips of pine or deal three or four feet long and half an inch square, with a groove running all along one side of each slip say one-eighth of an inch deep and one-sixteenth of an inch wide. Make your frames out of these slips of wood, seven inches long and four inches wide, outside measuring. Fit a glass in the groove like a slate is fitted in its frame.

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Make about a dozen of these frames, and set them on one side to dry. Now cut some strips of glass three inches wide and seven inches long, and cut off one corner of each, as in [Fig. 4], at any convenient angle, and then cut away the upper half of the front part of each frame flush with the glass, to allow the second glass to be pulled out about half an inch when put in position in the frame, as in [Fig. 5].

Fig. 6

Your frames are now ready to receive the design. Trace the design on the inside of the fixed glass with the effects; if it is to be a figure raising and lowering its arm, the figure must be drawn with three arms—viz., the arm that is not raised and the other arm in each position, one up and the other down, as in [Fig. 6]. The other glass has nothing on it but two black patches, one or the other of which covers one or the other of the arms as the glass is pulled out or pushed in.

In painting these slides, all the glass in the frame around the figures is to be blackened with the opaque black, so that all light is excluded except that which comes through the figures. When this slide is painted, varnish it and paste a narrow strip of paper on the top and bottom of the glass for the movable glass to slide on without scratching the picture.

The black patches on the movable glass are painted and varnished on the inside of the glass. To get these in the right place, place the glass in position over the picture, and when pushed in as far as it will go, mark with your black on the outside of the glass the outline of the arm that is to be covered in that position; then pull out the glass as far as it will go and mark in the same way the outline of the other arm; turn the glass over and fill in the outlines with opaque black, and on putting the glass in its place in the frame you will have a figure with its arms raised or lowered. Now put the glass in its place, and fix it there by pressing into the wood of the frame two small pins at the top and two at the bottom. In putting in these pins allow room for the glass to slide easily.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

The construction of lever slides is something like that of the slipping slides, except that the movable glass is circular, and the picture on the glass in the frame is painted circular and has a background. The movable glass has painted on it only the limb that is to be moved. You can get these circular glasses cut at a glazier’s; have them three inches in diameter. [Fig. 7] will explain how the two glasses are to be painted. By placing the movable glass over the fixed glass, and moving it partly round and back again, the two boys will appear to move up and down. Of course the point that the board hinges on must be in the centre of the picture. Before painting the picture, cut out a piece of thin board a quarter of an inch thick, three inches wide, and six inches long. Cut this in the shape of [Fig. 8] (the dark part represents the wood). Glue this wood on to the glass inside the frame, and cut away the front edge of the frame down to the glass.

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

Now you can paint your picture, and while that is drying take one of your circular glasses and fit a rim—made of thin brass plate, a sixteenth of an inch thick—to it. This rim is to fit the glass tightly, and is to be a quarter of an inch wide; the ends are to lap a little, and are to be soldered together. Now cut from the same brass plate a strip two and a half inches long and a quarter of an inch wide, and solder this on to the rim, as in [Fig. 9]. Fix the circular glass in this rim, and on the inside paint the board and children on it, put it in its place in the circular hollow in the frame, and fasten it in its place with small pins pressed into the wood and bent over the brass rim ([Fig. 10]). By raising or lowering the lever the board will rock up or down.

Rack slides are very like the last description of slide, but in these the movable glass is capable of being moved quite round by a rack-and-pinion work.

IV. Revolving Slides for the Magic-Lantern, without Rack-work.
By F. Chasemore.

In my last section on magic-lantern slides, I mentioned that, although the frames for rack-work slides could be purchased, they were expensive. I have since then thought that the old-fashioned way of turning the revolving part—viz., by pulley and band—would be easy for boys to make, and answer very well if the cord is kept tight. In this section I give instructions in making these frames.

Fig 1

Make the outside frames five inches wide and ten inches long, out of wood half an inch by three-eighths, put edgeways. Cut a piece of thin deal or mahogany three-eighths of an inch thick and five inches square, and glue this on one side of half the frame (as [Fig. 1]). Cover the other half with a piece of glass four and a half inches square, and fasten it there with strips of deal, making them flush with the board on the other half. Glue corner-pieces (as in [Fig. 4]) on the other side of the glass, turning the frame over.

Fig 2

Make the circular frames out of a wooden circular box—such as a tooth-powder box—about four inches in diameter. Take off the lid and cut away the rim that it fits on, and saw the box into rings about a quarter of an inch wide, marking the box first with a pencil, and cutting through the marks with a fine saw (as [Fig. 2]). Have your circular glasses cut the exact size of the inside of these rings. Fix the glass in each ring so that the wood projects a trifle beyond the glass on one side. With a three-cornered file cut a triangular groove all round each ring about one-sixteenth of an inch deep.

Fig 3

Fig 4

Fig 5

Make the small wheel out of a cotton-reel about an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter. Cut off the ends and cut the other part into slices a quarter of an inch wide, and cut a groove about an eighth of an inch deep all round each (as [Fig. 3]). On one side of each of these pieces fix a short wire about three-quarters of an inch long near the edge; this wire will serve as a handle to turn the wheel by. Fasten this small wheel to the board by a screw that fits easily into the hole in the centre, without too much play ([Fig. 4]). Put the circular glass and frame in its place and glue a piece of wood (A, [Fig. 4]), about two inches wide and a quarter of an inch thick, to the wooden half of frame. Get two small glass beads about a quarter of an inch long and an eighth of an inch wide. Put a wire about an inch long through each, and bend the wires as in [Fig. 5]. Sharpen the ends and press them into the edge of the wood (A, [Fig. 4], B B), so that the beads will turn easily without touching the wood. Cut away a semicircular portion of the end of the frame ([Fig. 4]) and fasten a small button made of brass plate in it, and fasten another button to the wood (A). These buttons will keep the circular frame in its place. Connect the two wheels with a piece of strong twine, not too thick, going round them both, and fasten the ends by lapping them and sewing them together. Now if you turn the small wheel the large circular frame will turn round in the same direction if your work is well done. The edge of the circular frame must not touch anything but the glass it rests on, the two beads, and the two buttons. The view is painted on the inside of the fixed glass, and the revolving portion is painted on the under side of the circular glass. In [Fig. 4] the mill and background are painted on the fixed glass, and the sails on the movable one.

Chromatropes can be made in the same way, except that the small wheel has two grooves in its edge, and the other part is made up of two revolving frames, which are turned in opposite directions by one cord passing round both and the small wheel. The lower frame rests on the square glass, and the other frame rests on the lower one. The cord is passed from the right-hand side of the lower groove in the small wheel up the right side of the lower frame, round the top and down the left side to the left side of the upper groove in small wheel, round the upper groove to right side up to the left side of upper frame, round the top down the right side of frame to left side of lower groove of small wheel, brought round, and the two ends joined. It will be seen that by putting the cord this way the two frames are turned in opposite directions, although the small wheel turns them both. Have the cord tight, and well rub all the parts that work together with blacklead.

In painting chromatropes, each glass is painted with the same pattern, and then they are placed face to face, and in turning make very elaborate and constantly-changing figures.

V. Screen Frame for the Magic-Lantern.
By Frank Chasemore.

Great inconvenience is often caused in fixing a screen in a room for the lantern, such as taking down pictures, etc.; and sometimes it is impossible to hang it without doing some damage to the walls and paint by driving nails and hooks. Even then the screen has to be put up in an inconvenient place.

By using the following contrivance all this will be avoided. The screen can be put in any part of a room most suitable for the show, and afterwards taken to pieces in a few minutes and packed away in a box thirty-six inches long and about eight inches deep and wide.

The frame, or stand, can be bought at the shops, but it is much cheaper to make your own.

The materials for this frame can be bought at a small outlay, and are—fifteen wooden rods three feet six inches long and about an inch and a quarter in diameter—the handles sold at the shops for fitting to hair broom-heads do very well indeed, and are not very dear; two pieces of wood six inches long, five inches wide, and one inch and a quarter thick; and, lastly, some stout tin plate.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

First of all, take the two wooden blocks and cut them the shape shown in [Fig. 1]; the width at top is three inches, and at the bottom five inches. Divide the top and bottom lines into two equal parts, and draw a line from top to bottom through the points of division. On this line mark a point an inch and a half from the top, and with this point as centre bore a hole right through the wood, which hole is to be just large enough for the wooden rods to fit tightly into. Draw a line across the face of the block half way down (as in [Fig. 2]). Along this line, and from each end of it, mark inwards a distance equal to the diameter of the wooden rods, and do the same along the bottom line (as in [Fig. 2]). Join these points as in the figure; cut out the middle portion, leaving the projections three inches long and an inch and a quarter square. These projections must be rounded by taking off the corners with a sharp chisel or knife. Trim them down till they are the same size as the rods.

Now you will want your fifteen wooden rods. See that they are all the same thickness. Cut off the ends of each, to make them quite square, and making the rods exactly three feet six inches long. From your tin plate cut fourteen pieces, each piece to be six inches long, and wide enough to go round the rods and to lap about a quarter of an inch. The width can be found by rolling paper round the rod and letting it lap a quarter of an inch, and then cutting it off. Place this paper on the tin and mark the width. The tin can be cut with a large pair of scissors. Now roll each piece of tin round the rods so as to form fourteen tubes. These tubes will now require to be soldered. You can get your tinman to do this for you, or you can do it yourself. If so, the following is the way to do it.

First of all, get some muriatic acid and some clean zinc cuttings. Put the zinc into a bottle and pour over it the acid, and set it on one side for a time till it has quite done effervescing; then add a little more zinc, and if it begins again wait a little longer and add more. Do this till it does not effervesce on putting new zinc into it, when it is ready for use. You must get some solder from the plumber’s, and if you have not a soldering-bit he will perhaps lend you one; but you can buy the bits now in many shops where they are sold on a card with some solder. The cost is from one shilling upwards.

The first thing to do is to ‘tin the bit’ (or cover the face and point with solder). This is done as follows. Place the bit in the fire to get hot, but not red. Take a clean piece of tin-plate and put on it a few drops of the zinc solution, and put a small piece of solder into it. When the bit is hot enough take it out of the fire, and with a coarse file clean the face and edges of it, and place it on the solder in the zinc solution on the piece of tin. In a few seconds the solder will melt and flow all over the point of the bit. This must be done to the bit every time it gets red-hot, as in that case the solder is burnt off.

Now put the bit back into the fire and take one of the tin tubes and first clean the surfaces that lap together by scraping them with a penknife. Rub each surface with the zinc solution and lap them together, and tie the tube round with string, to keep the edges in their places. Take the bit out of the fire when it is hot enough, and place it on the end of the stick of solder, which will be melted and stick to the bit. Place the bit on the top of the lapping edges, and in a few seconds the solder will flow from the bit between the surfaces to be joined, and by drawing the bit from one end to the other it will draw after it the solder and make a strong joint. If the bit did not at first carry enough solder to make the whole joint, more can be added by applying the stick of solder to the bit while it is on the joint. Solder the fourteen tubes, and clean off the joints by scraping and filing the superfluous solder off and polishing up with a piece of glass-paper. Clean the joint inside well with a piece of oiled rag to destroy the zinc solution left inside.

Now fit a tube on one end of each of fourteen of the wooden rods. The tube must be pushed on to the wood so that it is half way, or leaving an empty space of three inches. The tube can be fixed to the wood by two or three tacks driven through the tin. The fifteenth rod has no tube to it.

This is all there is to be made for the frame. In putting it together take the rod without a tube and two others, and join them together like a fishing rod, place each end of this compound rod into the hole in one of the blocks of wood, fit together the other rods into sets of three. There will be four of them. At one end of each set will be an empty tube, these are to be fitted on the pegs on the blocks at the ends of the other rod. The frame will now be composed of two uprights, each made up of two compound rods, and these support the cross rod or screen roller.

Fig. 3.

In the bottom rod of each set bore a hole with a gimlet, as in [Fig. 3], and get two pieces of iron wire about one-quarter of an inch in diameter and bend the ends at right angles to the other part, leaving this middle part about two feet long. These are to be fitted to the rods, one to each pair, by pushing the bent ends into the holes in the ends of the rods as in [Fig. 3]; they are to be fitted on the outside of the rods.

Fasten these two wires together by passing a cord round both and tying the ends together. Sometimes the weight of the screen will cause the roller it is hung on to ‘sag’ or drop in the middle. But by tightening the cord underneath, the lower ends of the uprights will be brought towards each other, and will raise the middle of the screen roller.

To make the screen you must get some linen. This can be bought ten feet wide. Get three and a half yards of it, and have it hemmed at the top and bottom.

The top hem must be large enough for the roller to pass tightly through. The screen will get more or less creased in packing, but will come all right on being wetted and hung on the roller.

This frame is calculated for a ten-foot screen, which will be found large enough for most rooms. But it can be made for a larger one by adding one or more rods to each of the sets. The linen for a larger screen must be joined, as it is not made more than ten feet wide. In joining linen for this purpose do not let the seam come across the middle, but add an equal piece at the top and bottom, which will leave the middle of the picture clear, and the line of the join will come among the dark features of the foreground, and will not be seen so much. The tin tubes had better be varnished over with Brunswick black, as they will look better and not be liable to rust. Varnish the iron wires also.

In packing up, the screen must not be rolled on the rods, but had better be folded up by itself in paper and placed in the bottom of the box, and then the rods put in afterwards. Otherwise the screen might have some patches of Brunswick black in the middle of it.

Fig. 4.

[Fig. 4] is a view of the screen and frame when put together.

VI. Magic-Lantern for Opaque Slides.
By W. J. Gordon.

A lantern to exhibit opaque slides or ordinary pictures on paper or cardboard is, if anything, easier to make than one of the usual type. It is nothing but a photographer’s camera with the action reversed. In the camera the large well-lighted object is focussed down by the lens into the miniature copy in the darkened box; in the lantern the miniature in the well-lighted box is focussed up into the enlarged copy in the darkened room.

The essentials are, a good lens, a good light, and a well-focussed, well-illuminated picture. Any ordinary box will do. Its shape and size are of little moment, but the box must be blacked inside and have the top replaced by or covered with tin or sheet-iron. Let it be, as we have to make one, say eighteen inches long and two feet high. The depth of the lantern depends on the focal length of the lens you have chosen for it. This lens can be either a plain magnifying-glass, such as is used in cheap lanterns of the common build, or it may be compound, of the sort used in portrait cameras. The compound lens will give the best results. Suppose we are dealing with a three-inch lens having a focal length of ten inches, our box should then be ten inches deep. Very much smaller boxes with less powerful lenses can of course be made, and they will act just as satisfactorily.

Fig. 1.

The top, as we have said, should be covered with tin, to prevent its catching fire, and it should be fitted with a chimney made by bending a sheet of tin and soldering its edges together. In order that a circle of light may not be thrown on to the ceiling, a cap must be fitted over the top so as to leave ample space for the passage of the heated air. In the front of the box a tube must be fitted, just large enough to hold another tube, in which the lens is held, and by this contrivance perfect adjustment of the focus is assured.

Arrange the interior as shown in the sketches, which are so numerous and self-explanatory that lengthened description is not required. The only peculiarity is in the back, which is so made to prevent a flood of light being thrown out behind each time a picture is changed. There are two doors to it, one being just a quarter the size of the other, and having a piece of wood of the same size fixed on at right angles of it, on the same principle as is seen in many mahogany birdcages where the inside flap of the seed or water-carrier just fills the hole made for the real door when the real door is open. The slide-carrier is marked A, and when the door is shut the marked side of the shade (B) fits close up against the side of the box. The lamp is placed as shown, and should be just far enough from the lens to thoroughly light up the picture without permitting itself to be seen. A paraffin lamp is the best, and it should if possible have a round argand wick; but a flat one will do fairly well. The round shape of the wick is suggested as giving in the majority of instances the most equable light. The bottom of the door should be cut away slightly or perforated, as in the sketch, so as to allow air to enter freely, as no lamp will burn without a draught.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

It is a good plan to try the chimney on the top before the top is fixed on, and then if the top is left a little larger all round than will be required it can be shifted about until the proper position of the lamp with regard to the lens and slides can be found by experiment, and all risk of failure avoided. When the correct distance is found the top should be screwed down and trimmed to shape. Inside the box, below the chimney, a ring or stop should be screwed to prevent the lamp slipping about in the event of the lantern receiving a sudden knock.

In another form of this lantern the back is in one piece, and the slides are introduced through a slit at the side, a plan, however, having a few disadvantages. The principle of the opaque-slide lantern is apparent at a glance, and once that is understood no difficulty should arise in devising many patterns of the instrument and utilising old materials for the purpose. Any pictures can be shown, coloured or uncoloured; even our own designs in this book can be thrown on the screen with good effect.

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CHAPTER XXI.—HOW TO MAKE AN APHENGESCOPE, OR APPARATUS FOR EXHIBITING PHOTOGRAPHS, OPAQUE PICTURES, AND LIVING INSECTS IN THE MAGIC-LANTERN.
By Frank Chasemore.

In the last chapter there is an illustrated [description] of a magic-lantern for opaque slides, and as I have for some time used a contrivance on the same principle for use with an ordinary lantern, the few words I have here to say may not prove uninteresting. Like the opaque lantern, this modification of it is very inexpensive.

The interest of a magic-lantern is greatly increased by its being made to show photographs of friends or public men, and also pictures or engravings, Christmas cards, etc. This can be done by the following simple contrivance, which will cost but a few pence. Indeed, the one I use cost me only threepence, and is made out of a cigar-box; but a better and stronger one can be made for less than a shilling. It consists of a five-sided box, with top and bottom, as seen in [Figs. 2], [3], and [6]. In two of the sides are circular holes, and one side is left open about two-thirds of its length, which opening is closed by a door or shutter revolving on a pivot at the top and bottom, to carry the photograph. This shutter is fitted with four small clips on each side for the purpose of securing the card in its place.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Now for the construction. Get some thin board—deal is very good for the purpose; it is to be a quarter of an inch thick—cut two pieces out of it for the top and bottom, the shape shown in [Fig. 1].

Fig. 4.

The dimensions of these pieces are as follows. The sides B and E four and a half inches long; the side A five and a quarter inches long; the other two sides are each to be three and three-quarter inches long. The angles where A joins B and E are each to be a right angle; so is the angle where C joins D. The two other angles are to be a hundred and thirty-five degrees each, as marked in [Fig. 1]. The sides of the box are to be eight inches long each, and are a little less in width than the edges of the top and bottom that correspond, so that when put together the outside of the box is flush with the top and bottom. The joints are to be glued together, and can be strengthened with pins driven in like small nails. The side E is not to be covered in all the way up, but only about two inches and a half from the bottom; but this depends upon the height that the nozzle of the lantern comes up this side when placed against it. [Fig. 2] shows the opening left. When the glue is quite dry unscrew the brass focussing-tube from the lantern and place the box with the side C resting against the nozzle of the lantern, and mark round the nozzle on the side. Find the centre of this circle, and through it draw a line right across the side C, parallel to the top and bottom, and continue this line across the side B in the same way, as seen in [Fig. 3]. Find the centre of these two lines, and with these two centres mark a circle on each of these two sides, the one in the side B to be of a size to fit the brass focussing-tube, and the one in the side C to be about three inches in diameter, or large enough to allow the nozzle of the lantern to fit into it as far as it will go without coming between the picture and the lens, as seen in [Fig. 4].

Fig. 5.

The remaining part to be made is the shutter to carry the photographs. This must be exactly the same size as the opening left in the side E, and is to be made out of the same quarter inch board. Let it be quite square at the sides and corners. The opening in the side E is to be equal in length to twice the distance of the centres of the holes in the sides B and C from the top edge of the sides where they join the top board. On each side of the shutter, in each corner, fasten a clip, as in [Fig. 5]. These clips can be made out of card or thin metal, cut in the shape shown, and fastened to the shutter with small screws or short pins. Mark the middle of the top and bottom edges of the shutter and place it in its place in the side E, and mark on the side the points where these marks come to. Take the shutter out again and bore a hole in the bottom edge of it about half an inch deep, and large enough for a stout pin to go into. In the lower part of the side E, and in the edge that the shutter will rest on, drive a stout pin in middle so as to form a pivot for the shutter, leaving out about a quarter of an inch, and cut off the head. Replace the shutter, fitting the pin into the hole bored for it, and drive a pin through the top board right into it, so as to form a second pivot. The shutter will revolve round these two pivots and expose the sides alternately to the lens. Fix two clips to the edge of the top board to keep the shutter in place while shut. Cover the whole of the box with unglazed black paper.

Fig. 6.

This simple little apparatus is all that is necessary to show any picture on the screen. To use it, first screw the tube carrying the focussing-tube into the hole cut for it in the side B, and push the nozzle of the lantern into the hole in the side C as far as it will go. Light the lantern and place the whole on the table so that the back of the lantern and the focussing-tube are directed to the screen, as seen in [Fig. 6]. Now place a photograph in the clips on one side of the shutter, and turn it round and put one in the clips on the other side. The photograph inside will be strongly illuminated by the light from the lantern, and an enlarged image of it will be projected by the lens on to the screen. The photographs placed on the shutter of the aphengescope must be, of course, upside down, as the lens will have the effect of inverting the pictures.

A strong light is required for this apparatus. The ordinary oil lamp will not show a bright picture at a distance of more than two or three feet. The ‘Triplexicon’ lamp, a lamp having three parallel wicks, burning paraffin oil, will give a good picture. But the best results are obtained from the oxycalcium and oxyhydrogen burners. These will distinctly show a large and brilliant picture, at a great distance from the lamp.

With this instrument, a watch placed on the shutter will show an enlarged image of itself, and the motion of the minute hand will be very distinctly seen. Anything that will go on the shutter will be shown on the screen. This adds greatly to the available articles to be used as slides.

Some of the most interesting slides are made by mounting entomological and botanical specimens on white cards, and putting the cards in the clips on the shutter, when enlarged images of the butterflies, moths, or beetles, etc., will be seen on the screen in all the glory of their natural colouring.

Fig. 7.

But the most interesting of all is the exhibition of living insects. This can be done in the following manner. Take out the shutter and lay it on the table: get a watch-glass, about two inches diameter, and deeply domed. Place this glass on the middle of the shutter, and with a lead pencil mark all round the glass. Remove the glass, and with a sharp knife cut into the wood of the shutter all round the pencil mark, cutting about one-eighth of an inch deep. Cut out all the wood inside this mark so as to form a hollow or well about two inches diameter and one-eighth of an inch deep, as [Fig. 7]. Cut the bottom of the well quite smooth, and line it with white paper.

Now get a piece of thin glass about the size of a photograph card, and thin enough to go under the clips on the shutter. Your shutter is now ready for the specimens. Replace the shutter and put a fly or other small insect into the well, and cover it with the flat glass, fastening it with the clips. Now turn on the light in the lantern, and focus the lens, and an enlarged image of the fly will be seen on the screen crawling about in a natural manner. For larger insects, such as a cockroach, wasp, etc., you must use the watch-glass to cover them instead of the flat glass. This can be fixed in its place by being pushed into the hollow or well, when the sides or walls will hold it. The two glasses are required for the reason that the insects ought not to have more room than will allow them to crawl about on the paper, as they would sometimes get on the glass, when they would be out of focus of the lens. But the glass must not be so close to them as to pinch them. You will have to keep your living specimens in boxes, with air-holes so as to have them ready for the exhibition, and will also require a small pair of forceps to handle them by, being very careful not to injure them.

On [page 247] I have told you how you can make a light and portable frame for the screen, at a small cost. Lads who have experimented in chemistry ought to be able to make the oxygen gas for the oxycalcium light.

