CHAPTER XXXVII.—CARDBOARD-MODELLING AND WOOD MODELLING.

I.—HOW THE REEDHAM BOYS MAKE THEIR CARDBOARD MODELS.
By the Head Master.

For some years it has been the custom for our boys to employ their leisure time during the winter months in the construction of cardboard models of locomotives, and some of the finished specimens exhibit a degree of skill and ingenuity which could hardly be expected. The work, to a great extent, is the result of the boys’ own observation and skill, added to from time to time by those more observant or more ingenious, and handed down traditionally from one generation of boys to another.

As it is a very interesting occupation, and a valuable means of educating both the eye and the hand, it occurred to me that, if it were possible to describe the processes on paper, it would prove acceptable to boys generally. I therefore gladly avail myself of the opportunity afforded me to lay before you, as clearly as I know how, all the steps necessary to produce a finished model.

To encourage those who may underrate their powers, and think it is useless for them to try, I would say that boys of nine, ten, and eleven often produce very creditable work, and that those who produce the very best are not always those most highly distinguished in class-work. A few more words only are necessary: take these three ‘P’s.’ as your helps, and I am sure you will succeed:

1. Be Precise; that is, endeavour carefully to carry out every detail.

2. Be Patient; that is, do not be too hasty in what you have to do.

3. Persevere; if you fail at first, ‘Try, try, try again.’

We will commence by making a list of the materials required, all of which may easily be obtained at a small cost. If two or three boys work together, the cost may be reduced, as the smallest quantity you can purchase of some of the things will suffice for more than one model.

MATERIALS.

1. Wood.—One-eighth of an inch thick, straight in the grain, and of width and length detailed afterwards. The backing of picture-frames, large cigar-boxes, boxes in which cocoa or blacking is kept at the grocers’ shops, all do capitally, and can generally be got for nothing.

2. Card.—(a) Thick, (b) medium, and (c) thin. The thick may be obtained from strong cardboard boxes; the thin can be bought at most stationers’ in penny sheets, about fourteen inches by ten; and for the medium obtain used postcards (white), which answer the purpose capitally.

3. Gum in solution.—Make your own, by purchasing two ounces of gum-arabic at one penny per ounce, and dissolving it with warm water till it is as thick as cream. Do not put too much water at first, you can easily add more if too thick. Have this always ready, for you require it constantly.

4. Water-Colours (Rowney’s or Reeve’s penny cakes).—Chrome green (2); vermilion (1); ivory-black (1); and a little Chinese white (the last not essential).

5. Camel-hair brushes.—Three or four of various sizes, halfpenny and penny each.

6. Elastic bands.—Six of various sizes.

7. Pins.—If you cannot beg from your mother or sister, one penny will buy what is necessary.

8. Sand-paper.—Coarse and fine (halfpenny per sheet).

9. Copper wire.—Such as is used for bell-hanging. Cost, one penny, sufficient for several.

10. Crystal varnish.—Cost, twopence.

11. Brass or steel chain.—A piece of a toy watch-chain does very well.

12. A few small pieces of coal from the coal-cellar, when required.

13. A knife, with sharp edge.—Boys need no advice on this point.

14. A cutting-board.—Any smooth piece of board about half an inch thick.

15. Cotton.—One reel of strong, any colour.

16. A few pieces of board for painting and drying gummed parts on. Such as described in No. 1 will do.

When all your materials are ready, select a piece of thin wood (marked 1 in the [list] of materials). Let it be free from knots and straight in the grain. The following dimensions are suitable for a medium-sized model; if larger or smaller models are desired, increase or decrease proportionately.

Length, fourteen inches; Width, two and three-quarter inches; Thickness, about one-eighth of an inch; this is called the Foundation.

Fig. 1.—Plan of foundation, quarter of size.

[Fig. 1 enlarged] (22 kB)

Part of [Fig. 1].—Full size.

Having cut the exact size, next proceed to make on it, in pencil, the plan as detailed in [Fig. 1], as follows: Rule the two parallel lines A E, B F, at distances of a quarter of an inch and three-eighths of an inch respectively from one edge; rule C G, D H at the same distances respectively from the other edge. Next measure off from one end (which you had better mark ‘Front’) half an inch, then one inch and a quarter, one inch, one inch and three-quarters, etc., as on plan (this must be done on both edges); rule lines across where the words ‘RAISE UP,’ 1, 2, 3, 4, are marked. The shaded parts between the parallel lines should be shaded on your plan as in the diagram. These shaded parts are now to be cut out with a sharp knife. It requires both patience and care to prevent the wood splitting, but a little practice will enable you to do this easily and skilfully. These cut-out spaces (as will be seen afterwards) are for the wheels.

The foundation is now prepared, and the next process is to cut out four boiler ends, or ‘Raise-ups,’ as they are termed, 1 and 2 for the front, 3 and 4 for the back of boiler. They are all different, and are formed as follows: On four pieces of thick card (No. 2a in [list] of materials) describe circles with radius one and one-eighth of an inch (equal to half the distance from A D); in Nos. 2 and 3 describe a second circle, with radius not quite a quarter of an inch less.