Fig. 8.

This instrument, as here described, was intended for use only with the tin lanterns as sold in the shops, which all have tapering nozzles. It can, however, be used with the lantern described in my former article, but the stage of that lantern would require to be modified in the manner shown in [Fig. 8].

Unsolder the large nozzle-tube from the front of the stage, and in its place solder on a band-ring of stout tin. This band is to be one and a quarter inch deep, and the diameter just enough to allow of the back end of the nozzle-tube fitting in it very tightly when the lantern is used in the ordinary way. The small turned-out rim of the nozzle-tube must be carefully cut off for this purpose. The aphengescope itself must have a small tin tube fastened in the small hole in the front of it, for the focussing-tube of the lantern to slide in; and the large hole must be cut large enough for the tin band on the front of the stage of the lantern to fit into it. This arrangement will allow of the light in the lantern being brought closer to the picture than can be done with the ordinary lanterns, and will, of course, illuminate it more strongly.

A very good lamp, with high illuminating power, to be used in any lantern, especially with this instrument, can be bought at the paraffin-lamp shops for a small sum. The tin duplex lamp, burning crystal oil, is the best. I should recommend any of my readers who have made, or are about to make, the lantern I have described, to get one of these, instead of making the lamp described with it, as it will give nearly twice the light. An arrangement will of course have to be made at the back for the reflector. If a lamp cannot be got that is low enough for the lantern, you can make the body of it yourself. You can generally get, at these shops, damaged lamps at a small cost. Get one that is damaged only in the body. Unscrew the brass-work, as though you were about to fill it, and put it on one side. Unsolder the brass screw-socket from the reservoir. Now make a square tin box for the new reservoir, covering in the top. The box is to be an inch and a quarter deep, and as large as the lantern will allow. In the top cut a hole to solder the brass screw-socket into. Then screw in the brass wick-carrier and make the clip for the reflector.

If a pair of lanterns are used the light will be proportionately stronger, and a strong light is an important thing with this instrument.

Fig. 9.

[Fig. 9] gives the plan of the top and bottom boards of the instrument for use with a pair of lanterns, and requires no further description.

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CHAPTER XXII.—INGENIOUS ADAPTATIONS FOR THE LANTERN.
By W. J. Gordon.

I.—Chromatropes and Paper Fireworks.

From Mr. Chasemore’s article on revolving slides for the magic-lantern we borrow the following diagram, as showing very clearly the principle which such slides are constructed ([Fig. 1]).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Round the slide runs a wooden border half an inch wide and three-eighths of an inch thick. The right-hand part of the slide is wood, the left glass, and the moving part showing towards us is also of glass, and fits into a circular wooden ring that is kept in position as it turns by the two tiny buttons on each side of it. One of these buttons works on the frame, the other is fastened to a piece of wood glued on to the wooden part of the slide. Farther to the right is a small silk reel, into which a handle is fixed, and an endless band from the reel round the circle in the buttons completes the machinery. All this is simple enough, and as it has already been described need not be gone into in detail.

The question with us now is how to apply this contrivance to the working of a chromatrope. A chromatrope is a lantern slide consisting of two or more pieces so painted as to give the effect on the screen of a set piece of fireworks. It is the easiest of all slides to paint, as it is purely geometrical, and the colours used require no mixing, but can be put on at once as they are got from the shop. And, best of all, the effects produced are far and away more brilliant than anything else in lantern practice.

Fig. 3.

The essentials are a fixed slide of some bold design—star-shaped, circular, octagonal, or what not—and a moving shade that is of spiral pattern. The spiral pattern is the secret of the whole thing. Let the above be spun behind a star, so as to be only visible through its rays, and the star will seem to be alive. Turn it one way, the waves flow outwards; turn it the other, the waves flow inwards. The standing pattern must have a centre, and the spiral must be worked on the same centre. That done, all is well. Sometimes a double spiral is desirable, and then the pattern in [Fig. 3] is adopted. By it the outer part of the pattern (B) will seem to flow in a different direction from the inner (A). Paint the spirals any colours you please, providing that they are bright, and you get the results. Let reverse spirals appear in your fixed pattern, and you improve the effect. Have two revolving rings worked by the same wheel, one over the other, and the whole device will glow with life and brilliancy.

Fig. 4.

To begin modestly, take some simple design, such as that of the fountain in [Fig. 4]. Paint it on your slide, and stop it out all round with asphaltum or any dense black. Then fix to it a simple spiral disk, such as that given in [Fig. 2], and the instant the spiral spins the water will begin to flow.

In all designs remember that the fixed slide must be broken up with black and colour, so as not to show the whole of the spiral at once. The wave should, as it were, sweep over the windows. For front designs nothing is superior to a good knighthood star.

The colours for slide-painting can either be bought ready prepared, or ground down on plate glass and mixed by Canada balsam or mastic varnish. Should the balsam be too thick, use a little turpentine. The clearest colours are lampblack, burnt umber, burnt sienna, raw sienna, gamboge, Prussian blue, verdigris, and scarlet lake, and these are put on in the ordinary way. Before you begin clean the glass carefully with a little water and ammonia. Copy the design through the glass, and it would be as well not to forget that unless you can draw properly on paper you are not likely to do so on a lantern slide, where in the intense light and enlargement every mistake and shakiness of line is exaggerated for the benefit of the spectators. For those who cannot draw, figures of men and animals can be cut out with scissors and pasted on the slide, so as to give a shadow entertainment, as a change from the bought slides. Others can buy transparencies and stick them on for themselves, but the result will never equal hand-painting. One more caution before leaving hand-painting, and that is, do not be in a hurry, and give your slides at least a fortnight to dry.

If the spaces of the chromatrope are too narrow, or the design is worked too fast, you will only produce a fog, just as you do when you spin a toothed wheel. If, however, the teeth of the two wheels be fixed on the slant and the wheels turned in opposite directions, the teeth will be visible—upright if the teeth slant the way the wheel turns, slanting if they follow the course of the wheel. The principle holds good with the chromatrope; the spiral is but a toothed wheel.

The chromatrope was invented by Mr. W. Allen. He called it the pyreidotrope. It was improved, and soon became known as Chinese fireworks. From it the paper fireworks still popular in some circles were derived.

Fig. 5.

Paper fireworks are merely large chromatropes painted on oiled paper instead of on glass, and lighted by candles instead of a lantern. The wheels, and stars, and plumes, and pyramids are just the same as we have been describing, only much larger. The transparent portions are got by perforations. The machinery is the same, but of a rougher pattern, and the moving parts, instead of reels and bobbins, are barrel-hoops and butter-tubs. From what has been said above, their construction is sufficiently obvious, and we conclude with a design ([Fig. 5]) that may serve for either purpose.

II.—The Lantern and The Kaleidoscope.

Have our readers ever tried to work these together? If not, let them do so, and they will be rather surprised at the results. Begin in a small way, and treat the screen as the broad end of the kaleidoscope. Arrange it at an angle to the audience. Against it place two mirrors at the desired angle, just as in the well-known instrument, and then damp the screen and throw the image on from behind, so that it will take the place of the usual coloured fragments.

Chromatropes can be made in this way by devising a double slide, and filling up the space between the two sides with stained splinters of glass, beads, etc.; and this contrivance put into the lantern, and its image thrown on to the screen between the mirrors, will be multiplied into the most brilliant geometrical fireworks, whose pattern can be varied as often as desired by simply shaking the glass slide, so as to rearrange the coloured odds and ends. If the slide is a mechanical chromatrope, of course so much the better, as instead of one image of it there are many. Modifications of this experiment will easily suggest themselves to an ingenious lad.

III.—The Lantern Praxinoscope.

Yet another praxinoscope, and a remarkable one. M. Reynaud is the inventor, and may well be proud of his ingenious combination. The sketch is so clear and complete that but little explanation is necessary. In the first place, there is a magic-lantern; in the drawing it is of the lampascope pattern, in which, by means of openings at top and bottom fitted with a sheath, an ordinary lamp can be used, if necessary, instead of the usual light, the chimney of the lamp being hidden by the top scabbard, and the beam that would illuminate the room being checked by the cap on the top of it. Any lantern can be altered so as to suit this arrangement, but the balance must be kept, and there must be no top-heaviness, so as to upset the lamp, and the under-sheath must be of the right length, so as to bring the centre of the flame opposite the centre of the lens. Any ordinary lantern with an ordinary lamp will, however, answer every purpose.

In the side of the lantern an aperture is cut, and around it is fixed a small triangular box containing a mirror set at an angle of forty-five degrees, and having a lens, in the base, of a very low power, or hardly any power at all. At the top of this side-box is fixed an adjustable lens of the same type as that in front of the lantern. In the lantern itself is placed a slide representing a landscape, an interior, etc., and the image of this is thrown on to the screen. At the back of the side-box is placed a praxinoscope of novel construction, and the images from it are thrown on to the sheet through the lens at its top, so that, as in a dissolving view, we have the picture seen by the assembly built up out of the slides.

The praxinoscope consists of a crown of mirrors sloping inwards, surrounded by a ring constructed to take a set of glass slides mounted in a strip by means of connecting links of silk or calico. The slides consist each of one of the figures alluded to in the last section, which form the series of instantaneous photographs that have revolutionised our ideas of the details of motion. They are, in fact, zoetropic pictures, each differing but slightly in attitude from the other, and each representing one of the changes assumed in a complete round of some definite movement.

The slides are slipped into the ring. The light from the lantern shining through the glass throws the images on to the praxinoscopic mirror, and thence it is reflected through the top lens on to the screen. The ring and crown are arranged at the angles given in the cut, and when the slides are revolved by means of the band and pulley shown below them, the different pictures as they pass the lens are reflected on to the background, and the figure appears in lifelike movement.

The lantern praxinoscope thus makes the zoetropic effects visible to a large assembly seated at their ease, and gives pictures of heroic size instead of the tiny proportions with which, when confined to the ordinary instrument, we are forced to be content. Many modifications of the arrangement will readily suggest themselves to our readers, and need not therefore be specially described.

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Some Typical Boats.

1. Heyst Fishing-Boat from Belgium. 2. Native Fishing-boat from Aden. 3. Swedish Seal-Hunting Boat. 4. Type of Dutch Boat. 5. Fishing-Boat of Swatow. 6. Boat and Method of Fishing at Ningpo, China.

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SECTION V.
HOW TO BUILD BOATS, PUNTS, CANOES, ETC.

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CHAPTER XXIII.—THE BUILDING OF THE SWALLOW; OR, HOW TO MAKE A BOAT.
By E. Henry Davies, C.E.

Until recently I was among the number of those who, though fond of boating, are not able to gratify their taste on account of not possessing a boat, or finding it convenient or possible to hire one.

Well, while walking one fine spring morning along the canal-side, the longing to be on its surface in a boat of my own became irresistible, and so, not having sufficient spare money to buy, I there and then determined to build, and I now purpose telling how I did so, and giving all particulars as to time and cost.

Fig. 1.—The Swallow.

The engraving ([Fig. 1]) is a reproduction from a photograph of the Swallow, as she appeared when on her first trial-trip. Since the taking of the photograph I have spent many a pleasant, quickly-flying hour in her, either sailing by myself or rowing with a couple of friends along the waters of a stream which runs clear and slowly among some of the finest scenery on the North Wales border.

In the first place, let me give a general description of the boat, with the totals of time and cost. She is 12 ft. long, 2 ft. 9 in. broad amidships inside, and 1 ft. 1¹⁄₂ in. deep inside; of the same shape as an ordinary boat, but made after the style of a coracle, with a light wood framing, covered over on the outside with stout sailcloth, coated with three coats of paint to make it watertight. The total cost to me was £2 1s. 6d., in addition to which I paid 5s. for a year’s licence to keep my boat on the canal. The amount of time spent in building, painting, and rigging was 140 hours, which was extended over two months, owing to my not being able to keep constantly at work; and this, I should think, would be the average time for any one working by himself.

A certain amount of skill in carpentry is, of course, needed, as well as a few tools, but almost as essential as these is a large stock of patience and a firm resolution to succeed.

Fig. 2 Longitudinal Section

A B Keel, a b Keelson. C Stem Post. D Stern Post. E Transom. F Amidships Section, with seat and support. G Bow Seat, Rib, and Mast. 2 2 Inside of Top Lath and Gunwale. 3 Stern Seat. 4 Rudder. Laths and Ribs omitted.

[Fig. 2 enlarged] (41 kB)

The first thing to be done is to make the inner keel, or keelson (a b of [Fig. 2]). This can be made of deal, and should be planed perfectly straight. Its greatest length is 10 ft. 10¹⁄₂ in. on the upper side; its breadth is 1 in., and thickness 1¹⁄₂ in. The bow end is to be cut off square, and the stern to be cut to a level of 7 in. in a foot, or an angle of 120 degrees from the horizontal. Commencing at 11 in. from the bow end, on the upper side, bore a hole three-eighths of an inch in diameter straight through, and countersink it on the upper side; then make nine more holes of the same size at distances of one foot apart. These are the holes through which strong screws 3 in. long will be driven, in order to bind together, after the canvas is put on, the keelson (a b) and the keel (A B).

The stem piece (C, [Fig. 2]) should be made of oak, and of the shape shown in the figure, which is drawn to a scale of three-eighths of an inch to a foot. The curve is 9 in. radius, and the total depth 1 ft. 3 in. One strong screw, driven through the inner keel, or keelson (a b), at the point C¹, will be sufficient to secure it, as, when the keel is screwed on, another screw at C² will give it the necessary strength to resist shocks and blows.

Fig 3 Stern.

The stern piece is formed of two parts (D and E, [Figs. 2] and [3]), both of which should be made of oak three-quarters of an inch thick. The angle of the bevel of the stem is 120 degrees, or 7 in. in a foot, and when the stern pieces are fixed in their places on the keel, the slope should be in one line, and the piece E perfectly at right angles to the keel. D is fixed to the keelson by two strong screws at d and d². The width of the transom, or stem piece, E, is at the top 2 ft., and its depth 10 in. As, of course, the outline is the same on either side of the centre line, it will only be necessary for me to describe the shape of one side.

Beginning, then, at the top on the left-hand side of [Fig. 3], the outline runs straight for 3 in., sloping inwards at a level of 1 in 3. After this it follows a curve of 6 in. radius, having its centre at e³, until at e⁵ the curve again bends outwards at the same radius, and with its centre at e⁶ following this curve to the bottom of the piece, where, at 10 in. from the top, the width between the two outlines will be three-quarters of an inch, or the same as the thickness of D.

Before screwing these two pieces together eight notches must be cut in the transom (E) for the reception of the ends of the laths, four on each side of the centre line. As, in the course of the construction of the boat, notches will several times have to be cut, with intervals of untouched wood, it will be advisable at the first to fix upon some method by which such notches and spaces may be described. Let, therefore, the spaces to be cut out for notches be enclosed in brackets thus: (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) the figures representing the breadth of the notch in inches, while the spaces between the notches are represented by the unenclosed figures.

The notches are throughout ¹⁄₄ in. deep; those in the transom (E) are, owing to the level of the stern, not straight across the wood, and must be marked out with the bevel, not the square.

Commencing then at the top left-hand corner of the transom (E) at the point e⁶ on [Fig. 3], we have the notches to be cut as follows: (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 3 in., or four notches and four spaces, the same having, of course, to be cut in the same order on the other side.

The transom (E) is sunk into the stem piece (D), as shown in [Fig. 2], and secured at right angles to it by two screws at e¹ and e². The whole stem piece can now be fixed to the keelson (a b) by two strong screws at the points d and d², [Fig. 2].

The next part requiring attention is the amidships (section F of [Figs. 2] and [4]; see also [Fig. 8]); this can be made of deal ⁷⁄₈ in. thick, 2 ft. 9 in. wide at the top, and 1 ft. 3 in. deep. The outline beginning at f¹ is for 6 in. straight and at right angles to a line drawn across the boat, then it follows a curve of 7 in. radius whose centre is at f² to the point f³, which is 1 ft. 1¹⁄₂ in. below the top and 1 ft. from the centre line: from this point the outline runs straight until it joins the centre line at 1 ft. 3 in. from the top. A mortise 1 in. wide and 1¹⁄₂ in. deep must be cut in the centre of this section at the bottom, in order that it may fit accurately over the keelson and at right angles to it, in which place it is fastened by a strong screw passing through the keelson from beneath. As its name implies, this section must be exactly amidships.

The notches and spaces are, beginning at f¹, (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2⁷⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₄ in. mortise for keelson in centre. The other side is the same.

Fig. 4
Amidships Section

The middle of this section is cut out for the sake of lightness, as shown in [Fig. 4], and a seat 7 in. wide, and 4 in. from the top, is fixed across it.

Under the centre of the seat an upright support (f⁴) is fixed, of the same width as the seat, being also made to fit over the piece F and rest on the keel.

The seat must be screwed firmly into its place, so that the future rower may feel himself in no danger of being precipitated to the bottom of his boat among the débris of a broken seat.

Fig. 5.
Section on Line G.H.

2 2 Gunwales. Shaded portion a single rib. g¹ g² Screws for securing ribs together.

There will be two more sections required, somewhat similar to the amidships one, placed at distances of 3 ft. on either side of it. We will first take the one shown as section G H in [Fig. 5], which is a section along the line G H of the plan [Fig. 8]; which appears on [page 271].

This can be made in two ways—either the same as the amidships one, in a single piece cut from a soft wood, or in two pieces cut from a hard wood.

I made mine in the latter way, and that is the way I shall describe; but in either case the notches and outline are the same, and [Fig. 5] shows both methods of cutting the inside, the shaded part showing the form of the hard wood rib.

The outline can be obtained by reference to [Fig. 5], which is drawn to a scale of 1 in. to the foot.

The centres of the curves are at x x, and the batten of the straight part is 1 in. in 6 in.

The notches required in each rib are as follows, commencing at g³:—(1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 3 in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) ¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in. A,) ³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2 in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 1¹⁄₈ in. the keelson, and the same on the other side. The notch marked A will be noticed farther on when the time comes for fixing the laths. This section must be firmly screwed to the keelson at 3 ft. from the bows. A seat is also required across it, and the remarks made about the amidship seat will apply to this, except that, perhaps, this should be made the stronger one, as a hole of 1¹⁄₂ in. diameter will be required in its exact centre if it is desired to use the boat for sailing.

Fig. 6.
Section on Line. I.J of Plan.

c c Centres of curves. s Screws for bolting ribs together. 2 2 Gunwales.

The other and last section, I J, of Figs. 6 and 8, is to be placed at a distance of 3 ft. aft of the amidships, and should be made of two oak ribs of the shape shown in [Fig. 6], which should be ³⁄₄ in. thick, and not less than 1¹⁄₂ in. wide in the weakest place. The notches required are—(1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) ⁷⁄₁₆ in., (1¹⁄₄ in. A,) 1³⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 1⁷⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2¹⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 3 in. keelson, and on the other rib the same.

A small triangular piece of ³⁄₄ in. oak should be fixed at the upper end of the stem post, to which the two upper laths and the gunwales may afterwards be fixed. The shape and size are shown at M in [Fig. 8], on [page 271].

About thirty-five hours will now have been spent in the building of the boat, and a casual observer would not be justified in asking what was being made, for the shape of the boat has now become apparent.

In order to prevent any mishap during the building, it is advisable to screw a strip of deal across from side to side of each section, and these strips can also be used for adjusting the position of each section, for if a small hole is bored in the exact centre of each strip, as well as in the bows and stern, and a small wooden peg be placed in each hole, it can be easily seen if the sections are in their proper positions, for, if they are so, the pegs will be in a straight line; and, if not, one or other of the sections will require adjusting until they are so.

The wood for the laths, keel, and gunwales will now be required; these, of course, will be obtained from a builder or sawyer.

Elm is the best wood of which to make the laths, as it is capable of being bent into almost any shape when steamed; in fact, it will be found as well also to make the keel and gunwales of elm, and if this be decided on the cost of the material and sawing of the laths, etc., will be 10s.

The lengths for the laths will be—six, 13 ft. long; six, 12 ft. 6 in. long; and ten, 9 ft. long; all 1¹⁄₄ in. wide and ¹⁄₄ in. thick. These must all be planed on the one side and the edges.

The keel should be sawn 11 ft. 3 in. long, ³⁄₄ in. wide, and 2 in. deep, and afterwards planed, the bow end being cut to suit the curve of the bows, and the stern end to the bend of the stern.

The gunwales are each 12 ft. 6 in. long, and 1 in. square, and are planed on three sides.

The next process in the building of the boat is characterised by its heat, and, in fact, is somewhat similar to working in a vapour bath, for, as each of the ribs and laths requires to be boiled tender and flexible before it is possible to fix them, the nature of the work can better be imagined than described. [Fig. 7], which is engraved from a photograph, will give a general idea of the position of the laths and ribs, as well as of the interior of the boat.

The first three long laths on either side can be screwed into their places without steaming; before fixing them it is, however, advisable to pencil their places on the bows. The divisions will be as follows, but it must be remembered that notches are not needed to be cut in the stern post, as the end of each lath is bevelled off before being screwed up. Beginning at the top of the stern post, C, [Fig. 2], we have (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 1¹⁄₂ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 1³⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 1³⁄₈ in., (1¹⁄₄ in.,) 2³⁄₄ in. lower face of keelson, and on the other side the same.

Fig. 7.—Showing the interior and framework of the boat. The footboards are removed in order to show keelson.

The fourth lath of each side need not be steamed, as it is a short one of 6 ft. 3 in., reaching only from the notches A of section I J across the midship section to the notch A of section G H.

The steaming process of which we now have need can be conducted in a laundry or washhouse boiler, and consists of boiling the wood until it is quite soft and flexible, when it can be bent to any desired shape, which it will always afterwards retain.

The laths (No. 5) will require boiling or steaming, and when perfectly flexible are to be tied firmly in their places, and screwed up when dry. Nos. 6 and 7 are to be treated the same, but No. 7 should not go quite to the bow end of the boat, being cut off and secured about half way between the section G H and the bows. The stern end also of this lath is to be screwed up to the stern post near the point marked d on [Fig. 2].

The laths must be fixed one on each side alternately, or otherwise there is a danger of warping the boat. When the laths are all firmly screwed up in their notches the gunwales and ribs must be bent on. The gunwales should be well steamed, especially the bow ends, and then lashed on to the outside of the two top laths, but not screwed on yet.

The ribs, of which there are twelve, are of the same strength and material as the laths, and are placed three in each partition of the boat.

Beginning at the bow end, the first three are cut in half and screwed at equal distances on each side of the keelson. The three between the section G H and the amidships, as well as the three between the amidships and section I J, are in single lengths reaching from the inside of the top lath on the one side, inside the laths and outside the keelson, or rather sunk ³⁄₄ in. into it, and then on top the other side, keeping inside the laths to the top lath.

A screw is driven through the rib into each lath, and the rib is firmly screwed to the keelson, the notch above it being afterwards filled up and planed level with the keelson.

The three ribs at the stern cannot be put in whole, and will require a certain amount of scheming to make them bend and fit in their proper places. The ends of the ribs must be cut off level with the top laths. The screws which hold the rib ends to the top lath are only temporary, for, after the canvas has been stretched on, and the gunwales screwed into their places they must be removed, and longer and stronger ones driven through rib, lath, and canvas into the gunwales.

The two rowlocks can be made by a blacksmith, and it would be well if a rowlock could be borrowed as a pattern from which he can work.

The gunwales must be strengthened to receive the rowlocks at the place k, k, k, k, on [Fig. 8], and after the manner shown at k, [Fig. 4], with oak strips screwed on to the gunwales, and an iron plate top and bottom, to prevent the holes being worn. The position of the rowlocks is 18 in. from the centre of the seat.

Fig. 8. Plan

The stem seat will now require attention. It should be placed at about 14 in. aft of the section I J, and its back should be no nearer the stem than 10 in.; it is supported on an A-shaped frame, as shown in [Fig. 8], and should be something after the manner of the one shown in [Figs. 7] and [8], though the builder will, of course, make it according to his own taste for comfort and appearance, but in any case let it be strong enough.

The rudder should be of the size shown in [Fig. 2], and if sailing is contemplated two tillers or handles will be necessary, the one for sailing being a plain handle, as shown in [Figs. 1] and [2], and the other with ropes and placed at right angles to the rudder, as shown in [Figs. 7] and [8]. Two cleats will be required in sailing, placed one on either side at about 8 in. aft of the section I J, and of the size and shape shown at O, [Fig. 8].

The building of the boat will now have occupied about 100 hours, and the builder may congratulate himself that the greater part of his work is over.

The whole of the woodwork should receive a coat of paint, and be left to dry thoroughly. The framework of the boat is then ready to receive the canvas, which in this style of boat answers admirably in the place of boards. The best material for this purpose is a strong, closely-woven sailcloth; the stuff I used cost 1s. 1d. per yard square, and 6¹⁄₂ yards were necessary to cover the boat.

The canvas is nailed outside the laths and keelson crossways, or from side to side; it should be made to fit like a glove, and the seams must be strongly sewn up. The edges are secured by being screwed up between the top laths and the gunwales, and all joints between it and woodwork must be smeared with a mixture of red and white lead before being nailed up. When it is properly fixed in its place, and before the keel is screwed on, it should be made waterproof. This can be done either by coating it first with boiled oil and then giving it several coats of paint, or by the following method, which is taken from the Field, and which I found to answer admirably. Take 6 oz. yellow soap and dissolve in 1¹⁄₂ pints water, and while boiling add and stir in 5 lb. spruce ochre or other colouring matter, ¹⁄₂ lb. patent dryers, and 5 lb. of boiled linseed oil. This composition is applied with an ordinary paint brush, and one coat on the inside and three on the outside are sufficient to make the boat waterproof. Before putting on the last coat of paint, screw on the keel and caulk the joint with a mixture of red and white lead.

The ribs, etc., can be painted any desired colour, and, if it is wished to finish the boat off completely, a coat or two of oak varnish can be applied inside and out.

A strip of iron should be screwed all along the keel, to prevent the wood being damaged.

The mast may be 8 ft. 6 in. long, and 1¹⁄₂ in. thick at the base, tapering upwards. The sail, which is made of coarse linen costing 5d. per yard, is of the shape shown in [Fig. 1], and will require 7 yards if the linen is 31 in. wide, or what is in the trade, I believe, called seven-eighths breadth.

The gaff is 6 ft. long, and 1 in. thick, and should, as well as the mast, be made of ash.

The dimensions of the sail are as follows. Referring to [Fig. 1], the length of the bottom is 7 ft.; the side close to the mast, 5 ft. 6 in.; top along the gaff, 5 ft. 9 in.; and the remaining side, 7 ft. 3 in. The edges are sewn around a piece of rope, and along the upper edge, close to the rope, is a row of eyelet-holes, through which strong string is passed to lash the sail to the gaff. Two more rows of eyelet-holes are required, the one 6 in. above the bottom edge, and the other 6 in. above that again. These are for the purpose of reefing the sail during a high wind.

A strip of linen should be sewn to the sail along the line of the eyelet-holes, in order to give the brass eyelets a better grasp. The brass eyelets can be obtained from any ironmonger at about fourpence per box, and pinchers for closing them can be borrowed from an ironmonger or a shoemaker.

Of course, ballast will be necessary when sailing, and for this a couple of bags of sand, equal to a weight of 1 cwt., will suffice.

And now I think that the building of the Swallow is finished, and the builder, somewhat weary, perchance, after his solitary labour, extending over some two months, is prepared to enter on the final and pleasanter task of launching his boat. This he may do with confidence, being certain that it will be quite watertight, very buoyant, and capable of carrying and seating three with ease.

Let me, before closing, express the hope that the builder will pass as many pleasant hours in the boat he has built as I have in mine, and then he will have no cause to regret the time and labour spent in its manufacture.

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CHAPTER XXIV.—HOW TO MAKE A CANVAS CANOE.
By E. T. Littlewood, M.A.

I propose to give directions for the construction of a canvas canoe requiring the expenditure of from 15s. to £1 in money, from a week to a fortnight of spare time, a very few tools, and a moderate amount of skill.

I have from time to time made canoes of various kinds, and have been led to adopt the pattern to be hereafter described as being most easily and cheaply constructed, and as possessing the important characters of speed, comfort, safety, and durability, and not being too heavy to carry on the shoulder for a quarter of a mile or so if necessary.

Fig. 1.

[Fig. 1 enlarged] (15 kB)

To proceed at once to my directions. It will be best to build under cover, though this is not a necessity. For the keel take a piece of straight deal or pine, free from imperfections, 10 ft. × 2 in. × 1 in. For stem and stern post, which should be alike, pieces of oak or elm should be cut to the pattern shown ([Fig. 1]) from a piece with a curved grain (to be had for about 6d.) 1 ft. 6 in. × 1 ft. × ³⁄₄ in.; 3 in. at the ends should be bevelled off and fitted to the ends of the keel, taking care that the latter forms one plane with them. They are best fixed in their place by driving copper nails through, and tapping their ends over perforated caps known as ‘burs,’ which can be easily obtained; but wire nails clenched will do here, as in other parts of the work.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Next from ¹⁄₂ in. deal plank cut out two shapes to fit over keel (allowing it to project ¹⁄₄ in.), according to patterns ([Figs. 2] and [3]). Strips of ³⁄₄ in. should be nailed on each side of the sockets cut for the keel, coming rather nearer at their other ends. The use of these is both to strengthen the shapes themselves and to make them fit firmly and tightly to the keel, also to make supports for the coamings round the well, to be described later.

Fig. 4.

The shapes should be placed with strips turned towards the ends of the canoe and at right angles to the keel, the larger one 10 in. behind the middle point of the keel, and the smaller one 2 ft. 10 in. in front of the same point ([Fig. 4]). Take care that the middle points of the shapes are in a straight line with the stem and stern post. A good nail may now be driven right through the two ends of each pair of strips, clipping the keel tightly between them. Next take two clean strips of deal rather longer than the canoe. They should be perfectly free from knots or imperfections, or much trouble will be occasioned afterwards. Say 1¹⁄₂ in. × ³⁄₄ in. Fit them on as in [Fig. 4], bevelling off the ends, and nailing into stem and stern post.

They should be allowed to take their natural curve, but pulled lengthways a little, so as to hold well to the shapes. Both sides should be alike, and the shapes should not be driven out of the central line. To prevent this, before nailing get a friend to hold the two ends against the stem while you nail the other ends to the stern post. Then nail the former ends to the stem, pulling them towards you a little, and keeping your eye on the central line. They may now be nailed to the shapes by means of corner pieces.

Fig. 5.

Next prepare, or get a carpenter to prepare for you, ten strips a little longer than the canoe, and ¹⁄₄ in. square. This is a very good thickness. These are to be arranged as in [Fig. 5], the distances between the strips being equal, or, if anything, decreasing a little towards the keel, where the pressure of the water will be greatest. They should be put on in the same way as the upper stronger strips which already form the gunwale. I may repeat that this thin wood must be thoroughly good. If any strip is not so, it is useless and must be replaced by another. Cut rests for the strips in the shapes, allowing them to project a little. Let the strips lie flat to the edges of the shapes. Do not, however, twist them in fitting their ends to stem and stern post. Those edges of the strips which would press into the canvas must be planed off. The ends, especially near the keel, will require care in fitting ([Fig. 6]).

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

It is better to drive no nails through the strips except at the ends. Those parts of the shapes which are between the strips should now be hollowed out ([Fig. 7]), so that when the water presses in the canvas no projection shall be produced across the direction of motion of the canoe, as such projections seriously retard its progress. All the edges of the strips which would be liable to work through the canvas should be shaved off as before mentioned.

Next for the coamings round the well in which to sit. This should be made generally strong. Make a framework of deal 2 in. × ³⁄₄ in., to fit in exactly between the shapes as shown in [Fig. 10]. The breadth at the stern end may be 18 in., and at the other 14 in. This will be quite broad enough. The two end pieces should be well nailed into those strips by which the shapes were strengthened. Also fit struts between the middle points of the sides of the well and the gunwale. Fit two strips about 1¹⁄₂ in. × ³⁄₄ in., or 2 in. × ¹⁄₂ in., from the middle point of the top of each shape, or end of the well, to the stem and stern post, nailing the gunwale at each end into it through some interposed wedges, so as to make a solid triangle at each end.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

In each of the three compartments of the canoe fit a strengthening rib, as shown in [Fig. 8] for middle, [Fig. 9] for ends, which will sufficiently explain the construction. They should be fastened to the gunwale, but the thinner strips had better be arranged merely to rest against them, and not to be nailed into them. They need only be made of thin wood. Thin oak would be best.

Put one or two light cross strengtheners between the two sides of the gunwale, and one or two from the keel to the upper longitudinal pieces. The latter may be nailed into the cross pieces. Go carefully over the whole framework, removing any eminences or loose nails likely to wear a hole in the canvas, remembering always that the water will press it well against the framework, and the canoe will be ready for covering. But the floor should be first put in, which may consist of a piece of ¹⁄₂ in. plank laid on the keel, strengthened at each end by a cross piece. By means of the latter it may be nailed into the shapes, and another piece across the middle may be added, which will not interfere with sitting.

The covering is best made of what is known by linendrapers as ‘crash,’ strong and close. It must be wide enough to go completely under the canoe, and can be had about 5 ft. wide, which will be quite wide enough. Seven yards of it will be sufficient.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

To put on the canvas, turn the canoe over. Lay the canvas with the centre line along the keel. Stretch it well by pulling at each end, and tack it through the middle at the extreme ends with a few tacks in a temporary manner. Put in temporary tacks along the gunwale at moderate intervals, stretching slightly, and endeavour to get rid of all folds. Begin in the middle and work towards the ends, and always pull straight away from the keel, and not along the gunwale. Then put in a second set of tacks half way between the first set of tacks on one side, pulling fairly tightly. Then on the other side put in tacks opposite to the latter, pulling as tightly as possible. The best way to do this is to seize the canvas with a pair of pincers, so that on pulling you can get the head of the pincers just over the gunwale, when they can be used as a lever to give an extra pull. A tack may then be put in on the outside of the gunwale. Half-inch galvanised tacks will do. Now remove the temporary set of tacks. To get rid of folds, which will not occur along the keel, but along the gunwale, keep bisecting the distance between two consecutive tacks by another tack, so that the canvas is equally loose on each side of it, always now pulling the canvas as tightly as possible. In this way the folds will disappear, and the canvas be stretched tight and well fastened to the gunwale. Leave that portion within a foot of each end untacked. Next cut away all that portion which projects beyond the stem and stern post, turn the edges in, and tack along the edges at moderate distances. Bisect these distances, and these again, till you have a very close row of tacks, as in [Fig. 12]. Pull fairly tight, but not too tight, and do not use pincers for this part. Quarter-inch tacks will be best. The ends may be cut out and put on, lapping the edges over the side, as shown in [Fig. 12], and enough canvas will be left to fill the part along the sides of the well, into which the canvas should be tacked with a fine row of tacks, afterwards being stretched over the gunwale. The canoe will now be completely covered in except the well. Before putting on the top, however, give the lower part outside a good coating of boiled linseed oil. This will be most of it absorbed into the canvas. The same may be done afterwards with the top. When this is dry—that is, after two or three days—give another good coating of the same. Then paint the canoe according to taste. Two coats for the bottom will be advisable, and paint which will stand water well should be used. It would be well to paint the framework with one coat before covering.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Make a stretcher ([Fig. 13]) for the feet of ¹⁄₂ in. board, and slips to fit it into ([Fig. 10]), with stops on the floor. Also a backboard of ¹⁄₂ in. board to correspond ([Fig. 14]). Each piece in the latter may be 18 in. × 4 in. They should be nailed into two cross-pieces behind, so as to form a hollow for back, and should be placed 2 in. apart, to allow a space for the spine. I prefer myself to fit in the backboard by means of stops on the floor and back of the well, making it keep one position, and that at a considerable slope, and have not found a swinging backboard so comfortable as some appear to have done.

Fig. 15.

For the paddle, for which I think about 7 ft. 6 in. long over all is a good length, take a light, clean piece of yellow pine or fir 1¹⁄₂ in. × 1¹⁄₄ in., not more, and 6 ft. long. In the ends of this cut slots 6 in. long, each to receive two pear-shaped pieces of very light ¹⁄₂ in. plank 1 ft. 3 in. × 8 in. Nail them through with copper nails if possible. The blades should be at right angles to the thickest direction of the handle. Before nailing-in shave down the handle from an oval of 1¹⁄₂ in. × 1¹⁄₄ in. for 2 ft. of the middle to an oval of about 1¹⁄₈ in. × ⁷⁄₈ in. near the beginning of the blades. The handle should have its full thickness at the beginning of the blade but should be well tapered off along the blade, so as to be quite thin at its middle, where it ends. It should have its full breadth across the breadth of the blade. The blade itself may be shaved off thinner towards the edges. I do not think that for ordinary purposes any strip of copper or tin need be put round the blade, and the weight is increased by using it. The great thing about a paddle is that it should be as light as possible, and, if it appears able to stand it, it may be reduced still further. It may be painted or varnished, all but two feet in the middle. I find no rings on the paddles necessary.

A short strip nailed outside the gunwale in the middle of the canoe is a good thing; it prevents wear from the paddle, and forms something to catch hold of in lifting the canoe. A short outer keel is also a good thing at each end to prevent wear; but in making holes for the nails through the canvas into the keel care must be taken to turn in the edges round each hole, to tack with a close circle of tacks, and paint well, so as to render the place watertight.

An apron is seldom wanted, but may be made of canvas rendered waterproof with boiled oil if desired. It is well to fasten some inflated bladders in each end, so as to make the canoe a diminutive lifeboat, in case of an upset or of a hole being knocked in her.

The canoe will now be ready for launching. The owner should learn to put her carefully into the water and take her out by himself—to carry her on his shoulder. Superfluous wood may be cut from the central parts of the shapes, and also from along the keel towards the ends before covering. The floor forms a considerable item in the weight, consequently this should be made no wider or thicker than necessary. In paddling, learn to reach well forward and back, with a good swing of the body from side to side.

Such a canoe as described will be found to wear well, and one made by myself for a friend two years ago is now in use, and quite watertight.

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CHAPTER XXV.—CANADIAN, INDIAN, BIRCH-BARK AND OTHER LIGHT CANOES.
By C. Stansfeld-Hicks.

I.—Canadian and Birch-Bark Canoes.

The most convenient size to make will probably be that of a canoe now in my possession, 17 ft. long, 27 in. wide, and 1 ft. deep. She is built as follows.

Two strong pieces of tough wood, forming together something the shape of a snowshoe, as [Fig. 1], and lashed strongly together at the ends, form the gunwale. The ribs are of thin stuff about one-eighth of an inch thick, and two to three inches wide, running from gunwale to gunwale in one piece, the ends slightly pointed so as ([Fig. 3]) to fit into notches cut in the under side of the gunwale. Between these ribs and the outer skin is placed some kind of thin bark pitched over, and the outer skin is composed of birch bark.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

At each end, at the dotted line A A ([Fig. 2]), there is a strong apron-piece, but the bows are simply sewn together, as are the other joints in the boat, which is very light and handy. Now the thing is for you who have no birch bark to build a canoe on the same principle, easily and at little cost, and we will consider how this is to be done.

In an American paper there once appeared an article on ‘A Paper Boat,’ built on the lines of a birch-bark canoe, and it is not long since an adventurous young American went a tremendous distance on the American rivers in a paper canoe of his own construction. So you have paper proved to be possible as a skin for your boat as a substitute for birch bark. Another substitute and a far stronger one is canvas.

We will now proceed to get out the framework of the boat in question.

Fig. 4.

In the diagram ([Fig. 4]) you have sheer plan, body and deck plan, of a modified Canadian canoe; the ends are less curved than the original, but otherwise it is much the same. The first thing you will have to do is to draw a plan to scale on this principle of the canoe you propose building, and the simplest scale you can use is that of one inch to a foot, and in this way, if you decide on a canoe fifteen feet by two feet by one foot, the plan on paper will be fifteen inches by two inches by one inch, which you can multiply by twelve to get your measurements for any part.

You must first get a piece of wood for the keel. These canoes are always built without any exterior keel, and are therefore easily turned and managed; at the same time they are as easily turned by the wind, if there should be any, and for rough water I should prefer giving a small exterior keel screwed on to the keel on which you build the canoe, and which forms part of the body of the boat itself; but this you must decide for yourself. If you only want to punt about in smooth water and in shallows, you can dispense with any exterior keel, and in any case you can easily screw on a false keel of whatever depth you consider necessary afterwards.

The keel proper had best be shaped broad in the middle—say, six inches—and tapering off to the ends where the stem and stern posts are joined on. Having got your keel ready, and the stem and stern posts kneed in, and ascertained by a plumb line that they are perpendicular to the keel, the next thing is to cut out shadows, or frames, from the body plan. Three of these shadows will do (see [Fig. 4], C C C), one amidships, and one each between midships and the stem and stern. These shadows must be secured to the keel in such a way that they will not shift from the perpendicular, to which you must plumb them. The keel can be made of any good wood, elm or oak for preference; but common deal will do very well. It should be three-quarters of an inch by six inches in the middle, and taper to the ends. The stem and stern posts can be of three-quarter inch deal or hard wood, of sufficient length, and two to four inches deep, shaped out and secured with a galvanised iron or wooden knee to the keel. You can use an apron-piece or not, as you prefer. If you elect to dispense with the apron-piece the stem and stern posts must be deeper than if you use it, and a light groove of, say, one-eighth of an inch cut to receive the ends of the stringers. (See [Fig. 5], A A A A.) Or this groove can be dispensed with, and the end of the stringer tapered off so as to come flush.

Fig. 5.

You will now want two to three stringers each side, of elm, ash or other tough wood, of sufficient length, and about half an inch thick by one inch wide. These will run from stem to stern over the shadows, and be firmly secured to the parts. The gunwale must be of the same sort of wood, say one inch square, and let in half an inch into the shadows to bring it flush with the stringers. The gunwale must be secured to the stem and stern posts, leaving about an inch of the posts above it; and a triangular piece of hard wood an inch thick and about three to six inches deep must be shaped to fit between the gunwales and the stem and stern posts, and the gunwales firmly secured to it by countersunk screws. This will bind all firmly together. As you will have taken the measurements from your plans, in which you have decided the sheer of the boat, the gunwale will follow this sheer, starting from the midship shadow and curving up towards the posts.

You have now got the framework ready, with the exception of the ribs, which are put in afterwards. The next step will be to get the canvas to form the outside skin.

You must buy sufficient canvas to cover your canoe. See that it is close and strong (No. 6, Navy unbleached, or something as near that as possible). Turn the canoe upside down, and stretch your canvas over it, tacking it firmly along the keel with copper nails about an inch apart, and then strain it tightly to the gunwales and secure it there with copper tacks (iron or large tin tacks may be used here if you are short of copper), first turning down the raw edge of the canvas. Then tack down the ends to the stem and stern posts, lapping one side of the canvas first round the opposite side of the part and securing it, and then bringing the other side of the canvas over the part secured and tacking it on the opposite side, thus doubling the canvas over the stem and stern posts. It is as well to run a copper band from six inches down the stem and stern posts to about a foot along the keel, to take the wear off the canvas, and a slight wooden false keel may be screwed over all with brass screws, or fastened with copper nails. Any slackness that may exist in the canvas must now be taken up. Turn the canoe right side up and gather in the canvas where you can find it slack, which will probably be at the bow and stern; and, after gathering it tightly in a pleat, sew it strongly down on the inside. This, perhaps, had best be done before you completely secure the canvas down, and while it is only secured at the ends and along the gunwale, leaving it unfastened along the keel.

Next get your ribs ready; these had best be made of rock elm or other tough wood, to avoid the trouble of steaming. They must be about three-sixteenths of an inch by three-quarters wide, or one inch or even two inches wide will do if you can bend them. Space the ribs about six inches apart; you can put them closer if you want extra strength. See that they are cut the right length, that when put in—which must be done by main force—the ribs take all the stringers, and butt tightly under the gunwales. You may either cut a slight notch in the gunwale to receive the ends of the ribs, or, after all the ribs are in, run a strip of wood half an inch by half an inch under the gunwale and over all the ribs, screwing it firmly to the gunwale, to keep the ribs in their places. When the ribs are all in their places, you may remove the shadows and look over the canvas again to see if it is all tight, putting an extra rib in wherever you have taken it up, and securing such a plain to the rib by a few tacks.

You must now cut the crossbars the proper size and fit them in, securing them to the gunwale by knees on each side. You have now only to paint the canvas, and when it has had two or three coats, firmly dried on, the canoe is ready to use. After using it turn it upside down, so that water cannot accumulate inside, as if it does it will soon rot the canvas, and whenever the paint wears off a little be careful to replace it. With these simple precautions such a canoe will last a long while, and will be of great use and amusement to you, as it can be easily carried from one piece of water to another by one person. Should you wish to make it a lifeboat, all you have to do is to get two zinc cases fitted to each end, which will float the canoe if capsized, or run a tapering belt of painted canvas filled with corks round the canoe outside on the water-line (see [Fig. 5], A A A A A). If you take this precaution you will probably not regret it, as a capsize is a very simple matter to achieve in any round-bottomed light boat, and there is not much stuff in such a slightly-constructed craft to float the occupant if capsized.

Fig. 6.

The American paper canoe was constructed something in the same way as to framework, but two of the shadows were left in after being cut away in the middle (see [Fig. 6]), leaving them three or four inches deep all round, and the keel was left about one foot wide between the two shadows, which were placed so as to divide the keel into three equal parts. They were firmly screwed to the keel, stringers (B B) were then run from stem to stern. The stem and stern posts were of green elm screwed to the bottom board or keel, and bent (see [cut]) into the required position; the ribs were made of osier willow switches put in while green; the gunwale (A A) was of ash. This framework was covered with very strong wrapping-paper, smooth and very tough, neither stiff nor very thick. This was secured first to the bottom board, the canoe being turned upside down; and then the paper was trimmed into shape and brought up to the gunwales, and secured there by being turned in over the gunwale and held down by long strips of ash or cane. The whole outside surface of the paper was then given three coats of varnish ([Fig. 7]).

Fig. 7.

The constructor, however, found that the boat leaked, and he then covered it with unbleached muslin strained outside over the paper, tacked along the gunwales, and sewn at the ends; it was then tightened by shrinking, and received three coats of a mixture of varnish and paint; this appears to have stopped the leaking entirely, and the owner then enjoyed a great deal of cruising and paddling in his paper boat.

After using it some time he discarded the ‘paddle proper,’ and fitted a pair of iron rowlocks sufficiently long to be secured to the bottom board and the gunwales, and used a pair of short sculls.

II.—Paper and other Typical Canoes.