Fig. 2.—‘Raise-ups,’ half the size.

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 must each have a base-line two inches and a quarter long. The ends of Nos. 1 and 2 must curve up to meet the circle, and Nos. 3 and 4 are perpendicular lines from ends of base line to meet the circle (as shown above in [Fig. 2]). Now place these on your cutting-board (No. 14 in [list] of materials) and with a very sharp knife cut them neatly and carefully the required shapes. Nos. 1 and 4 must be left quite whole in the centre; Nos. 2 and 3 must have their centres cut out round the inner circle. (In cutting do not try to make a continuous cut, or your knife is almost certain to slip and spoil your work; do it by successive ‘digs’ with the point of the knife, in the manner adopted by a gardener when cutting round the edges of a flower-bed with his spade.)

We are now in a position to make the body of the boiler. For this, take a piece of thin card (2c in [list]); it should be seven inches long (the length from K to L in [Fig. 1]), and about eight inches and a half wide. This must be rolled into a cylinder, and is then ready for fitting into the ‘raise-ups’ 2 and 3. No. 1 is then placed at the front end and gummed on, and No. 4 at the other end and also gummed on. No. 2 should be one and three-eighths of an inch from No. 1, and No. 3 be one and seven-eighths of an inch from No. 4. These ‘raise-ups’ should now all be fixed in their places on the foundation, and fastened at the bottom edge with the thick solution of gum (No. 3 in [list]), being held firmly to the foundation by elastic bands (No. 6 in [list]). These bands must not be too strong or they will flatten the boiler. In all gumming, pins should be freely stuck round to hold the parts in the desired position until they are dry. Our model will now present [this] appearance. The short perpendicular lines with knobs marked a represent pins; the lines marked b represent elastic bands.

Fig. 3.

When this is firmly stuck, two other pieces of thin card should be prepared to connect the ‘raise-ups.’ One must be one and three-eighths of an inch wide, and the other one and seven-eighths of an inch, and long enough to reach from the ‘foundation’ on one side, over the top, to the ‘foundation’ again on the other side. They must exactly follow the shapes of the ‘raise-ups,’ and should be cut to exactly fit, but not before the previous work is quite dry and firm. When prepared, gum in position; they are called ‘over-raise-ups.’ Several folds of cotton must be wound round the part marked a b c d to hold it while drying.

Fig. 4.

The next process is to well coat it with paint of the desired colour. If we are copying one of the South-Eastern Railway Company’s engines, the body will have to be painted ‘chrome-green’; if one of the Brighton Company’s, it will have to be painted ‘yellow-ochre.’ As the latter is liable to become soiled, we will select the former, and commence by mixing our colour. We shall require two penny cakes (No. 4 in [list] of materials). They should be placed in a small tin or earthenware pot (one of Liebig’s extract-of-beef pots answers the purpose admirably), a little water is then added, and one of your cakes may easily be softened with a large paint-brush (No. 5 in [list]). Make your colour of the consistency of cream, so that it works freely. It may be mixed while the previous work is drying. When all is ready, paint the boiler and ‘over-raise-ups’ evenly with it, and let it dry; a second coat is applied in the same way, and usually a third and fourth coat. The front and back ‘raise-ups’ (Nos. 1 and 4) are not painted chrome-green. The body being evenly painted, and dry, we proceed to ornament the boiler with some fine lines; these are made by cutting with a sharp knife eight narrow strips of paper, the exact width being, of course, very much a matter of taste. You will require a ruler to guide your knife, and you must place your paper on something smooth and very hard (not wood) while you cut, or the paper will curl up. These strips must be about nine or ten inches long. Six are to be painted black and two vermilion; immediately after painting them, just shift their position a little or the edges will stick to the material on which they are laid, and they will break when you attempt to lift them after they are dry. When dry, place them as follows: First take a black strip, gum it, and stick it exactly midway between raise-ups (Nos. 2 and 3) quite round the boiler; on each side of this, and about three-eighths of an inch distant from it, gum a vermilion strip; next gum and place two black strips similarly, one on each side, about an inch and a half distant from the centre strip. The three remaining black strips are to be thus placed: one at the front edge of the front ‘over-raise-up,’ a second at the back edge of the same, the third at the front of the back ‘over-raise-up;’ the three last will then be exactly over the raise-ups Nos. 1, 2, and 3. We now require two strips of card the exact length of the space between Nos. 2 and 3 ‘raise-ups,’ and not quite half an inch wide; paint them well over with ‘chrome-green’ like the boiler, and when dry edge with a black line, using the smallest paint-brush for this black line. These are to be gummed at the lower side of the boiler touching the foundation, and meeting the boiler obliquely, thus:—

. The position of the strips is shown at a. In all gumming use plenty of gum, but let the greater part be on the side hid from view.

This end must be shaped to fit the boiler.

Fig. 5.—Full size.

[Fig. 5 enlarged] (14 kB)

We have now to construct ‘side-boxes.’ Take a piece of medium thickness card (a used white postcard), and make it the shape of [Fig. 5]. Where the dotted lines come, cut a little V-shaped groove, not quite through the card, like this:—

. And by bringing the two edges of the groove together, thus,

, you will be enabled to fold the card at right angles at those places without breaking it. Having cut this as required, it must be folded and gummed into shape (put plenty of gum into the joints and corners), and kept in this position on a piece of wood by pins. [Fig. 6] shows its appearance.