It must entirely depend on the surroundings of the maker as to what materials he had best use. If a lad has the ability to build a canoe at all, he must be the best judge of the easiest way for him to set about it, and it is impossible to lay down hard-and-fast rules as to what he shall use in its construction. All he requires is the general idea which is given here, and where a lad with every convenience and a long purse will use the best materials another, under different circumstances and perhaps far away from opportunities of getting the most suitable timber, etc., for his purpose, will have to exercise his ingenuity and bring into use those materials he is limited to. So, perhaps, in some instances where thick and good canvas cannot be got, a serviceable boat can be made of a thinner and cheaper material, such as unbleached calico put on over a skin of old newspapers pasted together to form a backing; and such a covering thoroughly varnished with several coats, or if that is too costly well painted inside and outside with a mixture of tar and pitch boiled together, half and half, would give a great deal of amusement to its owner, and cost a mere trifle. Of course, it would not look so well. The best backing to use under thin canvas or calico would be good paper, prepared in this way:—take a large sheet of good strong paper, brown preferably, and cover it with a coating of marine glue; place another piece of paper over it to cover the glue, and take a flat-iron, warm, but not too hot; thoroughly iron the top paper till the glue comes out through the pores of the paper; the two sheets will then be firmly held together by the waterproof glue, and any size can be prepared in this way, making a first-class stiffening inside skin, which can be covered outside with thin calico, painted and varnished.

The paddles used with these canoes are single-bladed. The stern paddle, which is used to steer as well as propel the canoe, is considerably larger than the bow paddle. The lengths of the paddles are—stern, five feet; bow, four feet; breadth of blade at broadest part—stern, six inches; bow, five inches; length of blade of paddle, two feet. The handle may be about three-quarters of an inch to one inch in diameter, but much thicker at the extreme end, where some of the paddles now used are shaped like [Fig. 8].

Fig. 8.

The paddle is used as follows. You will readily understand that a stroke of a paddle used only on one side would cause the boat or canoe so propelled to turn its bow in the opposite direction; to meet this, before the paddle is withdrawn from the water, it must be slightly feathered and the handle brought inwards, the middle of the paddle resting on the gunwale of the canoe, the blade thus bringing the bow round and steering the canoe in a straight course. The pressure used must be merely adequate to bring the canoe straight, and will depend on the amount of sheer she has taken. If this is properly done, which requires some practice, it will not at all interfere with the forward propulsion of the canoe. The handle of the paddle is left rather wide at the end to allow of an easy grasp, and the other hand holds the paddle not quite half way down.

In stalking game the Indians never withdraw the paddle from the water at all, but feather under water without making the slightest noise and scarcely causing a ripple.

Fig. 9.—Irish Curragh.

Another description of boat made of canvas is the Irish Curragh ([Fig. 9]), used principally in the south-west of Ireland. Some of these boats are of considerable size—I have seen one twenty-six feet by four feet beam—and are used in the heaviest weather and the roughest seas, and from their extreme lightness are wonderfully good sea boats, the peculiar construction of the bow, which rises very much, lifting the boat over the seas. They have a strong frame made of ribs with stringers spaced only about three inches apart. The stringers run the whole length of the boat, which is something of the shape of half a barrel greatly elongated. They are simply and easily constructed, and are covered with common canvas. Several coatings of a preparation of tar are given to the canvas, converting it into a species of tarpaulin, and as the interior framework is very close it is impossible to stand or press in any way on the canvas skin, which is thus kept from injury from that source. The curragh is propelled by paddles used as sculls, and a large one has six men, each pulling two paddles. They have no rowlocks, but an iron pin stands up from the gunwale, and a chock is fixed to the paddle with a hole to fit the iron pin. In this way the paddles can be left without being unshipped if necessary, and fall alongside the boat with no chance of being lost.

The [coracle] used for fishing in Ireland and in Wales is merely a framework, sometimes of wicker and sometimes of wood, somewhat in the shape of the half of a walnut-shell. They are generally covered with leather, and are extremely light.

Since writing the above I have seen a paper which, to those who can afford the price, is the very thing to employ in building a canoe or small boat. I allude to the Willesden paper, invented by the late Dr. Scoffern. This paper is thoroughly water-proof, and is manufactured in all thicknesses. The best for the purpose is about one-eighth of an inch thick. It runs in sufficient length to build an ordinary canoe in one piece, and the width, being fifty-three inches, is amply sufficient. The price is five shillings per yard run, which, for a canoe say fifteen feet long, would be twenty-five shillings, and would be the principal part of the cost. This paper will not only make a strong and safe boat, but also a very handsome and fast one, as, being in one piece, there is no joining or unevenness, but one perfectly smooth surface, offering little resistance to the water. For the purpose of building models it would be hard to find a better substitute for wood, and in most cases it would be found far cheaper.

Fig. 10.—Canadian Batteau.

The Canadian batteau ([Fig. 10]) is a class of boat that is very easily constructed in paper, canvas, or wood, and you will see from the plan how it is made. It differs from the preceding canoe in that it is flat-bottomed, the American paper canoe approaching it most nearly in shape, though in the batteau the flat bottom is wider, and the sides are also flat, flaring out a good deal.

Fig. 11.—Double Canoe of the South Seas.

Fig. 12.—Esquimaux Kayak.

Fig. 13.—Flying Proa of the Ladrones, or Windward Islands.

Fig. 14.—Plan of Proa, showing Outrigger.

Fig. 15.—Chinese Junk.

Fig. 16.—Norwegian Praäm.

Fig. 17.—Coracle.

I also give sketches of other types of crafts. And now for a parting word of advice: whatever type of canoe you select, I hope you will be able to produce one that will pass the examination when your parents and others hold a survey; and in view of this do your work well and carefully, or you had better leave it alone. In any case, do not canoe unless you can swim. A canoeist, particularly when racing, thinks nothing of an upset, which to an accomplished hand is merely the loss of a few minutes, when, the canoe righted and the owner once more in charge, the prize is still held in view. This, to a non-swimmer, might mean, however, loss of life. Speaking from my own experience, I can assure you that I should not now be writing this if I had been unable to swim, and in no case should canoeing or boating be indulged in by those who have not mastered that necessary and simple art. To the swimmer an upset is in most instances simply an annoyance, but to a non-swimmer it may mean a fatal accident.

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CHAPTER XXVI.—HOW TO BUILD A PUNT.
By the Rev. Harry Jones, M.A.

Some years ago I wanted a cheap, strong punt for use in a large pond of some ten or twelve acres, and went to two or three regular boat-builders to ask the price of such an article. It varied from some sixteen shillings to a pound per foot. Now, as I needed something long enough to be rowed, or bear propulsion, with some steadiness, of course, and, moreover, to carry a good load, I perceived that nothing much less in length than about sixteen feet would answer my purpose.

The cost of this amounted to more than I was inclined to pay to a professed boat-builder, and so I put on my considering cap to see whether I could not escape the charges of an expert and yet realise my punt.

I determined to employ an intelligent country carpenter, who had never been in a shipyard in his life, and who, being wholly unacquainted with the structure of a boat, would be likely to follow out my directions without any bias of his own, yet take the whole credit of the result to himself.

We fixed on deal—good red, not white deal—for the wood of our boat, though my carpenter agreed with me that elm would have been better and teak best, for this latter does not split in the sun. Elm, however, is generally cut into lengths of only 12 ft. or 13 ft., which allows for the measure of two coffins, which are mostly made of this tree. Teak my friend had never seen. The worst of this is its original cost, and also, when a boat has to be built for inland waters, the expense of its carriage by rail from the neighbourhood of some coast ship-yard.

We settled on the red deal harmoniously. First we got four planks of 11-in. deal 12 ft. long and 1¹⁄₂ in. thick. I had it of this thickness to ensure comparative immunity from splitting when the sides should be nailed on, for these were to form the floor or bottom of our punt. When planed on both sides, this thickness was of course reduced. The edges of the planks were ‘shot,’ and made to fit as for a glue joint. After being cramped together they were kept in position by nailing on transverse pieces 1 in. thick and 4 in. wide, these transverse pieces not reaching quite to the whole width of the floor. This, the floor, we narrowed, from the centre towards the ends, until the result was something like a gigantic ‘sole’ with its head and tail cut off square. This raft was our bottom or floor, four planks wide in the middle, and three planks wide at each end.

I wanted my boat to have not exactly a flat bottom, but one that should rise, or ‘spring,’ some two inches fore and aft. This gives a punt more buoyancy in rowing, and also enables it to be run aground easily, and to be pushed off without ‘sucking.’ A perfectly flat-bottomed punt sticks or clings to a shallow, muddy shore. If it is slightly curved, it is shoved off without any difficulty. The question was how to curve it.

We built our punt in a barn, with crossbeams overhead. First I got two trestles, rather narrower than the ends of the bottom, and rested its ends upon them, there being some three or four inches to spare between the trestles and the ends of the bottom. It stood quite flat and stiff. You could not bend it with any pressure from the hand. I then measured the distance between its surface and a beam under which its centre stood at right angles, and found it to be exactly 11 ft. I next cut a length off a young fir-tree, which lay by our saw-pit, 11 ft. 2 in. in length, and requested our carpenter to set it upright on the middle of the punt floor, under the beam. Of course he could not. It was 2 in. too long. Then I got him and his assistant to stand on the bottom of the punt, whose ends just rested on the trestles, with three or four inches to spare, and to see if the tree would not then stand under the beam. It did easily. Then he and his assistant stepped off, and, lo! the punt floor, in trying to recover its flatness, was rigidly fixed, with a ‘spring’ or curve, fore and aft, of 2 in.

The fabric, so far, was steadied for further operations. Then I took two clean 9-in. planks, 1 in. thick, planed on both sides, and, keeping them duly apart with boards set edgewise the width of the punt bottom, nailed them to the sides. They bent quite easily, without any assistance from heat, and at once we had the two sides of our punt. I had these sides considerably longer than the bottom, in order that the punt might have projecting ends, and so be more easily stepped into from the shore when run up ‘end on.’ Then we got two pieces of wide elm plank for the two ends of our punt. These were the whole width of the end of the floor, and sloped out fore and aft. To these we nailed the ends of our sides, and the result was at once a very shipshape punt, but without any knees or thwarts. These we put in afterwards, as is usual in boat-building.

But the sides, though high enough to make a punt capable of carrying a considerable load, were too low to carry rowlocks unless the rower sat on the bottom of the boat. Thus we put on one other plank on each side 9 in. deep and 1 in. thick. It overlapped the other 2 in., and was long enough to continue the projection of the ends. It fitted very closely. We nailed these two side planks on with long copper nails, and put in other pieces of elm for the ends. Outside the top of these second planks we also nailed a strip 2 in. deep and 1 in. thick. This made the gunwale of the punt nearly 2 in. wide, and capable of receiving thowls, or pins.

The seats, or thwarts, we rested on the top of the lower side planks. This gave a seat of about 7 in. high for the rower, and sufficient height for the bed of the rowlock above the level of the rower’s seat, namely 7 in., which is about the usual rule. We strengthened the thwarts with oak knees against the upper side planks. This, moreover, gave great rigidity to the whole fabric of the punt. We also used oak knees or angles, called, in boat-building language, ‘hooks,’ at the four corners of the gunwale, nailing them in horizontally, and thus much tightening the punt at each corner.

The disposition of the thwarts in such a boat is matter of much importance. They should be at the proper distance from the rowlocks, and the rower should not take up too much of the available space in the punt. We arranged ours thus, and they answered admirably. The floor, be it remembered, was 12 ft. long. We ‘middled’ this, and set the centres of the two thwarts 18 in. from this line. This gave 3 ft. as the distance between the centres of the two thwarts, and their position in the boat was such that one rower by himself sat just where his weight should be; so did two, and both sat well away from any ‘sitter’ in the end of the boat. The distance of 3 ft. between the centre of the thwarts enables the rowlocks to be correctly placed. They should come exactly halfway between the thwarts. By having three rowlocks on each side, equidistant, the rower or rowers had only to turn round and row in the opposite direction, the boat having stem and stern alike. This is convenient under some circumstances, as when there is not room to pull the boat itself round. The thwarts themselves should be 9 in. wide, and two boards of the same width at each end, resting on the top of the lower side planks, make sufficient accommodation for sitters, who, by the arrangement of thwarts and rowlocks which I have described, are well out of reach of the rower’s legs in a punt of the size we made. Altogether the result was excellent. The boat rowed with much lightness and ease, and would carry four or five adults. It was, moreover, very stiff in the water. There was no fear of it turning over when rowers shifted places. It ran far up on shore, so that ladies could step in and out dry-shod.

I should say that we made the ends project about 18 in. fore and aft, while the floor of the punt was 12 ft. long. Thus our length over all was 15 ft. If I built another I think I should make each of the ends project 2 ft., and curve the gunwale a little, giving it a drop of an inch or two in the middle. This gives an agreeable curve, and takes off the severe straightness of the upper line, which I must confess rather marred the ‘elegance’ of our punt as she lay on the water. A very little curve or wave-line produces the desired effect.

The cost of building our punt was not very much. I have before me the bill of the carpenter for wood, time, and some of the nails. It is £6 5s., and he was longer over it than he would have been had it not been his first attempt. Besides this, I had to buy the rest of the nails. Ours were mostly zinc, but on another occasion I should use only copper. The additional expenses were the oak knees for strengthening the boat, and the varnish with which we ‘dressed’ her. We used no paint, and only two or three places in the seams outside were ‘caulked’ with a little oakum.

I would advise the builder of such a punt, when not able to do the work himself, to employ an intelligent carpenter who makes his joints close. The whole cost, all expenses included, was between £7 and £8—the larger proportion being for labour, which sharp boys might themselves supply—and the fabric certainly seems as if it would last well. It has now passed its second year of service, and is as tight as a bottle, though it has been somewhat roughly used. For such a punt I should have had to pay at a boat-builders some £15, and I do not see why one built as I have advised should not be as strong and serviceable as any could be. The only point is that I would advise copper rivets, and not zinc, to be used throughout.

Of course, the expense might be lessened by using thinner wood, and therefore less heavy copper rivets. It is indeed a disputed question whether copper or iron nails and rivets should be used for fresh-water boats. Many Thames watermen prefer iron. This would, of course, make the cost of the punt less. I had our sides one inch thick, in order that the boat might stand very heavy work, and in case of cracking from extreme heat, might be cured without danger of battering the sides in by caulking them, and without the necessity of patching them. I should add that we strengthened the ends with stout oak stem and stern posts nailed or riveted up the centre of the ends inside. They should be about 2 in. square. Into these we drove staples, to which a rope could be fastened.

I should, moreover, advise iron pins instead of, or as well as, ordinary thowls. We had them as well as thowls, there being halfway between each thowl-hole a hole for an iron pin half an inch thick. Then, if we wished to use thowls, we took the pins out, or vice versâ. The advantage of pins which run through the oar in places where the punt is used for fishing is, that the oars may be left on the pins without risk of slipping overboard.

“The great thing in punting is not to lose your pole.”

But it is also important not to lose your punt!

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CHAPTER XXVII.—RAFTS AND CATAMARANS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM.
By W. J. Gordon and W. L. Alden.

Over twenty years ago the Fairlie foundered in the Indian Ocean. Spars had been thrown overboard to form a raft, yet before anything but the skeleton of the framework could be lashed together the ship went down. The crew jumped into the square, scrambled on to the boundary spars, and remained astride them with their legs in the sea until they were rescued a day or two afterwards.

This is as simple a raft as any recorded in shipwreck annals. But what is a raft? It is indeed a difficult thing to define. Rafts are of all shapes and sizes, varying from the few booms of the Fairlie up to the elaborate raft of the Medusa, of which the model was shown in the London Fisheries Exhibition. A raft would seem to be any floating substance on which a man can sit or stand. Boys have paddled in a pond on rafts of a couple of planks, soldiers have crossed rivers on rafts of barn-doors, and we hear of armies using rafts of house-roofs, and wooden-shed walls, and casks and inflated skins, and pontoons of all shapes, of tin, zinc, copper, iron, leather, wood, and canvas.

Perhaps the simplest kind of river raft is that common in South Africa, where a stack of reeds some fifty feet in diameter is pushed into the water and allowed to float down stream, each day, as the under stems get waterlogged, more being cut from the banks and thrown on to the heap. A similar rough raft is not uncommon amongst us in winter, when the ice is very thin, for if a heap of reeds is then thrown on to a slab of ice, and well watered, a solid mass can be built up with alternate layers of reeds and ice which will float considerable weights. Besides the floating stack there is another reed raft in use amongst the Kaffirs, made of a mattress of reeds about four feet long, three feet broad, and eight inches thick, tied together with strips of the reeds themselves, with reed posts and railing round.

Skins stretched and inflated are in use all over the globe for raft purposes. In Peru a hide pinched up at the corners, secured there with a thorn, and dried in the sun, furnishes the only boat. In another American form we have holes bored all round the edge, a thong run through them and pulled tight over a framework of withies,—in fact, a coracle such as the Celts were so fond of, the washing basket with the waterproof covering which exists on the coast of Ireland to this day.

The contracting force exercised by skins as they dry has a great deal to do with the water-tight qualities of hide boats, as, in all cases, the framework is covered as soon as possible after the death of the animal.

It is astonishing what simple things have been made into boats. Admiral Fitzroy once sent a party of sailors ashore, and while they were encamped their boat was stolen. Out of the boughs of the trees around them they made a large basket, covered it with their canvas tent, puddled the inside with a little clay, and put to sea, spending eighteen hours in this crazy contrivance before they got back to safety.

Alexander’s army passed the Indus, as Hannibal’s did the Rhine, on rafts made of inflated skins, or of skins stuffed with hay. On the Tigris and elsewhere at this very day such goat-skin rafts are still in use. The skins are lashed to a framework with one of the legs of each animal upwards; through this leg the air is driven in, and, as the traveller journeys down the stream, he visits the skins in succession and blows in fresh air to make up for what has escaped. A single ox-hide when inflated is said to make a float capable of sustaining three hundred pounds.

Casks are almost invaluable in raft-making, and many a shipwrecked crew has been saved on a platform lashed to floating barrels. One of the early lifeboats simply consisted of a boat with holes bored in her bottom and empty casks lashed inside her, the casks giving the floating power while the shape of the boat was retained. Four spars lashed together with a cask at each corner and a square of canvas fixed on them was all that one of the patent life-rafts consisted of.

Casks furnish great floating power in such a convenient form that it is hardly to be wondered at that they have been used over and over again in the construction of military bridges where boats have been unattainable. They are, however, but a makeshift, pontoons nowadays being always carried. When Darius crossed the Bosphorus and afterwards the Danube he did it on a bridge of boats oft very elaborate construction. When Xerxes crossed the Hellespont he had two bridges, one consisting of three hundred and sixty vessels anchored side by side and head to stern, and another, nearer the Archipelago, of three hundred and fourteen vessels similarly anchored. These were connected by cables, a platform of planks was laid stretching from each to each, and on the platform from shore to shore there was laid a thick bed of earth to form the road on which the Persian hosts passed into Europe. At Xenophon’s passage of the Tigris thirty-seven vessels were used.

The most famous boat-bridge in modern times was that thrown by the British over the Adour when Wellington invaded France. The bridge was 810 feet long, and was at first supported on hawsers, which were kept tight by capstans placed in the centre of each of the thirty to forty-ton chassemarées which formed the piers. These chassemarées were moored side by side at a distance of forty feet from each other’s centres, so that the intervals were equal. The platform was after a day or two shifted on to balks. To protect the bridge a boom was thrown across the river on each side of it. The best of the raft-bridges was Sokolniki’s over the Niemen at Grodno in 1792. The trunks, fifty to sixty feet long and about two feet in diameter, were lashed together in tens and joined end to end until they reached across the stream. The bridge was three hundred and sixty yards in length, and formed a great curve towards the current, with the centre of the curve supported by an anchored vessel. These trunks were lashed together. A better plan, however, is that adopted by the Canadian timber-men, who cross-lay their rafts, bore an auger-hole at the corners through both thicknesses, and fix a wedge in the cleft end of the stick which keeps them together. As the stick is driven home the wedge is forced upwards into the end and makes all fast.

On the coast of India it is a very common thing to see two or three natives afloat on a raft made of three logs of wood—of the pine varnish-tree—the centre log being about five-and-twenty feet long and the breadth of the three together about a yard. These rafts are manœuvred with very great dexterity, and safely brave the roughest seas. Similar to them is the Brazilian catamaran, which carries a large triangular sail.

The Cingalese catamaran is a log of wood rounded beneath, and scooped out, with two planks lashed on the top, so as to increase the height above water. It has a boat-shaped outrigger, supported on two curved poles, to enable it to carry the large lug-sail, which in a fresh breeze so heels it over that the crew have to sit well out to windward on the connecting-bars to balance the swift but crazy craft. In the Mauritius the catamaran is an ordinary boat with a smaller boat at the end of the outrigger, in which is set a peculiar mizzen. In the Fijis the catamaran becomes a double canoe, with both hulls exactly the same, and bearing a platform giving just a little play, so as to allow of the individual peculiarities of the boats being sufficiently humoured.

These boats, although they may in a few rare cases upset end on—that is, turn a somersault—are the safest craft in the world, for, consisting as they do of double hulls sustaining a raft, should anything go wrong with the hulls, the raft will never sink, but will simply settle down until it floats on the waves. Owing to the great breadth there can be no question of ‘initial stability,’ and an ordinary capsize is impossible, while the very light draught of the hulls will take the craft over places where even a rowing-boat would meet her doom.

To build such a craft is not difficult, and Mr. W. L. Alden has recently shown us how it can be well and cheaply done. Adopting the principle of the flying proa of the Ladrones, which are credited with their twenty knots on a beam wind, he makes his hulls quite flat on one side, and thus avoids the ‘funnel difficulty,’ as it was called in the case of the Castilia and other steam catamarans, where the inner sides of the hulls being curved, the water between them was heaped up as it rushed through the narrowing strait. To make such a catamaran as that shown in our [sketch]—a craft speedy, safe, and handy, which is easily built, and will bear any amount of rough usage—four deal planks are required. These should be fifteen feet long, eighteen inches wide, and an inch thick. The width is unusually great, but should single boards not be obtainable, two or three boards can be keyed together so as to make it up. Take one of the planks, which should have been bought ready planed, divide it into five equal parts as shown in the diagram, and at each of the four divisions screw, with brass screws, a three-inch batten three-quarters of an inch thick. This will not only prevent the plank from warping, but will strengthen the joints if you are working with a board that has been made up.

Fig. 1-6.—Construction of Catamaran.

[Fig. 1-6 enlarged] (146 kB)

Now shape the ends as shown in [Fig. 1], first with a saw and then with a draw-knife and spokeshave. Take another of your eighteen-inch planks and treat it in exactly the same manner, and when you have finished the curves, which should exactly resemble the others, cut off along the longer side an inch and three-quarters off every cross-piece, so that when the planks are placed at right angles together they will fit close. Whitelead these edges thoroughly, and then nail the planks together with galvanised iron nails, as shown in [Fig. 2], which gives you a section end-on. Now cut four quadrants eighteen and a quarter inches radius, and off one side cut a strip an inch wide and trim the other end so as to leave you a piece of the shape shown in [Fig. 3], one side of which (A B) is seventeen inches long, and the other (A C), eighteen inches, and which is so made to fit exactly into the angle made by the broad plank and close against the battens as sketched in [Fig. 4]. Finish all the edges off smooth and square and true, whitelead them well, and fix them in with galvanised iron nails.

Now make, or get made, six iron staples such as are shown in [Fig. 5], where the distance from A to B horizontally and A to C vertically is just four inches. The iron is best an inch and a half wide, between an eighth and a quarter of an inch thick, and in it should be three holes, shown at P and in the ears marked H, large enough for quarter-inch bolts. You also require six other staples of the shape shown in [Fig. 6], made of half-inch rod iron with counter-sunk sockets for the screws, and these, like the eared sockets, must be four inches wide.

Figs. 7 and 8.

Fig. 9.

Screw down one of these eared sockets just where the curve goes off on the narrower side, as shown in [Fig. 7], and in the centre fix a third. Use galvanised nuts and bolts for fastening, with a thin leather washer under the bolt and an oak washer under the nut, and make the holes watertight by hard screwing and plenty of whitelead. To the other edge at the angle, and so as to project beyond it and correspond with the eared sockets, fix your flat staples, as shown in [Fig. 8], so that a bar can be passed through each, as shown in [Fig. 9]. Along the centre of the board above which the staples project bore five holes an inch in diameter, one in the centre of each of the five divisions with which you started, and then having first fitted a thin batten from A to B, as shown in [Fig. 4], and let it down flush into the quadrants, give the construction a thorough coating of red-lead paint inside and out.

Next get some canvas forty inches wide. Coat it well with boiled oil, dry it thoroughly, and placing the lower edge of your framework along its centre, strain it up tight all round. Use copper nails to fasten it with, and running a streak of paint along its lower edge, finish it there with a thin oak batten, steamed to shape if necessary, and screwed on outside while the paint is wet, so as to serve for protection and form the keel. Now give your pontoon a good even coat of paint, and when that is thoroughly dry give it a trial coat of any colour you please.

Now make another pontoon in exactly the same way, and when it is finished fasten both hulls together with three pieces of scantling, as shown in [Fig. 9]. The cross-bars should be nine feet long and four inches square, and kept in their places by copper bolts slipped into them through the holes in the centre of each of the sockets.

Next make a platform of quarter-inch boards by nailing them together in two layers at right angles to each other. Use copper nails and clinch them. Round the outside of the platform run a low ridge of hard wood, so as to turn it into a tray, as shown in the sketch, and keep the water off the edges of the boards. Cut out a dozen grooves for the tops of the sockets to sink into; put the platform flat down on the cross-bars, and screw it into its place with galvanised nuts and bolts passing through the bars. The catamaran is now finished and ready for the mast, which can be stepped in an iron collar raised on three strong iron supports about twenty inches long, strongly riveted and bolted into the deck. Her sails and spars are made in the ordinary manner, the same as those of other boats as previously described. She requires a traverse or ring for the painter, and a rowlock to steer her by, and then, having carefully overhauled her to see that she is thoroughly watertight, whiteleaded every crack and crevice, and remembered throughout her construction never to have nailed a nail or screwed a screw without first covering it with whitelead, you can give her a farewell top coat of colour. Wait till she is thoroughly dry, and then, having placed a cork securely in each of the ten holes leading to her watertight compartments, which holes were made for you to get the water out in case any should leak in, you can launch her, seize your steering rudder, and be off. She will go anywhere and do anything, providing always that the waves are not rough enough to wash you off her deck.

Fig. 10.—A Safe Craft.

Says Mr. Alden: ‘There is no better boat to cruise in than such a catamaran. At night you anchor her, unship your mast, pitch your tent, and sleep safely and comfortably. If you come to a dam you can take the craft apart and carry her round piecemeal. If you once try to build a catamaran and succeed—as you certainly will if you have patience—you will have the safest and most comfortable sail-boat in the world.’

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SECTION VI.
PLEASANT AND PROFITABLE OCCUPATIONS FOR SPARE HOURS.

A Case of Sea-birds.

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CHAPTER XXVIII.—PRACTICAL HINTS ON TAXIDERMY.
By Lieut.-Colonel Cuthell, late 13th Hussars.

I.—CATCHING AND SETTING BUTTERFLIES.

It is surprising at how early an age the sporting instincts of the English race develop. The ordinary schoolboy let loose for the summer holidays, when not actively engaged at any game, is apt to look about him for something to destroy, and to destroy aimlessly and indiscriminately also. Now there are few surer protections against such a reprehensible habit than to make the Creator’s works in some branch or other a special study. The practical entomologist never kills for the mere sake of killing, and when he does deprive of life he endeavours to do so with as little cruelty as possible. Hence we need make no apology for this chapter. When we consider how many men hunt for exercise, or for food or clothing for the body, one can hardly consistently condemn a little margin to feed the mind.

Most boys have a taste for natural history, and the following practical hints may, it is hoped, tend to develop it, by teaching them not only how to destroy life, but how to preserve what they have destroyed. Thus they may learn wonderful lessons regarding the habits and the structure of the marvellous insects and birds and beasts with which the Almighty has peopled this beautiful world of ours.

I propose to begin with hints about butterflies, because the average British boy is apt first to turn his hunting instincts to these. Yet the catching and collecting of butterflies is a pursuit worthy of any age, and, to be done well, requires dexterity, delicacy of touch, and care. Under these conditions, and armed with a few simple implements, there is no reason why any boy should not, in time, become the happy possessor of one of the most beautiful of natural history collections, the which, should fate ever call upon him to leave his native shores, he will, in other climes, find a new pleasure in increasing. For butterflies may be collected in many a dull, out-of-the-way quarter, where larger game is conspicuous by its absence, or the means of pursuing it wanting.

The first consideration, however, is the momentous question, as to which is a butterfly and which is a moth? The answer to this is, that butterflies have blunt ends like pins-heads at the points of their antennæ, and that moths have none. In England there are seventy-two sorts of butterflies, not to be confounded with night or day moths, which number over nine hundred families in this country alone. A point which strikes the collector almost at the beginning, are the extremely local habits of butterflies. In almost every place new specimens are to be found, and the varied flight of each kind will soon lead the collector to learn to detect a new species. These are usually classed by their undermarkings, as many which present the same appearance on the top side are different underneath. My small boy, with his rough cotton net and wild shout, left very little of the unfortunate insect he had captured, to put into his trouser pocket! The greatest care and manipulation are required to procure a specimen fit for a collection.

The net should be of silk gauze, fitted on to the circle of cane, nearly eighteen inches across. The two ends of the cane should run into a T-shaped brass socket. The foot of the T is a screw, which screws into the stick handle, the which may be used also either to hold a gaff or a landing net. The circle of cane should be covered with some soft thick flannel, firstly, that the silk gauze may be sewn on securely, and, secondly, that the butterflies, which are often struck by the rim of the net, are not injured by it. The flannel is, moreover, a saving to the wear and tear of the net.

Another kind of net is the collector’s scissor net, with which you can pick a butterfly off a flower. It is about five inches square, in the form of two bags mounted one on each point of a wire, which opens and shuts.

Having caught the butterfly, the next thing is to kill him. A pinch through the net, across the thorax (the part from which the wings spring) will accomplish this. For obstinate specimens, such as ‘skippers,’ a lethal chamber can be prepared, in the shape of a wide-mouthed two-pound jam bottle, with a well-fitting cork. At the bottom of this is fixed some blotting-paper, on which a few drops of chloroform have been poured. The butterfly should be left in the bottle a quarter of an hour.

The specimens can be carried home in safety in a collector’s box, about five inches long by three deep and broad, in the pocket. Triangular envelopes, varying in size, according to that of the butterfly, are often used. Into these the insects can be slipped with folded wings, and left for any length of time till it is convenient to relax and set him.

Fig. 1.

Now for the setting of the butterfly. Drying-boards can be bought of any length, made either of soft deal, or, better still, of cork, covered with white paper. They have a groove down the centre to receive the insect’s body. Different widths are required for different-sized insects. Place the row of butterflies to be set down the board, their bodies pinned in the groove. Cut strips of writing paper an eighth of an inch wide. Pin a strip of paper on each side of the groove, about the centre. Secure it additionally by a pin between each butterfly. With the point of a pin arrange the wings equally under the strips ([Fig. 1]). These drying-boards should be kept out of the dust, or ants or flies may damage the specimens. Some people have a box with a perforated zinc door, into which they slide the boards. I called such an one my meat safe!

In the case of dried specimens preserved in envelopes and which need relaxing before setting, there are two ways of going to work. The first is to float a piece of cork in hot water, and to pin the specimen on to the cork. The wings should not touch the water. A saucepan is a good thing to use, as the lid can be put on. The cork should float high in the water.

But the best plan is to steam them in a tin box with cork in the lid. Pin the insects to the cork and half fill the box with boiling water, and close it. If the boiling water as it cools is renewed two or three times, in an hour or so the insects will be perfectly relaxed. They should then be set at once, after shaking off the drops from the wings, and placed near enough to the fire to feel the heat and to dry quickly, but not too near. The outer margins of the wings should be covered with the setting braces (the paper strips), or they will curl up with the heat. The wings should, if possible, not be allowed to touch the cork when being relaxed, as they suck up the moisture.

A butterfly cabinet with drawers is very expensive, and beyond the means of most boys. Cases to hold the butterflies should be uniform in size, made of mahogany, seasoned deal, or cedar, and lined with cork, to be procured at any shoemaker’s, and fitted with a glass lid on hinges. These can be hung as ornaments against the wall. In one corner should be fixed a little perforated tin match box containing a lump of camphor. The appearance of a collection is much improved by having a piece of black cotton stretched from two pins down the box, between the lines of butterflies. Cases for travelling should on no account be glazed, but be shaped like a book, with a hinge in the centre, that the butterflies may be put on either side.

The pins used had better be the headless taxidermist pins, sold for the purpose, which being so much slighter than the ordinary pins, do not spoil the specimens.

Should the larger butterflies show signs of decay in their bodies, paint them with a little solution of carbolic acid, equal parts of acid and water.

It is unnecessary to catch more than four or five good specimens of each class. First, the male (which is much smaller than the female), secondly, the female, can be set out. Then two butterflies, which have been set with their wings closed to show the undermarkings, can be placed body to body to economise space. The fifth specimen may be some abnormal one of the same class, if such has been caught.

All valuable collections are kept away from the light, which deteriorates them. In the British Museum but few specimens are shown to the general public, and even the cases containing these are covered with a square of American cloth, which the public are asked to replace after looking at them. The real collection is kept downstairs, and can only be seen by applying for an order.

Some of the best specimens in England have been bred for collection from the caterpillar. This accounts, to my mind, for the occasional appearance of some brilliant foreign specimen in this country. It has probably escaped from some one’s menagerie. I caught last year, on the southern coast, a beautiful specimen of the North American linea plexippus in such perfect condition that it could not possibly have been wafted across the Atlantic.

No creature in Nature goes through such marvellous evolutionary changes as the butterfly. It emerges from the chrysalis hanging on the bough, the male appearing fifteen days earlier than the female. This latter lays her eggs, as it were, on her death-bed, and they are hatched the following year into the minutest of larvæ. Each kind of butterfly lays its eggs in a spot where the caterpillar can procure the food peculiar to it. Thus caterpillars kept in confinement require each kind a different sort of leaf. Some caterpillars hibernate and do not turn into a chrysalis till the second year.

In concluding this part of my subject, I must warn boys against handling hairy caterpillars with bare hands, as when the hand touches the face or neck it is apt to produce a rash like nettle-rash.

II.—HOW TO CURE AND SET UP A BIRD’S SKIN.

The wholesale destruction, for the sheer love of taking life, which goes on at all seasons round our seacoasts, is simply appalling. It is trusted that these hints on bird-stuffing may not stimulate it, but rather, by leading boys to take an interest in the marvellous structure of bird life, to venerate and spare it, shooting only here and there a solitary specimen for preservation.

On inspecting a bird which is intended for stuffing, it must be borne in mind that many species change their plumage in summer and in winter. This applies especially to sea-birds, and it is often difficult to recognise an individual in his sober winter garb as contrasted with his rich summer attire. Therefore it is quite allowable to preserve two specimens of the same sex and class, in order to show the difference in their plumage.

Mid-winter or midsummer is the best time to shoot birds for stuffing, as when they have been recently sitting, or moulting, their feathers are apt to be worn or only half formed. Be careful to use only small shot and small charges, at short distances, for small birds, or the skin will be irretrievably damaged. Increase the charge in proportion to the size of the bird, but it should never be a very heavy one. A friend once brought me to stuff a tame parrot of his which had flown away. Thinking to injure the skin the less, he had shot it with a charge of peas, but with the result of crushing it almost to a jelly, tearing the skin so that it was useless.

In the event of the bird being only wounded, press the breast bone in with the finger and thumb till life be extinct. This operation will not take more than two minutes. Push a piece of cotton wool down the throat, a piece of thread through the nose just above the beak, and make a loop to hold the bird by. Carefully examine the bird for any wounds, and stop such with a small plug of cotton wool. This will prevent the blood staining the feathers. Smooth down these with a handkerchief and pull out any that are bloodstained, as the sacrifice of a feather here and there is immaterial.

When the bird is brought safely home, it must be decided whether it should be slit down the back or down the breast, or whether, as in the case of large-headed birds like kingfishers, a small incision should be made in the throat, to skin the head through. But first, as regards the implements for the process, which need only be few and simple—a couple of dissecting knives with celt handles, a pair of pointed scissors, a large fish-hook, and a small gouge for the eyes being all that is required for the skinning process. For the setting-up we must add a file for giving the wires a sharp point, and a pair of compasses to measure the body.

Then place the bird on its back, and cut it open from the top of the breast bone to within a short distance of the vent. If, however, the specimen is one remarkable for the beauty of its breast plumage, the process must be reversed. Break both the wing bones under the wings, and place a clean piece of wool in the mouth. Remove the skin with the celt handle of the knife. Here it must be explained that the term celt handle is derived from the prehistoric flint implements dug up in ancient barrows, and which, being necessarily blunt, have given their names to the blunt bone handles of dissecting knives. As you work along sprinkle the skin with a powder of wood ash, plaster-of-paris, or flour. It is a great help to have a fish-hook run through the top of the breast bone, and held firmly by another person, or tied to a hook on the wall. The neck must be cut through when it is met with, likewise the wings where they are broken, and the top joints of the legs. Use great care in drawing the skin down the back, as that is very frequently the most delicate place.

The Head.—If the head is very much larger than the neck, cut the throat lengthways to remove the head. It is immaterial whether the eyes are taken out before the head is skinned down or after. The gouge should go well to the back of the eye and separate the ligament which holds it to the socket. Should the gouge go into the eye, it will let out the moisture, which often damages the skin. Some people crush the skull slightly to make it come out of the skin easily, but this I do not advise. Remove the brains by taking out a piece of the skull at the back as you cut off the neck. Pull the eyes out of their cavity and fill up their place with wool soaked in arsenical soap. Anoint the skin of the head and the neck well with arsenical soap, and place in the neck a piece of stick covered with wool, the end of which put into the hole made in the skull for extracting the brains.

The Wings.—Remove the meat from the wings on the inside as far as you can skin. When you have taken out the body, to finish the wings, cut them open from the outside under the large wing feathers, which be careful not to detach from the large bone. Remove all the meat most carefully, and anoint with arsenical soap.

The Legs.—Skin down as far as you can, remove the meat, anoint the skin with arsenical soap, and cover the leg bones with paper, to prevent them damaging the skin.

The Feet can be left alone, unless large, when they can be cut into and anointed.

The Tail and the Back, if that of a large bird and very fat, like that of a peacock, should be well covered with wood ash, and scraped till as much fat as can be removed comes away. Then anoint freely with arsenical soap, fill the body with wool or paper, not too full, and close it with a couple of stitches across the breast. Smooth all the feathers into their place, and leave in a dry place before packing, for a day or two. Then pack the paper round the whole, to prevent the skin from being damaged.

So far the skin has only been cured, an operation which, in the case of a small bird and practised hands, takes about seven minutes. Next for the setting up. Though the skin thus preserved may be laid by and keep good for years, and may at any time be set up by a professional, yet it is a great amusement for a boy to stuff his birds himself, and this is how it is done:—

Fig. 2.

The body and the neck which have been taken out of the bird serve as models. The former is copied in tow, wound round with cotton. Through this is run a sharp-pointed piece of wire, bent over and fastened at the tail end. It protrudes beyond the body, is wrapped round with tow or wool to imitate the neck, and run up the latter, from which the stick has been removed. The point is run through the skull, bent back and made fast ([Fig. 2]).

Then run a sharpened wire up each leg, inside, starting from beneath the foot, and sticking into the body, where it is doubled back. Be careful that these wires are exactly in the centre of the body, or the legs will appear too far back.

The body and neck of the bird are now stuffed, but form a straight line. Sew up the breast with a few stitches, and with the following manipulation give the right curve to the neck: Bend it back at a little more than a right angle to the body, pressing with the thumb where the neck joins the body. Then press with the thumb at the back of the neck, and with the other hand pull the neck forward again. This will give it the desired graceful curve.

In a small piece of board, drill two holes in the position in which you wish the feet to be. Run the wires of the feet through these, turn them back, and fix them. Push the body slightly back, and, at the same time, bend the legs at the joints. If the bird is flying, the legs should not be bent, but straight out parallel with the body.

The position of the wings must also depend on that of the bird. If it is flying, they must be kept stretched out by a wire run through underneath them horizontally, catching each individual feather. If the wings are closed, needle points are enough to pin them through to the body. The thickness of the wire must depend on the size of the bird. The tail must be likewise fixed with wire. The eyes may now be put in by opening the eyelids and forcing them down far enough into the head, and then carefully manipulating the eyelid to get the eye to sit right. When a bird is first shot the colour of the eye should be noticed, and be matched as nearly as possible when buying the glass eyes.

When thus completed, the specimen will often present a battered and ugly appearance, but it is wonderful how much it will improve with careful touching up, and arranging the feathers with a needle point or probe. Varnishing the beak and legs is a further improvement. An artistic effect is obtained by considering the nature and habits of the specimen, and studying its natural poses. For instance, a pheasant struts with a straight neck, a swan sits on the water with its neck gracefully arched.

The arsenical soap above mentioned can be procured at any chemist’s, or made as follows: camphor, five drachms; arsenic, four ounces; white soap, four ounces; flaked lime, four ounces; mix with a little water into a soft paste.

Before using the arsenical soap, be careful to remove every scrap of meat from the skin. Be most careful, also, to wash the hands after using it.

A group of birds can be arranged in a case on imitation rocks, in the following manner: Lay a piece of paper over the wood stand on which the birds are fixed, and arrange it in the shape of rock and stones. Pour over it a hot solution consisting of one part glue, one part whiting, and one part sand, which in a short time becomes very hard. Dried stick, ferns, and grasses, or shells, can be added.

III.—ON PRESERVING THE SKINS AND HEADS OF ANIMALS.

Although the manner of setting-up animals is somewhat similar to that of birds, the mode of preserving the skins and furs is very different. Whereas a bird has a most delicate skin, and is eventually put into a glass case out of the dust, an animal’s hide, in nine cases out of ten, is either used as a carriage or hearth rug, or a footstool, or, as in the case of a head, hung unprotected against the wall.

As in all probability tiger and buffalo skins will not come in the way of the readers of these lines, it is rather such ‘small deer’ as the denizens of our English woods they will be anxious to preserve, to wit, foxes’ heads, cats, otters, stoats, weazels, moles, or water-rats. But the following hints apply equally to a tiger-skin or a squirrel’s:—

Let us begin by imagining the keeper has brought in a fine large poaching cat. Take the beast to an out-house, and in the shade lay it on its back, and with a butcher’s, or indeed any sharp knife, make a long, straight, but not too deep cut, from the centre of the lower jaw to the end of the tail. Then cut down the legs on the underneath side till the cut down the centre of the body is reached. Now separate the skin from the body. If the animal has been badly shot, wash the skin thoroughly in cold soap and water. Place it in water for twenty-four hours. Then take it out and scrape it well from any fat; skin the ears on the inside and plunge it into a hot solution of one part salt and two parts alum, and let it soak well in. The solution should not be hotter than the hand can bear, and the skin should be left in it twenty-four hours. Then stretch the skin, hair downwards, on a board, nailing it with tacks round the edge. Be careful to get it the proper shape, and that one side is not more stretched than the other. Next apply a paste made of one part finely powdered alum, two parts chalk. When this is dry beat it off with a stick, and apply some more where the skin seems still to contain grease. After this remove the skin from the board when quite dry, and the more it is rubbed with the hand, the softer it will become.

Another process is to wash the skin well, and to peg it out on the ground or on a board, to rub it well with wood ashes, and to sprinkle it with carbolic acid and water in proportion of one part to thirty. Next with a knife cleanse the skin most thoroughly of every particle of flesh and fat, and rub in more wood ash till there is no grease left. Then keep the skin perfectly dry till you have an opportunity of sending it to a tanner’s. But no skin or fur, whether tanned or not, should ever be put in the sun. A good shaking and hanging out in the air is the best thing for it.

It is obvious that if a skin is to be used as a rug, the use of arsenic or other poisons is out of the question, though where an animal is to be set up and put in a glass case, like a weazel or a stoat, this rule does not apply. In this latter case an incision is made between the forelegs and down the belly, large enough to allow of the animal’s body being extracted. The skin, when properly cleaned from fat and flesh, is plunged into cold carbolic acid and water, in the proportion of one part carbolic to forty of water. After lying in this for a week, it can be taken out and freely anointed with arsenical soap previous to setting up.

And now for the treatment of the head of a horned animal. Within six or eight hours of the death of the beast, cut off the head with a long neck. Cut the skin down the back of the neck as far as the two horns. Should the animal have no horns, this is unnecessary; should it have spiral horns, cut only up to one and round the other. Then remove the skin entirely from the skull, taking care that the skin round the eyes does not get injured, as it is a most delicate place, the skin there is so thin, and lies so close to the bone. Hang the head up in the outhouse and scrape and clean at leisure. Saw off a bit of the skull, and remove the brains. On no account lose the lower jawbones when they become detached.

Horns that will come off the bone, such as antelope’s, sheep’s, or goat’s, soak for a day or two in a tub of water a week or two after the animal has been killed.

Wash the skin well in soap and water, removing all the bits of meat. Split the lips and skin up the ears from the inside as far as you can, removing as much meat from them as can be filled in afterwards with cotton wool and not detected from the outside when the head is set up. Then place the skin in a jar of carbolic acid and water, enough to cover it, and let it remain there for six or eight weeks, until opportunity occurs to set up the head. It could even be packed up and sent away like this, as it were, in pickle. If the skin be much stained with extravasated blood, a few hours’ soaking in water will draw it out.

Next for the setting-up process. Take the skull, and fasten the upper and lower jaws in their places with wire. Set the skull on a wooden neck, the same length as the natural one, and set this neck on to a wooden shield to hang against the wall. Be careful to set the neck at a natural angle to the head. A deer holds his nose very high; a pig very low. If preferred, the shield can be dispensed with, and the staple by which to hang the head fixed in the wooden neck through the skin.

In many instances a solid wooden neck would be too heavy; but a small one filled out with tow, and fastened into the hole in the skull through which the brains were extracted, will answer the purpose just as well.

Fill the cavities in the skull for the eyes with putty, and put some wool under the jaws, some putty to form the nose, and enough to give a thickness to the nose. Then insert the glass eyes, which, in the case of a large animal, can be made from French wine bottles by breaking out the kick at the bottom. But manufactured eyes are much preferable. I have frequently bought cases of white glass eyes and painted them at the back the right colour. While on the subject of eyes, it may be mentioned that carnivorous animals have the light in the eye down the eye from top to bottom, while granivorous animals have it across.

Next take the skin out of the solution and smear the inside well with a paste of arsenical soap. Put some wool into the ears, and draw the skin over the skull like a glove. Sew up the cut at the back with a shoemaker’s awl. With a few tacks nail the skin on to the shield, and put a few stitches into the mouth to keep it properly closed.

A few pinches and touches will set the head, as it dries, into its natural form. When nearly dry, comb and brush the hair well.

A common mistake is to put wool or putty where there is no meat, which detracts from the wild look of the animal.

Only use white medicated carbolic acid crystal; it liquefies in a little warmth. Carbolic acid is a poison, and will burn the hands and clothes if not carefully handled. The antidote is oil. But when used in the proportion of one to forty parts of water it will do no harm.

The nose and lips of a head can be touched up with a little Brunswick black, and the horns oiled.

In conclusion, let me beg no boy to be discouraged with his first attempt, as often fine furred animals, like a fox, look very woebegone on first emerging from the solution, but improve vastly as they begin to dry and the hair to stand out naturally.

THE SNIPE.

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CHAPTER XXIX.—HINTS ON POLISHING HORN, BONE, SHELLS, STONES, ETC.
By Gordon Stables, C.M., M.D., R.N.

He was a mean-looking man, to say the least of it. Even the coat he wore was a mile too big for him, albeit some time in the far-distant past it might have graced the shoulders of a country squire. Yes, he was decidedly mean-looking, nor did his character, as it came out, belie his appearance.

He shuffled when he walked and he snuffled when he talked, and was altogether unwholesome and undesirable. He and I were the only two—ahem!—gentlemen that stood on the little railway platform of B—— on a cold November morning, waiting for a late train that only stopped by signal.

Having been three or four times round the Cape and twice in the Polar regions, I dare say I look simple. Anyhow, it wasn’t long ere this mean-looking man addressed me.

‘Begging yer parding, sir,’ he said, ‘but could ye spare a trifle to a pore man wot’s got a starving wife and five babs dependin’ on ’im for a lively’ood. Maybe, sir, you’d buy these ’ere ’orns. I seed yer was a lookin’ at ’em, and I seed ye were a gent, sir, soon’s ever I clapped eyes on yer.’

He carried three nicely polished sets of ox-horns in his arms—a large, a medium, and a small.

‘They are very nice indeed,’ I said. ‘Are they attached to the skull?’

‘Oh dear, yes, sir,’ he said; ‘a piece of the skull were a-sawed out for the sake o’ the lovely ’orns, sir.’

‘And where might they come from?’ I asked; ‘and what might be their value?’

‘They belongs to the wild buffalo of the plains of Arfriker, sir. My nevey brought ’em ’ome. Been refused fifteen pound for ’em. You shall ’ave ’em for five, sir, ’cause I can see yer a gent. If I can’t sell ’em, sir, they’ll ’ave to be broke for combs, and that would be a peety, sir, them bootiful harticles, quite a hornament for any gentleman’s ’all like yourn.’

‘Sorry I can’t trade to-day,’ I replied, as I jumped into the train.

I saw no more of the man, for though he alighted at the same town as I did, he sidled his way through the crowd, making determined attempts, one would have thought, to gouge eyes out in all directions with his ‘bootiful ’orns.’ I saw no more of the man, but strange to say I did of the ‘’orns’ that same evening. They had been sold to a friend of mine for just five times their value. They had never come from Africa, of course; the larger pair had at one time probably adorned the head of some Highland bull. The others were probably English.

I do not believe this mean-looking man had polished those horns himself. He looked far too lazy for that; but in justice to the ’orns, if not to the man, I must say they were very well done indeed, and would have made, as he said, ‘quite a hornament for any gentleman’s ’all.’

There is no end to the beautiful articles that can be manufactured from hoof or horn. Stuffed heads with the horns polished look very nice on the walls of rooms or in halls. I was in the drawing-room of a Highland cattle-breeder of fame the other day, and was both surprised and delighted to find on the walls, in recesses and places where there was room, not only the horns but heads, with necks and a portion of the brisket attached, of old favourites looking at me.

A ram’s head, with the crooked horns attached, makes a beautiful snuff-box. The box itself lies between the horns—or rather in the forehead—and is of silver, the lid usually adorned with a gigantic cairn-gorm. My Scotch readers know the sort of thing I mean.

But here we are again with another snuff-horn, more cheaply manufactured too. You simply get a shortish cow-horn and beautifully polish it; then another round flat piece of polished horn to form the lid. To this is attached, by means of silver nails, a piece of cork big enough to fit nicely into the mouth of the horn, and not more than an eighth of an inch thick. Then the lid is complete, and any watchmaker will hinge it on for you. Get also a little heart-shaped bit of silver, let into either the lid or the back of the horn, with the initials of the giver and the givee, thus: ‘From A. H. to W. H.’

Still another—a horse’s hoof. And there are many, many more which I do not at present remember, and need not enumerate if I did. But if you wish to see the many lovely articles that can be manufactured from polished horn, I prithee station thyself for a few brief moments anent a good jeweller’s window in any large city or town in the kingdom, and keep your weather-eye lifting.

Have you ever heard the Latin proverb, Aut Cæsar aut nullus? The English translate it, or paraphrase it, ‘Neck or nothing.’ I have heard a Scotchman speak of a boy in the following terms, which embody the same sentiment: ‘That boy will either make a spoon or spoil a horn.’

Now, then, if you are going to try your hand at horn-polishing, you must please bear that motto in mind, ‘Aut Cæsar aut nullus.’ You must either make a spoon or spoil a horn. But as horns are very cheap in the rough, it does not matter much if you do spoil one or two. Only this sort of work requires patience—and not only patience, but a deal of hard rubbing and much expenditure of elbow-grease.

Well, get your horns first. Where? you ask. You may go to your butcher and explain what you want, and he will tell you that the horns are sawn off with the hide and sent to the tanner’s thus. But if he be a civil man, as most butchers are, he will keep a pair for you, and he will probably knock them off, not saw them, so that you will be at once free from the awkward piece of bone that runs up the first portion of the centre; otherwise you would have to get this taken out.

Now the tools you want are not numerous. A very handy, and in some cases indispensable, one is what is called a spokeshave. It is for paring down the rough surfaces. It is a handy tool for woodwork as well, and as it costs only about eighteen pence, it is as well to have one among your tools. Just let me pause here for one instant to repeat a warning I have given more than once before. Never buy bad cheap tools. What are called boys’ boxes of tools are, as a rule, mere toys—an insult to any growing lad who really means to do proper work. Make your own tool-box; buy your tools separately, and see that they are good. Indeed, it would be as well to get them second-hand at a broker’s shop. No matter if they be a little old so long as the steel is good, and the woodwork neither worn nor cracked.

Well, you must have a good knife with several blades—not a mere pot-metal cheese-cutter. This knife will come in handy for paring and for scraping. And what I myself have found very handy is a piece or two of plain window-glass. Glass makes a capital scraper, and when the edge goes off you have only to break it again and you find another. I shouldn’t wonder if you found a piece of sticking-plaster handy too. Do you know how to bind up a cut? Well, get any dirt there may be in it out first. Then, when the bleeding has stopped, bring the edges together with two or three narrow bits of plaster, leaving a tiny outlet for oozing, put a rag over all, and there you are.

The spokeshave is only to be used in paring down all the rough portions of your horn, and you must work with, and not against, the rough laminæ, that is, from and not towards the points of the horn. You will have a difficulty in holding your work, because the spokeshave is best used with both hands. You may fasten the horn in a vice or on the end of a stick, or any other way that occurs to you.

After the spokeshave the knife will come in handy, but you must have an even surface, and all stains must be removed. You will find the horn get harder and whiter beneath, and semi-transparent. It is down to this you want to go, but no farther.

Then after the knife comes your bit of glass, and while working with this, wherever you see any part out of symmetry, work carefully on that till you get all even and nice. When this is done half the work is finished.

When you have pared and scraped and cut down all unevenness, and have at last got a fairly plain surface by dint of hard labour with spokeshave, knife, and glass—perhaps a fine file may have aided you through some intricacies; this tool comes in handy enough when you want to polish bent horns—then you must have recourse to emery-paper. This is very cheap, and is sold in sheets of different fineness at colour shops or oil-merchants’.

Begin by using the roughest, then finer and finer.

Be tidy with your work. The dust that comes off horn is one of the best things in the world for soiling the waistcoat or nether garments. So place your horn over a piece of brown paper. You thus save your dress and save your dust as well. Put the latter in a saucer, and a drop or two of olive or colza oil over it. Mix and use it with a bit of chamois leather to polish with, after you have finished with the emery-paper or emery-paper and water.

If you feel discouraged and disappointed at want of gloss and beauty, depend upon it you have not worked hard enough. So you must go on again. Use next tripoli, or rouge, or both, first mixed with a little olive oil, and finally dry. Tripoli is the name given to a kind of infusorial earth, which was first found in Tripoli. It is now obtained in certain districts of the United States, and in many parts of Europe.

The name rouge may be somewhat misleading, there being so many different kinds of it. Ladies use a rouge composed of chalk and carmine. This will not do so well for polishing horn. I believe, however, if you take equal parts of carbonate of iron and prepared chalk and rub them up together in a mortar, you will form a very nice rouge for the purpose of polishing either horn or plate. Polishers’ putty-powder is another article used for finishing off horns.

Well, you must put your final touches to the horn or hoof with simple chamois or prepared wash-leather, and after this it ought to shine as if waxed.

You will know by this time that in a horn there is a densely solid tip, and also at the other end a hollow part. The thinner end is used for making combs, etc. It is softened in boiling water, then exposed to a flame till partially fluid, then cut into the shapes desired. In this state the horn can be pulled flat if wished. After it has been pressed and prepared, the piece of horn, comb, or whatever it happens to be, is scraped and polished in the way we have described.

A great many useful articles are made from the solid or tip portion of horns, a great many useful and very beautiful articles, some of which are turned by the lathe, while others are cut. Whip-handles, stick and umbrella handles, and handles for knives and small tools, may be made from horn and afterwards scraped and polished. Goats’ and sheep’s horns are clearer and more transparent than those of the ox. They are not more easy to work on that account, however, but being clear they take staining better. They should be polished before being stained.

I am not sure whether those useful liquid dyes that are sold in the shops would do for staining horn, bone, or ivory, because I have never tried them, but I think if used boiling hot and the articles to be stained thereby were immersed in them for some time, the stain would be permanent. You see I have classed bone, horn, and ivory together, because in this case what is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander. Here are receipts for a few stains:—

Black.—You may stain these substances black, and wood also, by frequent immersion in hot ink, or by leaving them for a few days in the ink, or in a solution of nitrate of silver, twenty grains to the ounce.

The latter preparation is poison, remember, and it will burn and stain the clothes or anything it may come in contact with.

Black may also be got by boiling in a strong decoction of logwood, and afterwards placing in a bath of acetate of iron.

Purple.—This colour is obtained by boiling in a strong decoction of logwood and alum until the proper tint is acquired. It must be done in an enamelled saucepan, else the colour will be a failure.

Red.—You may steep the article in hot red ink, letting it lie for a day or two. See that you get the best and brightest ink procurable. But you may also get a nice colour by first steeping for ten minutes in dilute nitric acid, then immersing in a decoction of cochineal or cochineal dissolved in liquid ammonia.

Scarlet.—This colour is acquired if you steep the articles or boil them in a decoction of brazil-wood or in madder, and then in a solution of muriate of tin.

Blue.—Steeping in a strong solution of sulphate of copper will impart a light blue. If dark blue is wanted, the article must be boiled in a solution of sulphate of indigo in which a little salt of tartar has been dissolved.

Green.—This is got either by boiling for a time in a solution of verdigris in vinegar, or an article already stained blue by the process above mentioned may be steeped in nitro-muriate of tin.

Yellow.—Immerse for a day or two in a solution of chromate of potash, then for a few minutes in boiling-hot solution of sugar-of-lead. Or you may reverse this order and steep first in the sugar-of-lead solution, then in that of chromate of potash.

Now to return for a moment to our horns. After you have nicely polished them you will naturally want to set them up. To do this you must get a piece of thick softish wood, and shape therefrom something in the semblance of a piece of the animal’s skull and forehead that the horns originally belonged to, leaving at each upper side a piece of wood, rounded, some inches long. To these elongated corners you fix the horns. The next thing will be to cover the wooden skull with something resembling the skin of the animal. Real skin, well preserved, will of course suit best, and it is to be brought round and tacked on the nether side. But black or brown astrakan cloth will generally do very well.

Your work is now finished, and you may hang the horns in your hall if you have one; if not, they will look well above the mantelpiece.

Very nice powder-horns may be made in the same way. Lads who wear the kilt, or Highland dress, sling these in a chain over the chest and shoulders, and handsome ornaments they make.

Bones of any kind are polished by paring, scraping, and rubbing in precisely the same way that horns are; and so is ivory, though it is much more difficult to work owing to its hardness. It is also very expensive.

Tortoiseshell requires great care in polishing, because it is thinner than horn, and you are apt to cut through it. Scrape it carefully first with a knife, then with glass, then with very fine glasspaper and water, or bath-brick and oil; next with rottenstone and oil. But the rottenstone must be specially prepared for the purpose. It should be pounded in a mortar—what a handy thing a mortar is for purposes innumerable! and it is not at all an expensive article—pounded well, and afterwards run through fine muslin. It is used mixed with oil.

The final polish for tortoiseshell is obtained by rubbing hard and well with jewellers’ rouge (a preparation of calcined oxide of iron). This is used upon a piece of prepared washleather.

Imitations of tortoiseshell are made from horn. The horn is a clear sort, and generally brought from the South of Europe. The pieces of horn are softened by steam, pressed flat, polished, and afterwards stained. They are then smeared here and there with a composition made for the purpose, and which may be got in the shops. Before this is put on, the horn is steeped in a weak solution of nitric acid. The paint is left on for a time and afterwards rubbed off, when it will take a polish, the stain remaining as if burned in. I think the paint is composed of litharge and quicklime, equal parts, mixed in whiting-and-water.

Seashells are pretty when polished. There is a deal of stuff to be worked off the outside of them, however, before you get down to the coloured or beautiful portion. Do this by scraping after you have steeped the work for some time in dilute aquafortis.

Practise on a mussel-shell first. Get a good large one. Polish with emery-paper and oil, finishing off with polishers’ putty and oil and rouge. When you have polished your mussel-shell, mount it by means of cement on a small polished slab of marble. It makes a most beautiful paper-weight, and you will find, too, that in this simple shell you have an excellent model of the hull of a yacht.

Stones.—These require, first and foremost, to be sawn into the shape you want them. Then the work must be held firm in a vice while you do the polishing. Soft stone and water are used to begin the smoothing-down. The stone used is called ‘grit-rock,’ and is of different kinds, the finest being used last. Next a stone is used, the popular name of which is ‘snake-stone,’ then polishers’ putty-powder, etc.

Beautiful ornaments can be made from various kinds of stone, and from marble itself.

The art of stone-polishing on a small scale is a very pretty one, and not at all difficult to get up to. I mentioned a vice to hold the work, but a wooden contrivance like what you may see on a carpenter’s bench will do even better. If you have an iron vice, and determine to use it, you must roll your work partially up in old canvas or leather, else the iron will scratch it.

In the art of polishing either stone, shell, or horn, any boy may soon become an adept. It is not half so difficult as it at first appears, only hard work, energy, and perseverance are most certainly required.

DR. GORDON STABLES, R.N.

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CHAPTER XXX.—BRITISH PEBBLES.
By the Rev. A. N. Malan, M.A., F.G.S.

I.—THE PEBBLES AND HOW TO FIND THEM.

An endless variety of delights can be enjoyed by the sea. Bathing, boating, fishing, paddling, building sand-castles and forts, engineering experiments in canals and ponds, prawning, shrimping, collecting shells, anemones, and seaweeds, sailing toy-boats, cricket and tennis on the sands. Well, now, you boys who love the pleasures of the seaside, my purpose here is to introduce a new attraction to your notice. The amusement we are going to bring before you possesses more solid and lasting attractions. What say you to PEBBLE-HUNTING as a seaside recreation?

Pebble-hunting is a resource calculated to excite high enthusiasm. It brings us into familiarity with some of the most beautiful objects in Nature. Pebbles can be obtained free of expense. Nature’s inexhaustible treasure-house is always open. She invites you to approach and help yourself at will. She offers with unstinting hand stones of imperishable beauty. It is ungracious to scorn her liberality.

We propose, then, to give particulars of British pebbles—how to recognise those worth collecting, where to look for them, and how to cut and polish them for yourselves. No writer for boys, so far as I know, has ever yet given practical instructions about cutting and polishing stones. The best pebble unpolished looks dull and dead. The polishing brings out its beauty and makes it a lasting treasure. The polishing is nothing else than rubbing the pebble smooth. A flint pebble is so hard that when rubbed perfectly smooth it reflects light just as glass and water do. Nothing is put on to make the surface shine, as in polishing wood. The pebble is merely rubbed smooth; and when this is done, the surface proves to be so hard that no instrument of the hardest steel, not even a file, will produce upon it the faintest scratch. I am speaking of flint-pebbles or agates, which are to be found upon many beaches.

The first difficulty is, how to recognise the good pebbles, as they lie amid the countless host of less interesting stones. I often hear the question, ‘Can you tell what a pebble will be like inside before you cut it?’ The answer is ‘Yes’ and ‘No.’ I can tell so far that I should not labour at cutting and polishing an obviously worthless stone; but, alas! often a stone which gives good promise on the outside proves uninteresting when cut, and so is laid aside on the shelf as an example of unrequited toil not worth any further trouble. This is inevitable. But, far from being a discouragement, such disappointments only serve to stimulate the zeal and sharpen the faculties in discriminating the real prizes.

We must not start with an idea of finding gems upon our beaches. These exquisite objects are exotics, natives principally of dark mines and sunny strands in the far East. The diamond, sapphire, ruby, topaz, peridot, emerald, beryl, tourmaline, turquois, chrysolite, garnet, and precious opal, are not for us. The magnificent agates of India and Brazil are familiar to us when artificially stained and manufactured into bracelets, brooches, penholders, &c., and exhibited in the jewellers’ shops. Splendid specimens in their natural tints may be seen cut and polished in the Geological Museum, Jermyn Street, in the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, and elsewhere. But we shall never find such stones on our own beaches.

Oriental and Brazilian pebbles are not unfrequently palmed off upon innocent and unsuspecting visitors as the genuine products of some favoured beach within her Majesty’s British Dominions. A lady once told me that she picked up in a week a quantity of splendid onyxes at a watering-place—let us call it Rocksands—and had them ground and polished into a necklace of beads. Another showed me a beautiful brown onyx, set in gold, which she found (?) in the same neighbourhood. A third assured me that a friend of hers had picked up amethysts and topazes on the same beach. This was at the time when I first began to take an interest in pebbles. The summer holidays were approaching. My portmanteau was packed; I was off to Rocksands.

The long journey was at last accomplished, and the omnibus set me down at the Royal Hotel; when three steps and a jump landed me upon the famous beach. It was crowded with persons of both sexes and all ages. I never saw so many backs bending at one time for the same purpose. They carried baskets, which gradually groaned under the weight of minerals amassed. For three days I joined the glad throng, comparing notes with many treasure-seekers, and collected some hundred and fifty stones possessing better pretensions to celebrity than the obviously worthless specimens.

I took them to one of the lapidary establishments. They are so kind at Rocksands in looking over visitors’ findings and pronouncing upon their merits. The lapidary establishment was crowded. At last my turn came. With beating heart I displayed my beach upon the counter. ‘Oh yes; that’s a fine red carnelian; that’s an onyx, that’s a topaz; that’s a mocha stone; that’s a weed-agate. If you’ll come on Saturday they shall be ready.’

I came, and received some beautiful foreign agates, cut and polished ready for brooches, such as are imported wholesale from Germany, where they work the lapidary-wheels by water-power, and prepare the foreign stones at small cost. At any seaside place, in the attractive shops on the esplanade, you can buy for a shilling a magnificent onyx or agate brooch. It cost me from two shillings to half-a-crown each to have my Rocksands treasures cut and polished! And what were the stones which I actually took to the lapidary? Nothing else than absolute rubbish—pebbles of coarse quartz, slate, and porphyry!

Some years after this a gentleman living at Rocksands collected a number of stones, principally ‘amethysts and carnelians,’ as he was told. He forwarded me two of his finest specimens. They were pebbles of inferior quartz, but I cut and polished them to convince him, and his eyes were opened to the truth. Another forwarded me a stone which had been in his possession for years, prized and habitually shown to friends as most valuable. I wrote back, ‘You found that stone at Rocksands, and were told that it was an amethyst. It is not worth stooping to pick up!’ He replied that I was correct in the locality, but asked me to cut and polish it, notwithstanding the unflattering verdict. I did so, and his eyes were likewise opened. Lapidaries are not, as a class, unprincipled, but some of them seem to find it hard to resist the temptation of imposing upon the simplicity of the public.

A few words about the topaz and amethyst. They belong to the magnificent sapphire group, very precious and exquisite crystals of alumina. Never by any possibility will such stones be found upon our beaches, unless some eccentric person sows them. They are Oriental gems, and I believe they have never been found in England. But there are crystals of quartz (pure flint) which closely resemble in colour and transparency the true topaz and amethyst. Such crystals are found on a large scale in cavities of rocks and mountains—e.g., in the ‘druses’ of the Alps. There are splendid crystals of smoky-brown and straw-coloured quartz found in the Grampian Mountains, known as ‘cairn-gorms.’ Now there is no reason why fragments of such crystals should not be found upon a beach rounded into pebbles, but I do not believe they have ever actually been found in England. A letter in a London daily paper some time ago stated that such amethysts were common in some parts of Ireland. It would be more correct to speak of them as pebbles of amethystine quartz. I have some good specimens of Irish amethysts from the Island of Achill. The so-called amethysts of Rocksands have no pretensions even to transparency.

If I were to tell you that in Cornwall they mend the roads with amethysts you might smile. But it is not so very far from the truth. I have a piece of granite picked up on a new-laid Cornish road full of beautiful crystals of amethystine quartz. The lady pebble-seekers and others might do well to travel west!

The pebbles we really do hope to find are moss-agates, ring-agates, chalcedonies, carnelians, choanites and other fossil-zoophytes, jaspers, conglomerates, shell-agates, variegated flints, and beetle-stones. There are besides large flint ‘geodes’ containing beautiful crystals of quartz, caskets of jewels from the chalk strata, but these are not suitable for cutting and polishing. It is fine exercise to go out with a stout hammer ‘flint-smashing’ under the cliffs of Beachy Head. Splendid treasures of crystal are to be found there, but they cannot be improved by artificial treatment.

Cairn-gorms are now very rare. I once made a pilgrimage into the heart of the Grampians, hoping to find some specimens, but without success. I also spent a day on the beaches of Loch Tay, having read in a mineralogical book that beautiful agates are to be obtained there, ‘in which the imaginative Highlander sees the lakes and mountains of his native land.’ There also I had no success; the nearest approach to agates that I found were fragments of old glass bottles; and I returned with the melancholy conviction that those bottles, when entire, must have contained a certain spirituous liquor dear to the heart of the ‘imaginative Highlander,’ under the influence of which his imagination was excited to set a false value upon the ‘chuckey stones’ at his feet.

A few simple definitions will assist progress. Chalcedony is a form of very pure translucent flint, often also transparent, sometimes tinted with delicate shades of blue, purple, pink, orange or brown. Choanite is the name given to a fossil-zoophyte of the sea-anemone class, with central funnel-shaped body (‘choanos’ is Greek for a funnel), and tentacles radiating from every part. Moss-agate is the pretty name given to chalcedonic pebbles, containing moss-like ramifications in various colours—pink, blue, black, orange, red, and yellow—due to the presence of metallic oxides, and often, no doubt, to the actual colouring matter of some zoophyte round which the pebble originally formed. Conglomerate pebbles contain fragments of chalcedony, flint, etc., embedded in a matrix of different character, presenting an appearance somewhat resembling almond-rock. Translucent, transmitting light, but not the outlines or colours of objects behind it. Transparent, transmitting light, and also the outlines and colours of objects behind the light.

Some of the best hunting-grounds for pebbles are the beaches of our south coast. Taking the map, we may notice in order Dover, Folkestone, New Romney, Dungeness, Hastings, Eastbourne, Brighton, Worthing, Bognor, Littlehampton; in the Isle of Wight—Sandown, Shanklin, and Ventnor: the Chesil Beach, Seaton, and Sidmouth. Here are plenty of shingly beaches for you to choose from, and chalcedonic pebbles are common upon them all. So let us take a ramble, it does not much matter where.

Suppose we select the Chesil Beach, the most extensive accumulation of shingle in the British Isles. There is room to breathe under the frowning heights of Portland Bill, and the sea is so grand! If you wish to be impressed with the majesty of Nature, walk on the Chesil Beach after a fresh gale from the south-west, and the grandeur of the sea will be before you in all the magnificence of its strength.

Here we are! What a wonderful sight! The sea on both sides; nine miles of terraced shingle stretching in a great curve right away west to Bridport Harbour. Millions multiplied by millions of rounded pebbles! How can we possibly find the beauties among such an infinite host? The prospect is indeed vast, almost bewildering. But we will at once circumscribe the portion of beach to be searched. The sea fortunately happens to be calm, and the tide is ebbing. We will confine our attention to the narrow strip just out of reach of the waves, which is not yet dried by the sun. It is a great advantage to hunt upon a wet beach, because the colours and characters of the pebbles are more vividly shown when they are wet than when they are dry.

Now, then, keep your eyes open. You need not stoop. Walk upright, shoulders well back, head merely inclined forward, and eyes as sharp as a ferret’s. You must not get round-shouldered by pebble-hunting, or what will the drill-sergeant say? There is no necessity to stoop at all, except to pick up a stone.

See, there lies one almost transparent. You could not help noticing it. Pick it up and hold it to the light. See its pure, delicate, lustrous substance, a pale grey tint. That is chalcedony—pure flint. Look at it carefully. Now you know the kind of ‘stuff’ we are looking for. It is so clear and glassy, such a perfect oval shape, that it seems a shame to pitch it into the sea. Yet we cannot afford to keep it, for if we once began putting the clear chalcedonies into the bag, it would be filled in a hundred yards.

‘But why,’ you ask, ‘if this is a chalcedony, pure and perfect, must we throw it away?’ Because it is too perfect! It would merely resemble dull glass if cut and polished. There is no incidental beauty about it, no variety of colour and texture, no trace of any animal organism in it. It is too pure. We want the same article adulterated, so to speak, by Nature’s handicraft. We want to find the same substance containing some exquisite workmanship. We want to find such a pebble with some ‘fruit’ enclosed; just as a child wants the piece of jelly containing the imprisoned strawberry, and prefers that to any other portion in the dish.

Try now to find a pebble of the same character with traces of colouring and marking. How beautiful the wet pebbles are! All colours—brown, red, yellow, orange, pale blue, pink, purple, black, white; any colour except green; that is the rarest of all.

Now here is a pebble, part of chalcedony, part of baser flint; the chalcedony tinted red and orange. Look closely into it. Notice those ‘feelers’ delicately spread, like those of a sea-anemone in a pool. Notice the central body, like the eye of a daisy. You see at a glance that this is a choanite. When cut and polished this stone is certain to be a pleasing specimen. It is a good shape; the choanite is so well displayed; there are no serious cracks or flaws in the stone. Those are the points in deciding upon the merits of choanites.

We might make either a cross-section or longitudinal section of it, or polish it all over. However we treat it, it is sure to prove an attractive specimen. Notice that portion where the feelers have disappeared, decomposed, it would seem, during the process of ‘silicification,’ or conversion into flint. The débris of the feelers has become ‘moss,’ and the beautiful tints are probably due to the actual colouring of the creature itself. They are too delicate for iron oxides.

Now let us look again. No; that is merely a common flint variegated with stains of iron. No; that one is no use; nothing organic in it. No, nor that either. Oh! you must not be discouraged; Rome was not built in a day. The excitement of hope, the expectation of finding beautiful treasures, should prevent your getting weary of search, and it will when you have found a few really good stones.

Your eyes will soon be trained to detect the prizes. It merely wants a little practice and patience, and, when the knowledge is attained, what a new world is opened up! Amid the crowd of loungers bending over every pool and rock, poking with the aimless end of an umbrella or walking-stick, picking up occasionally a bit of seaweed or a shell, you pass along unnoticed, and under their very eyes you pounce upon a real treasure—aye, and actually valuable. I was offered ten shillings the other day by a professional lapidary for a stone I found, just as it was picked up. Even if some days may prove unprofitable, still the enthusiasm of hope will buoy you up. The trout-fisher never despairs, though sometimes he returns home with creel almost empty.

There, now! You have found a genuine moss-agate. Let us sit down and examine it closely. Notice that half of the stone is coarse muddy flint, but the other half is chalcedony of a red-purple tint. See these indications of ‘moss,’ black and orange, of beautiful and delicate texture, floating in the chalcedony. Wet the pebble again to make its beauty more vivid. Look hard at it. Look into its translucent depths. Get familiar with that ‘solidified jelly,’ for when you thoroughly understand its appearance you have the key to the whole beach. The chalcedonic pebbles, when decorated with coloured markings, are called ‘agates.’ If they contain moss-like markings, they are moss-agates.

Often in a moss-agate we find evident remains of tentacles, proving that when the pebble was born it contained some zoophyte or sea anemone kind of creature, which in the process of silicification was decomposed. The substance of these agates must once have been a semi-fluent jelly like thick syrup. Perhaps the silicon was plentifully dissolved in the sea water; we cannot tell. It is a mystery of science not yet explained, therefore look with reverence upon this stone. You hold in your hand one of God’s secrets. Look at the choanite again which we found just now. That creature once lived, so frail as almost to melt in the sun when left, perhaps, on the rocks by the ebbing tide. And God has caused it to be caught in the embrace of adamantine flint, to rescue it from dissolution, and preserve it as an object of immortal beauty. The wonderful, unspeakable transformation was enacted in the waters of ocean far back in unknown ages, and the only clue to its mystery lies in that verse of the Psalm: ‘Whatsoever the Lord pleased, that did He in the earth, and in the sea, and in all deep places.’

Choanites always seem to me to speak eloquently of a Resurrection to a glorious state after death. I think of them living their humble life in ages before man appeared on this earth, clinging to rocks in unknown seas, waving their delicate arms with the movement of the waves, gathering the food brought within their reach by the beneficent hand of Him who takes thought for the meanest of His creatures. Nothing could seem less probable, than that these frail creatures should be preserved from destruction in death. God teaches us by them that He who has the power of life and death can stay the progress of corruption in the frailest bodies. They rise, as it were, from the dead after thousands of years, clothed in greater beauty and interest than they ever possessed in life. We should, perhaps, have shrunk from touching them when alive, but as found in their caskets of purest flint they are ‘laid with fair colours,’ and form objects of exquisite beauty. Thus we see them emerge from the grave in glorified form after a death of centuries. God, who ministered to their wants in life, also brought it about that their fragile bodies should not see corruption. He has given them immortal beauty, and by them He teaches us that He is able to deal in like manner with our own perishable bodies. Sown in corruption, they shall be raised in incorruption: sown in dishonour, they shall be raised in glory.

Choanites and Moss-Agates! If you only have patience and perseverance, you are sure to find specimens every time you take a good ramble along a shingly beach that has any likelihood of treasure. Some, of course, will be better than others. Experience will make you fastidious in taste. You will reject those that seem inferior in shape, or damaged and imperfect. Practice will soon teach you. Take your pebbles to a lapidary, if there is one in the town. Weymouth, unfortunately, does not boast one; but there are some at Brighton, I believe, and Hastings. At Worthing there is Mr. Dowsett, opposite the pier; at Eastbourne there is Mr. Hollobon, who has made one of the most magnificent collections of pebbles to be seen anywhere in England, all found, cut, and polished by himself during twenty-five years of labour and research. At Sidmouth there are three lapidaries. At Ventnor there is Mr. Billings, to whom, I think, the palm must be assigned as the most enterprising and skilful of the fraternity.

Take your stones, whenever you have the opportunity, to one of these; he will tell you whether they are worth polishing, and polish one for you at a small cost, if you wish, the charge being about sixpence a square inch. And more than that, he will show you really good stones, and tell you where they were found, and encourage you, if he sees you really interested in the subject.

There are other varieties of these fossil-agates, but the popular names are not worth much. You may call them all agates, and collect specimens of every variety with a view to their intrinsic beauty; and you may try and imagine what the creatures were like, and hunt them up in books as you proceed.

Let us leave the Chesil Beach and speed in a flash of thought some six hundred miles, right away to Montrose, N.B. We cross the estuary by the ferry, and walk down towards the lighthouse. Those low rocks are basaltic, or trap. In them we find a totally different class of agates—Ring-agates: see them sticking like plums in a cake. With hammer and chisel we can knock out as many as we please. Many prove hollow when cut, ceiled and paved with beautiful quartz-crystals. But others have the exquisite ringed formation, and the delicacy of the concentric bands is full of wonder. Among the rocks farther down the coast we can pick up numbers already separated from their rocky cavities by the disintegrating processes of sea and weather. I collected 300 in three days.

It is probable that the cavities in which they occur were formed by gases escaping when the soft rock was growing solid—just as cavities are formed in bread. Then water charged with silicious deposit filtered into the cavities. But no satisfactory explanation of the beautiful parallel banding has yet been set forth. Once more we are confronted by a Divine secret. In these cavities—deep places—the Lord did whatsoever He pleased.

II.—THE LAPIDARY’S BENCH.

The lapidary’s bench is a very simple arrangement, as can be seen from a glance at the sketch ([fig. 1]). There is no complicated machinery about it. All that is required is to turn a circular plate of lead or other material with mechanical advantage. For the rest, it is hard work with the coat off and the sleeves tucked up. Plenty of ‘elbow grease,’ energy, perseverance, and the determination to overcome difficulties. Therefore the art of polishing pebbles may exert a beneficial influence in strengthening the muscles and the character of a true Englishman.

Fig. 1.

My bench, as [drawn] on the opposite page, was made and furnished with the requisite apparatus by Mr. Moore, 1, Clerkenwell Green, E.C., at the cost of £5. Any carpenter would probably make the bench from the description we shall now give at the cost of £1; and a practical blacksmith could easily manage the metallic fittings. But if you are expert in the simple processes of carpentry you had much better get the wood and make a bench for yourself.

We will describe the bench most carefully, giving all necessary dimensions.

Floor of bench (A B C) is made of seasoned deal 1¹⁄₂ in. thick. From A to B the length is 3 ft. 8 in. From B to C the breadth is 2 ft. Back, sides, and partition are of ³⁄₄ in. deal. Breadth of front board (A B) is 3 in.; of back board (V C) 6 in. The legs and cross-bars are of stout deal 3 in. by 2 in. Height from A to floor of room is 3 ft. If that is too high for you stand on a stool to work, but do not make the bench any lower, because in time you will grow taller, and the bench will not. From D to floor of room 1 ft. From E to floor of room 2 ft.

Fig. 2.

The large iron wheel (W) is 1 ft. 10 in. in diameter, fixed on an iron spindle, turned with the left hand by a curved crank (H) 7 in. long, and handle (N) of any wood nicely turned and fitted comfortably for the hollow of the hand to embrace it. The strap (O) is of leather 1 in. wide, passing round the reel (G). Its ends are joined by a simple and effective method shown in [Fig. 2]. The strap is carefully measured to requisite length; a nail is passed through the two ends, and string wound tightly round the ends behind the nail and tied. If the strap slackens at all after much use, it can be readjusted by a piece of extra string wound tightly round.

Iron spindle (F) 1 ft. 6 in. long, with ‘lap’ (M), screw and nut (P), reel (G). Four circular laps will be required, each with its own spindle, screw, nut, and reel. The reels must be exactly the same size, so that the strap may suit them all alike. One lap is of lead, one of beech wood, one of pewter, one of deal with two layers of common felt strained over and neatly fastened with tacks on the under-side. Each lap is 10 in. in diameter, 1 in. thick at the edge, gradually sloping up to 1¹⁄₂ in. towards centre. Spindles 1 in. square, rounded to sharp points at both ends. Reels 2 in. in diameter, of elm or box, fixed 3 in. from lower point of spindles. The laps are screwed on the spindles as shown in [Fig. 1], where all measurements are given.

There is a circular hole in the floor of the bench to allow spindle and reel to pass in and out, 4 in. in diameter. The clamp (I) rises 13 in. above the floor of the bench, and is screwed into position by movable nut underneath. The movable arm (K L) is raised or lowered at will, and adjusted by screw and nut (Q). Length of arm from K to L is 7¹⁄₂ in. A block of lignum vitæ (R) is inserted in arm. Blocks of the same wood are screwed on at S and T for the points of the spindles to work on. These points should be very sharp and only just ‘bite’ the wood, so that friction may be diminished as far as possible. When a hole is worn in the lignum vitæ the spindles can be shifted to a fresh part.

Fig. 3.

The spindle of the large iron wheel is made round at D, [Fig. 3], where it works in the floor of the bench. That hole should be lined with soft leather, fitting the spindle like a glove, and kept well oiled. An iron plate (A) keeps the spindle in position. The spindle is, of course, square where the crank grips it at B, and a nut (C) screwed tight keeps the crank in position.

The legs of the bench are let into sleepers (X Y, [Fig. 1]), screwed firmly to the floor of the room, and clamps at C and elsewhere screwed to the wall of the room may give additional rigidity. The bench must stand true and fast, so that there may be no oscillation during work. It should be placed in front of a window, as plenty of light is desirable.

The following requisites must now be procured. Seven pounds of emery ‘46-hole’; some fine sifted silver sand; some rottenstone in lumps—the hardest is best; some putty powder. Then you will want a housemaid’s blacklead brush, a nail brush with handle, a brush used for cleaning silver plate. These should be old and nearly worn-out. A large earthenware vessel for water to stand on a stool or table at the right side of the bench within easy reach, and three jampots for water. You see that the furniture is of the humblest description.

All being now ready, we may hope to commence operations in polishing a pebble.

III.—HOW TO POLISH A PEBBLE.

There are three distinct processes in polishing a pebble—grinding, smoothing, and facing. Let us take this pebble, a choanite, of a kind which I found at Sandown, Isle of Wight, and which I polished in the first of the only four lessons I ever had. It is a beautiful little rounded choanite, rather flattened on the upper and under surfaces. It is too small to be held comfortably between the thumb and two first fingers. We must therefore fix it upon a cement-stick. So we must manufacture some cement as follows. Here is the recipe:—

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5.

1 lb. of pitch, ¹⁄₂ lb. of resin, ¹⁄₄ lb. of shellac, 1 oz. of beeswax, must be broken up and put into a good-sized saucepan. Begin boiling the mixture upon a fire, and as it boils add gradually 1¹⁄₂ lb. of Spanish brown, stirring all the while until all the ingredients are thoroughly mixed. Pour the contents of the saucepan upon the stone flags of the kitchen floor, or any pavement, in portions a foot in diameter. When cold remove the cement by a kitchen knife inserted underneath. Make some pieces of wood 4 in. long according to the shape in [Fig. 4], and melt on them a portion of cement as shown at B. A nail driven into the wood at A and C will strengthen the cement. Fashion the cement into shape with the fingers well wetted. Warm the stone, and again melt the cement over a candle. Apply it to the stone, and work it on with the fingers. Be sure you have the stone firmly fixed. To test it, plunge the stone and stick into water, and when it is cool see if you can pull the stone off. The diagrams in [Fig. 5] show the phases of cementing a stone. If the stone is insecure, pull it off, and warm and melt up again. Practice makes perfect.

The first stage is that of GRINDING. Set up the lead lap as shown in the drawing of the bench ([Fig. 1]). Put a heap of emery in the left corner of the right compartment (J). Put a jam-pot of water at Z. Take the old blacklead brush, dip it in water, mix up some emery with it into a paste; wet the lap; brush it well over with emery. Take your cemented stone in the right hand, between the thumb and two first fingers; turn the handle N slowly from right to left, and as the lap revolves press the stone upon it. Grind away, understanding that you want to grind down all irregularities on the surface of the pebble. Try and throw the weight of the body through the right arm and wrist into the pebble. Emery is harder than flint. The pressure forces the emery into the lead lap, and so its surface is converted into a powerful rasp. Pause at intervals to brush fresh emery over the wheel. ‘Don’t spare your emery!’ was an exhortation I often heard when receiving my lesson. Do not attempt to do the whole surface of the pebble at once. Begin at a corner and finish it fairly, and so pass on to adjacent parts. Work towards the centre of the lap when grinding round surfaces, and keep the flat margin of the lap for flat stones.

Ah, your right hand begins to ache as it never ached before! You must not mind. Rest a while, and then at it again! You are bringing muscles into play which are unaccustomed to the work, and the strain will be felt until the muscles are strengthened by the exercise. Keep washing the pebble at intervals with the nail brush in the earthen vessel to see how the work progresses.

The surface of the pebble where you have been working now looks smooth, and the feelers of the choanite are vividly shown. Finish in the same manner the whole surface. Feel that you bring the weight of the arm—and even of the body—to play through the wrist of the right hand upon your stone. Do not forget the emery and washing, and see that you keep the surface of the stone true and free from ‘ridges’ and ‘shoulders.’

When you think the surface is sufficiently ground, then continue working on the lead without putting on any more emery. Continue patiently so grinding until the lap works perfectly free from grit, and the emery on it has been reduced to soft black paste. This will make the surface of your pebble much smoother. The nearer you reach perfection in this first stage the easier will be the afterwork. If you continue long enough the stone will look half polished when dry before you have finished. Dry the stone periodically to estimate progress, remembering that a pebble always looks polished when wet.

We may suppose now that you have completed the first process, so we pass on to the second.

Smoothing.—Lift off the strap by raising the part nearest to you off the wheel, and let the strap lie loose upon it. The strap consequently falls off the reel. Unscrew Q. Raise the arm K L, which remains raised by its own weight. Lift the lead lap carefully out and put it aside. Set up the beech wood lap instead. Use another jam-pot of water at Z, and see that no emery-grit gets upon the wood lap. Dip your right hand in water and thoroughly wet the surface of the lap while it slowly revolves. Then dip the wet fingers in sifted silver-sand and rub them over the wood, and proceed as you did in the first process of grinding.

Our aim now is to smooth the surface of the stone, to carry to higher perfection the work of the emery. Do not go too fast, and keep the stone and lap well wetted, otherwise the heat caused by friction will crack the surface of the stone. Many a beautiful stone has been spoilt in this way. Do not use much sand. Wash and examine the pebble as you go on. See how beautiful it is getting to look! How wonderfully the texture and organism have been brought out by the smoothing! Make the work as perfect as you can upon the wood, and continue working your pebble without putting on any sand, until the wood seems free from grit. In the last stage of this smoothing process we work the stone almost entirely on moist wood, as the sand has been reduced to powder. Wipe the stone dry, and if you are satisfied that you cannot do anything more for it on the wood, we may pass on to the third process of facing the pebble.

Facing.—As before, remove the wood lap. And now we must proceed with extreme caution. We are going to set up the pewter lap. Bear in mind that ONE GRAIN OF SAND OR EMERY UPON THE PEWTER WILL RUIN YOUR WORK! The floor of the bench is covered with débris of sand and emery; there is a heap of emery in the corner. How can you possibly prevent catastrophe? Care and practice will bring success. Remember the caution, and you will do your best to keep clear of disaster. First of all sweep up the emery into a heap at J, keeping it well away from the vicinity of the lap. Thoroughly wipe the handle N, the clamp I, and the arm K L—everything that could bring a speck of grit upon the pewter. Shut the window, that no wandering breeze may work mischief. Wash your hands in a bowl of clean water, and put the bowl in place of the earthen vessel. Jam-pot of clean water at Z. Now set up the pewter lap. The first thing is to ‘notch’ the surface of the lap, that it may hold the rottenstone. This is done by holding a table-knife lightly by the handle in the right hand, and letting the edge of the knife play upon the surface of the lap as you slowly turn the handle N from right to left, and then from left to right. The result of this is to set up a ‘bibbering’ movement in the knife—such as you may notice in the bow when a nervous young lady is performing upon the violin. The surface of the pewter will soon be decorated, as in [Fig. 6], with markings not unlike the pattern on the case of a watch. When this is done wash the surface of the lap by dipping the fingers of the right hand in clean water. Take a lump of rottenstone, thoroughly washed and free from grit, and press it on the pewter while slowly revolving. The rottenstone is conveyed as a brown paste to the surface of the pewter.

Fig. 6.

Now scrub the pebble, cement and stick with the plate-brush in the bowl of water, until you feel certain that no speck of grit lurks in any crevice, and begin working the pebble on the pewter lap as in the other stages, putting pressure through the wrist of the right hand, and letting the weight of the arm play, so that a sort of rhythmical movement is imparted to the pressure difficult to describe, but soon understood when you see a lapidary at work.

In polishing a round stone you must be careful to avoid producing ‘ridges’ by dwelling too long on one spot. Keep on turning the stone slightly. Common sense will explain my meaning. And in this last stage BE SURE YOU NEVER WIPE YOUR HANDS OR YOUR STONE WITH THE CLOTH USED FOR THE SAND OR EMERY STAGE. Use a clean cloth. It took me two years to find out the force of this simple advice. I could not imagine how it was that just at the last moment, when I was putting the finishing touches to a pebble, some faint but hideous scratches would suddenly appear on its surface, ruining the beauty of the work. How many times have I despaired of success! How often have I written to lapidaries imploring advice, and feeling that there was some ‘wrinkle’ which had purposely been kept from my knowledge! But perseverance was at last rewarded.

There is no ‘dodge’ about it; the whole operation is one of patient labour and determination. After a little working on the pewter lap at one portion of your stone, wash and wipe it. That portion ought to be so perfectly polished that when held slantwise towards the window it reflects the landscape like a looking-glass; and if your work has been true this result will make your heart leap with delight. Continue working until the whole surface of the stone is finished. If at the end portions of it looked blurred, it may be that the texture of the stone is incapable of a high polish in such places; it may more likely be that you have not been particular enough in the first and second stages. Nevertheless the result ought to be encouraging. Your stone ought to be so far polished that you will be proud to show it to your friends, and say, ‘I found and I polished this stone!’

Probably, if you have carefully followed out my instructions, the result will be very creditable for a first attempt. And this is all you have a right to expect.

Some lapidaries, after smoothing their stones on the sand lap employ an elm lap with powdered pumice-stone, and dispense with the pewter lap altogether, facing the stone on the felt lap with putty powder. This process is advantageous in polishing stones all over. But on carefully comparing the systems I am convinced that there is nothing like the pewter and rottenstone for general purposes; though the felt is advisable for round stones when they are to be polished over the whole surface. As you proceed you will be able to try experiments at your discretion.

To polish flat surfaces of pebbles we work exactly as we have described, the only difference being that you work the stone flat on the margin of the laps. If you thoroughly understand the principle you will find the flat surfaces easier to manage than the round.

Mussel and other sea-shells, snail-shells, etc., may be polished in the same way—only that being soft they will not require the emery lap. Work them on the sand lap and cloth lap, and a little experience will soon make you proficient in the art.

IV.—HOW TO CUT A PEBBLE.

We have reserved the process of CUTTING a pebble till the last, because it is advisable to understand the polishing process first. Many pebbles make most attractive specimens without being cut, but no pebble looks well after it is cut unless it be also polished. Therefore the polishing is the first essential, and I hope you thoroughly comprehend its principles and are enthusiastic about the whole subject.

To cut a pebble, with a view to polishing its inner surface, we want a spindle and reel as before, fitted with a disc of the thinnest soft iron. These discs are of particular make, and must be procured from a practised maker. You should get six of them, ten inches in diameter, from Mr. Oxley, 83, Caledonian Road, Islington, N. The shoulder for the disc to rest on should be about five inches from the upper point of the spindle, and the nut must be screwed home very tight to keep the disc in position. The disc is ‘panned,’ i.e., beaten into a saucer-shape so shallow as to be hardly perceptible to the eye. This precaution is necessary to ensure the edge of the disc being true, for otherwise it would be impossible to make such thin iron free from undulations in the edge.

The discs are by no means cut true when sent down, and as they must be brought to absolute perfection of truth before they can be used, the first thing will be to turn the edge true.

Fig. 7.

Procure three small triangular files, sold at fourpence each. Break an inch off the end of them, and grind them with emery on the lead lap into a pyramidal point ([Fig. 7]), with edges as keen as a razor and point sharp as a needle’s. Set up the ‘slitter’ (the disc and its spindle) in position, taking care that it stands truly perpendicular. Then arrange a wooden rest underneath the edge of the disc nearest to you, as shown in [Fig. 7]. The support must be securely fixed, and of the exact height to enable the disc to revolve upon it. Wet the edge of the disc, and turn the handle N with the left hand. Take a file and fix its point into the wooden rest, so that a keen edge may catch the edge of the revolving disc. This will take off a shaving of iron wherever it bites, and by degrees the edge of the disc will be turned true, and continuous shavings will curl off it. There is nothing difficult about this. It requires a neat hand, and you may want to use three files before finishing; but when you understand that you require the edge of the disc to be perfectly true you will soon attain the result; and by lightly applying the file to the upper and under surface of the edge of the disc you will remove any roughness caused by the turning, and the disc will be ready for use.

Remove the wooden support. Put a common plate under the slitter to catch the paraffin, which will shortly require notice.

The disc has now to be CHARGED WITH DIAMOND. This sounds somewhat alarming, but take courage. Diamond ‘bort’ consists of genuine diamonds not sufficiently good to be used for gems. It may be bought of any of the ordinary merchants at a cost of about six shillings the carat. That amount would be enough to cut about twelve or fourteen pebbles an inch and a half in diameter. This is the only serious expense when once the bench has been set up and furnished. And after all it is not very formidable. Take a fragment of bort, and crush it upon a piece of hard steel by means of a steel rod one inch in diameter and six inches in length. Put the bort on the steel plate; smear a little butter over the bort to prevent the broken pieces flying away. Hold the steel rod upon it, and give it a smart blow with a hammer. This crushes the diamond. Then pound it into the smallest possible powder, using the steel rod as a pestle.

Fig. 8.

Now pour some paraffin into a saucer (J, [Fig. 8]), and with a feather smear paraffin over the edge of the disc revolving slowly. Take some of the powdered diamond on the forefinger of the right hand, and very carefully transfer it to the edge of the disc. The entire edge must in this way be anointed with crushed diamond-dust. Then a smooth pebble is taken in the right hand (the hand resting comfortably on a support G), and pressed against the edge of the disc revolving. Let us understand exactly the object and action of this. The diamond-powder is the hardest known substance in Nature; the disc is of soft iron; the flint pebble is very hard. By the process just described we press the diamond-powder into the substance of the disc, so that the edge becomes armed with grains of adamant; the edge becomes a mighty file, or an irresistible saw. The principle is so simple. When you have driven sufficient diamond-powder into the edge of the disc, you have invested the iron with an armature which can cut through every hard substance that exists in Nature except the diamond itself. The hardest flint, emery, iron, glass, metals, etc., must all bow beneath its mighty power. I should like to shake hands with the man who devised this simple and clever method. Before its invention agates kept their treasures locked in close caskets. The diamond-toothed ‘slitter’ has supplied the key for unlocking their secret beauty.

Well, now, the disc is CHARGED, and if you wish to proceed like most of the lapidaries do, you will take the pebble you wish to cut between the forefinger and the thumb of the right hand, letting it rest on the second and third fingers. You will place the support in position, that the hand may rest comfortably upon it when holding the pebble against the disc; and you will begin turning with the left hand. You will soon see that the disc has begun to cleave its path. A distinct cut is visible. You must keep feeding the edge with paraffin by means of the feather; and as, unfortunately, you have not got a third hand, you must hold the feather between your teeth, or else get a friend to do the turning. It ought to take about half an hour to cut an inch through a pebble two inches in diameter. The disc will have to be re-charged with diamond occasionally, which may be done by using the slit of the pebble you are cutting as a ‘charger.’

Such is the method of cutting in vogue among most lapidaries. It answers very well for professionals, but it certainly presents more than one objection to amateurs. I found the objections so weighty that it required no small determination to persevere. First of all, it is very difficult to hold the stone true, so that the cut shall proceed in the same straight line; then the paraffin and detritus of the cutting cause such a disagreeable ‘mess,’ in which the right hand has to take up permanent quarters, and the nuisance of feeding the paraffin by holding the feather in the mouth is very great. Finding these objections a grave impediment to success, I bethought me of a device I once saw used by a lapidary, and improved upon it in design, and got a tool made by Mr. Moore, of Clerkenwell, which has proved the greatest comfort and most complete success, entirely obviating all the disagreeables alluded to above. The diagram ([Fig. 8]) ought to make it clear to you.

A B is a circular steel rod, with shoulder at B, and screwed underneath, rising ten inches above floor of bench. It has an arm (C D) moving easily round, which can be set at any height by screw and nut (E). At D is a hole large enough to admit the cement-stick with pebble attached. This is held securely by a screw at D. A string (F) is slipped over the cement-stick just above the pebble, with a weight attached to the other end. The string passes over a pulley (G) in the opposite side of the bench. It is obvious that the weighted string will always keep the pebble with even pressure against the disc. The result is that all difficulty in holding the pebble is removed. The pressure is constant, and the cut is made perfectly true. The right hand is now free to manipulate the feather for lubricating the disc, and you can work without getting a drop of oil upon your fingers. You turn the handle as briskly as you like. The large wheel multiplies the reel ten times—i.e., one revolution of the handle produces ten revolutions of the disc. I often attain a speed of fifteen hundred revolutions of the disc in a minute when cutting a pebble! Keep all points of friction well oiled, and everything will go merrily as a marriage bell. H shows the plate for catching the drops of paraffin and detritus from the stone; J shows the saucer of paraffin. The length of the arm (C D) is ten inches. When you want to recharge the disc with diamond, lift the weight at end of string, shift the arm and the stone to the right, feed the edge of the disc with diamond, and drive it in with a smooth stone as before described.

When your stone is cut through wash the halves, and remove the cement by heating over a candle. The same cement will do for many stones.

You must be careful not to bend the slitter or spoil its edge. Never put it away leaning on the disc. Keep it when not in use suspended by two strings, and wipe off the oil carefully when you put it away.

We have now gone through the various processes of GRINDING, SMOOTHING, FACING, and CUTTING pebbles. You have a clear knowledge of ‘how it is done.’ It remains for you to decide whether or not you are to become a practical lapidary. Remember that it is one thing to know how to work and another thing to put that knowledge into practice. If you resolve to take up the subject you should certainly make friends with some working lapidary, and get him to let you watch him at work, and if possible take a few lessons from him.

A POSTSCRIPT.

Since the foregoing chapter was prepared, W. B. has written to us from Ipswich: ‘I have been very interested in your article on stone polishing. I found, however, that with two hands free you could work the stone much better; so I bought a treadle and wheel (1 ft. 6 in. through) together, then for the grindery dovetailed two boards into one another, and having centred the upright ones, put a hardened coach-screw in, and turned an elm spindle 2 in. thick, and at one end turned a series of pulleys. Then at each end I drilled holes and screwed coach-screws in, after having centred their square heads and drilled a small dent for the other screws to work on. Next I got some wood “bobbins,” turned 5 in. through by 1¹⁄₂ in. thick at hole on spindle, tapering to ³⁄₄ in. The pulleys, of course, were for the driving speed, so that by putting the strap on the small one I could drive fast, and the large one slow.

2 ft. 6 in.

‘Above is a rough drawing of the lathe part.

‘The best of this is you can screw the “lathe” to the table, and place the driving-wheel where you like, provided you lengthen or shorten the strap. I might add that the cost of the whole thing is under ten shillings.’

REV. A. N. MALAN, M.A., F.G.S.

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CHAPTER XXXI.—GRAPHS AND GRAPH-MAKING.
By Theodore Wood.

Although for the last year or two its popularity has been somewhat on the wane, there can be no doubt that the copying machine, known by the various titles of chromograph, hektograph, multigraph, centograph, and others of similar nature, is a most useful invention, and one which saves an immense amount of labour to all those who wish to draw out a number of copies of diagrams, plans, circulars, letters, music, etc., without calling in the assistance of the printer. Drawings, too, may be traced by those who have no original artistic powers, programmes may be made out for entertainments, and in a hundred other ways the machine will prove a most profitable investment. Its chief disadvantage lies in its expense, but as the entire machine can easily be made at home for a very small cost, this drawback is more apparent than real.

The process of graph-making is a very simple one, and cannot fail if the directions which I am about now to give are implicitly followed.

The apparatus required is of a very limited character. First you will want an old tin biscuit-box, sound as to the corners, and of moderate depth. A saucepan would answer better still, but as you would probably never get it clean again, I do not recommend its use. Then you will require a short stick or rod with which to stir the composition, a spirit-lamp (or a gas-jet will do nearly as well), and a stout carpet-needle fastened into the end of a wooden handle. Finally, you must have a shallow tray to hold the composition, and also the ingredients themselves.

The tray must be of metal, and nothing will be better for this purpose than the lid of your biscuit-box, unless you wish to make a graph of phenomenal proportions. In that case, of course, you must get an ironmonger to make you a tray of the required dimensions, and be prepared to add an extra shilling or so to the necessary outlay. For all ordinary purposes, however, you cannot improve upon the box-lid.

Now as to the ingredients, which, for a graph of medium size, will be as follows:—Glycerine (common), eighteen ounces; water, twelve ounces; sulphate of barium, six ounces; powdered loaf-sugar, three ounces; Nelson’s gelatine, three ounces. The first and the third of these you had better get at a manufacturing chemist’s; ordinary druggists are apt to charge rather highly for the former, and do not keep the latter in stock. Each ought to cost you one penny per ounce. Nelson’s gelatine you can procure from almost any respectable grocer at fourpence-halfpenny per one-ounce packet. The total cost, therefore, of the compound should not exceed three shillings and twopence.

Everything being in readiness, place the ingredients in your biscuit-box, taking care that the proportions are measured correctly, and place them on one side for four-and-twenty hours—this in order to allow them to macerate. Next day you will find that the gelatine has swollen to a wonderful degree, and has absorbed most of the water. Still, however, the mixture will be very far from perfect, and in order to complete it you must have recourse to heat. The best thing that you can do is to place the box upon the kitchen stove, and there leave it for two or three hours until the gelatine has melted. Take care, however, that the heat is not too great, or your composition will probably be spoiled.

Every half-hour or so stir the contents of the box with your stick, in order that they may thoroughly amalgamate. Lastly, when the whole is reduced to a thick, creamy-looking liquid, give a final stir, and pour the mixture into your tray, which you will have placed ready to receive it.

Most likely a number of air-bubbles will be floating on the surface of the liquid. These you must get rid of at once, or you will never be able to get off a clear and neat impression.

This part of the business is very easily managed. All that you need do is to heat your needle to a red heat, and touch each bubble in turn with the point. This treatment will cause them to burst, and by the time you have destroyed them all the composition will begin to set. For the next half-hour you must leave it perfectly undisturbed, upon a level surface, and at the end of that time it will be ready for use.

If all has gone well, your graph ought now to present the appearance of a pale yellow slab, yielding and rather clammy to the touch, and with a peculiarly glossy surface. This gloss will vanish after you have taken off your first impression, but that you need not trouble about.

When you wish to make use of your machine, write your letter or circular, or whatever it may be, with the special ink, and take care to make the up and down strokes as nearly as possible of the same thickness throughout. Let the writing dry, without blotting it, and then lay the sheet of paper face downwards upon your graph. Take care that in so doing you get no air-bubbles. If you do the result will be an uneven impression.

Now rub lightly with your finger over the whole of the paper as it lies upon the graph, in order to make sure that every part shall be in actual contact with the composition. Then, after about a minute or so, remove the paper very carefully, lifting it by one corner, and you will see that a reversed copy of the writing—a ‘negative,’ in fact—remains upon the graph.

Without loss of time take another sheet of paper, lay it upon the writing, rub as before, and remove after four or five seconds. An exact copy of the writing will by that time have been transferred to it, and by repeating the process you can take any number of impressions, up to fifty or sixty, that you may happen to want. As soon as you have printed off a sufficient quantity, wash your graph with cold water, rubbing lightly with a piece of clean rag until the writing has almost disappeared. Then dry, and put away until again required for use. If you leave it for any length of time before washing, the ink will sink deeply into the composition. This will not matter once or twice, but if you make a practice of allowing it to do so your graph will in course of time be simply saturated with the ink and will assume a deep violet hue.

The copies which you will have taken will probably have absorbed some of the moisture from the graph and curled up into a kind of spiral form. These you can easily straighten by means of warmth and a little judicious pressure.

After you have used it a few times the surface of your graph will most likely become rough and uneven and unfit for further service. When this is the case, cut the composition out of the tray with an old knife and melt it down afresh. When thoroughly liquid, stir it well, pour it back into the tray, and eradicate the bubbles as before. Do not melt it down in the tray itself. If you do the glycerine will rise to the surface for want of proper stirring, and utterly ruin every sheet of paper you place upon the machine, obliging you to melt down the composition over again before it can be of the least use.

After melting the mixture some fifteen or twenty times you will find it necessary to add a little water, and perhaps a small quantity of glycerine also, in order to replace that which has passed off by evaporation. Be careful not to overdo it, however, for a very slight error in the proportions of the different ingredients will render the mixture useless.

Ink you had better buy; it is cheap enough, costing only about ninepence a bottle, and can be obtained almost of any stationer. You can manufacture it yourself, of course, by making a saturated solution of one of the aniline dyes (mauveine is the most powerful), and adding a few drops of glycerine, but, so far as my own experience goes, the home-made article is never really satisfactory, and does not give nearly the number of copies yielded by that which is specially supplied. Always procure violet ink in preference to black or red. It is far more powerful, and gives better and more numerous impressions.

N.B.—If you should happen to spill some of this ink on your fingers, wash them at once, or you will not be able to remove the stain without considerable trouble.

One word in conclusion. Never put your graph away while wet. If you do, the composition will absorb the moisture, the proper proportions will be altered, and before very long you will find that the printing power of your machine will be a thing of the past.

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CHAPTER XXXII.—CRYPTOGRAPH, OR CIPHER.
By a Naval Surgeon.

I do not know what first made me take to deciphering cryptograms. I do not think I have more of the Paul Pry in my nature than most of my neighbours. If, for example, I saw two lovers whispering together, or heard two people talking aloud by my side in a language which they mistakingly imagined I was not familiar with, I would put my fingers in my ears or walk right away rather than listen to a word of their secret. But seeing a letter in cipher in the ‘agony column’ of one of the dailies always appeared to me to be a kind of challenge to my ingenuity; and, at sea, I have taken the newspaper directly away to my cabin, and never raised my head from over it until I had puzzled out the cryptogram.

This would, of course, often be a work of some hours, but it passed the time away, and that itself is something to an idle sailor. Besides, there was some satisfaction in knowing that I was the only officer in the mess who could read difficult ciphers; and there was, too often, a good deal of amusement to be obtained from a perusal of these secret missives.

Thief often writes to thief, and evil-doer to evil-doer; but the letters are more often those of lover to lover, and innocent enough too—aye, and I might add ‘green’ enough, as well as innocent. Each of the two correspondents has a copy of the alphabet they write in. In this alphabet some other letter or figure is used for the real one. For example, they might put the first three letters of their mysterious alphabet thus:—

A	—	G
B	—	5
C	—	R

and so on through it all. Then, if they wanted to write the word ‘Cab,’ it would read ‘Rg5’ in the agony column, and who, they wonder, that has not a copy of their key, can find this out, or know that they have chosen a ‘g’ to stand for an ‘a,’ a ‘5’ for a ‘b,’ an ‘r’ for a ‘c,’ and so forth.

But simple ciphers, when one letter or figure is substituted for another, are very easily read. If I saw the following, for instance: ‘2ssx 2s 5! 2??tnpo7x gn?ts 2! W?wwsx6,’ as soon as I glanced my eye over it I should be struck with the triple recurrence of double letters. Thus, in the first word, there are double S’s, in the fourth double marks of interrogation, and in the seventh double W’s.

Then I would ask the question of myself, ‘What are the letters most commonly doubled in the English language?’ They are the vowels e and o at the beginning of words; the consonants p, r, l, m, n, in the middle of words; and the letter s or l at the end. The double letters in the word 2ssx I guess as ‘E’s.’ Well, a consonant would come before them, and what one more natural than ‘m.’ ‘Mee,’ and the ‘x’ must be ‘t.’ ‘Meet me;’ and after a little more thinking, puzzling, and conjecture, we would make out the cipher as ‘Meet me by moonlight alone, my poppets.’ Of course this would not be all the cipher; there would very likely be several words more, and this would make it all the less difficult to read.

Now take a further illustration, that presented by the ‘Language of the Restless Fays,’ as published some years ago:—

Here you have two very well-known verses written in the language of the Restless Fays. It is exactly the same as English, excepting in the forms of its letters. The Fays have twenty-six distinct positions, one for each letter of the alphabet. Now, who can read these verses? The first letter is an ‘L.’

Glancing over the verses, we find two of the same Fay that ends the first word standing together in the second word of the sixth line, and next to the first letter; they must, therefore, we think, be ‘O’s’ or ‘E’s,’ but ‘O’s’ do not often end words, so they must be ‘E’s.’ Down with them as ‘E’s.’ Our first word would now have got as far as this, ‘L . . . l e,’ the dots representing the letters still to be supplied; the second letter must be a vowel, and the double ones, therefore, consonants. Now run over the alphabet in your own mind, and see what two consonants are most likely to make sense before the finals l e. Why two ‘T’s’ would, and an ‘I’ before that completes the word ‘Little.’

Now we have four known letters to begin the battle, so we go over every line and top the Fays wherever we find them representing ‘L’s,’ ‘I’s,’ ‘T’s,’ or ‘E’s.’ But the second words of the third, the fourth, and the eighth lines are precisely the same. They are words of three letters, and they end in the Fay we call ‘E.’ Now what is the commonest word of three letters in our language ending in ‘E’? Why ‘the,’ to be sure. These little words must be ‘the’s,’ so we mark them so, and this gives us another letter, namely, ‘H.’ Then we mark all our ‘H’s’—they are but few—and go on again rejoicing; and presently our eagle eye is riveted on the first word of the fourth line represented by three Fays, one kneeling like a volunteer, the other standing on his head, and the last touching his left toe, and we are not slow to notice that the last word in the same line ends with those three foolish Fays, preceded by an ‘L.’ So the second letter of that word must be a vowel, and it is neither ‘E’ nor ‘I.’ So it must be ‘O’ or ‘A.’ But the word ‘and’—a very common one—would with an ‘L’ prefixing it make the word ‘Land.’ Hurrah! we have it then. The first word of the line is ‘and’; the last is ‘land.’ And we hasten to put down all the ‘N’s’ and ‘A’s’ and ‘D’s’ in the verses over the heads of the representative Fays as before.

Glancing over the lines we find we have got nearly all the last word in the fifth line except the first and the two last letters, thus:—. I N D N E. . The two last are the same, two mad little Fays, running apparently for their dear little lives. Now ‘L’s’ and ‘S’s’ are both common as double terminal letters; but here the S’s make sense, and the L’s would not. The word of course is kindness.

Two more new letters? Why, we are getting on. Down they go.

It isn’t difficult now to guess the words love and above, and we have Eden and sand and this clear above us. We see, too, in the verses four words of the same two Fays each. The first Fay is O, so the second must be F, because it is not N nor H.

Now I’ll go no farther with you in the language of the Restless Fays. It would only be insulting my readers if I expressed a doubt of their being able to puzzle out the absent letters in the other words, ‘. o. l d’ you would readily guess would be ‘world,’ and that would supply you with an ‘R’ for the second word of the second line, namely, ‘r a i n s’—‘grains,’ of course. And so you quickly finish the cipher:—

‘Little drops of water,
Little grains of sand,
Make the mighty ocean,
And the beauteous land.

‘Little acts of kindness,
Little deeds of love,
Make this world an Eden,
Like the Heaven above.’

Though, by the way, the printers have accidentally dropped the final letter in ‘Heaven.’

You will now understand that simple ciphers can with a little experience be easily read. Just try your ingenuity on the first one you find in any daily newspaper.

Here, by the way, is a kind of cryptogram which is difficult to decipher, and in which you might write to a friend through the public prints with comparative safety. The key to it is a rectangular triangle, and you write the word you want to transpose from A to B (vide [figure] subjoined), the transposed word will be found at A—C. Thus, suppose we wanted to write the following sentence, which you will perceive contains nothing but the truth:—‘The Boy’s Own Paper is the best magazine of its kind, and we all dearly love it.’ Well, take your first word, ‘The,’ and arrange it in a triangle, filling it with the letters which follow naturally in the Alphabet, thus:—

T
H	I
E	F	G

The word ‘The’ thus cryptogramised becomes ‘T I G.’ Now let us form a few of the other words in triangles, all in a row to save space:—

B

O

P

I

T

B

M

O

P

W

X

A

B

S

T

H

I

E

F

A

B

Y

Z

A

N

O

P

P

Q

R

E

F

G

S

T

U

G

H

I

S

T

U

V

E

F

G

H

T

U

V

W

A

B

C

D

R

S

T

U

V

Z

A

B

C

D

I

K

L

M

N

O

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

E

F

G

H

I

K

L

M

and so on, and we would thus find that our little cipher would read thus:—‘Tig Bpav Oxp Pbrhv it tig bfuw mbiddotm,’ &c.

Now there are two things to which I wish to call your attention in this cipher: first, the primary letter of the transposed word is the same in every case as the original; and secondly, the letters are different in each word. Just observe that the ‘T’ in the word ‘The’ remains a ‘T,’ but in the word ‘Best’ it becomes a ‘W.’ The ‘I’ in the word ‘Is’ remains an ‘I,’ but in the word ‘Magazine’ it becomes an ‘O.’ In the latter word the first ‘A’ becomes ‘B,’ and the second ‘D,’ and ‘Z’ is also ‘D.’

In conclusion, let me just add that I consider cipher-reading one of the best mental exercises that any boy could indulge in.

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