Fig. 5a.—To go round ‘middle-box.’

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

Make another similar to this for the other side; the same shaped card will do, all that you need alter is the V groove, which must be on the reverse side of the card to enable you to fold it so as to make a pair—right and left-handed. When dry, paint ‘chrome-green,’ edge with black, and gum in position one on each side of the back ‘over-raise-up,’ to which they should exactly fit. [Fig. 8] shows them in position marked b. The next thing to do is to make ‘MIDDLE-BOXES.’ They are two in number, and are placed, one on each side, exactly in the middle of the boiler, as marked a in [Fig. 8]. Medium thickness is required. Describe a circle, with radius one inch; within and concentric describe a second with radius seven-eighths of an inch, and a third concentric with radius three-eighths of an inch; divide this into two equal parts by the line A B, [Fig. 7]. Between the two inner circles draw radiating spokes, as in [Fig. 7]. Cut out the shaded parts neatly with a sharp knife. Cut through the line A B to divide into two parts. Now prepare two pieces of card shaped something like [Fig. 5a]; and the length must be sufficient to reach from A to B round the outer circle in [Fig. 7], the curve being made to fit nicely to the boiler, as marked c in [Fig. 8]. Gum these to the middle-boxes, and, when dry, paint ‘chrome-green,’ edged with black; gum middle-boxes in their places on the boiler. In the centre of the front ‘raise-up’ gum a circular piece of thin card (radius three-quarters of an inch)—this represents soot-door; a pin, with head and point cut off, gummed on the left side with two narrow strips of card from the pin to beyond the circle as annexed will form the hinges; two other pieces of pin, as [shown] on the side opposite to the hinges, form the handles.

Half-size.

The soot-door should be painted black.

The model should now present the appearance of [Fig. 8].

Fig. 9.

We have next to make a ‘DOME-BOX’ and a FUNNEL-BOX. As both of these are alike except in size, we will give details of the first, and dimensions only of the second. On a piece of ‘medium’ card construct a square with sides one and a half inch long, construct a second within it with sides one inch long, cut out the corners shaded, leave the sides A B and C D straight, but curve, as shown, the lines marked E F and G H, so that they fit the boiler; the annexed ([Fig. 9], No. 1) is full size and exactly the shape. All round the inner square, where the dotted lines are shown, a V-shaped groove must be cut, as when making ‘side-boxes’: fold in, gum well in at the angles, and place pins round to keep it in position until dry, as at [Fig. 9], No. 2.

The dimensions of the ‘funnel-box’ are: outer square, one and a quarter inches sides; inner square, three-quarters of an inch sides. The ‘dome-box’ is to be painted chrome-green and edged with black; the ‘funnel-box’ is to be painted black. When they are quite dry they must be gummed in position; the ‘dome-box’ is to be placed on the boiler, almost in the centre, but slightly nearer the front than the back; the ‘funnel-box’ exactly in the centre of the front over ‘raise-up.’

Wood shaped for Dome. Cut off at line A B.

Fig. 10.

Now obtain a piece of deal about six inches long and rather more than an inch square; the corners are to be cut away at one end, so that the end is shaped something like a glass shade; then with sand-paper (coarse first and then fine) the rounded part is smoothed; cut it off square, about one inch and a quarter from the rounded end, as [shown] at A B.

This is the ‘DOME,’ and if it be gilded with a little of Judson’s or Bessemer’s gold paint, it adds much to the appearance; when gilded and dry, stick it on the ‘dome-box;’ it should exactly reach the centre of each side of the square; looked at from above, it appears as at [a]; looked at from one side, it appears as at [b].

STEAM FUNNEL

Next take a piece of rather stout note-paper, about six inches long and half an inch wide, roll it round a piece of slate-pencil several times, gum the outer end, and when dry slip it off; cut a circular piece of medium card to fit the end, which should be about half an inch in diameter; now roll another piece of paper about a quarter of an inch wide so as to make a roll about a third of the diameter of the preceding, gum the outer end as before, and fix it in the centre of the circular card; cut a second disc of card with the centre cut out just to fit on the top of the small roll; it will then appear thus: It is called the ‘[steam-funnel]’; it is to be painted ‘chrome-green’ and edged with black; its position is the centre of the back ‘over-raise-up.’

We must now make our screen. For this we require a piece of thick card three and a half inches long and two and five-eighths inches wide. It is to be of the shape [here] given, but the width must be such that it will fit tightly in between the side-boxes (see b, [Fig. 8]) at the rear end of the boiler; the top must reach about half an inch higher than the steam-funnel and be rounded at the corners. In this two circular holes of about three-quarters of an inch in diameter must be cut; their position is half an inch below the top and a quarter of an inch from the sides; paint it chrome-green and edge with black. If pieces of circular glass, such as are used for covering objects when mounted for the microscope, were placed over the circular holes, and gilded round the edges, they would improve the appearance; they are not essential. On this screen we now provide a circular piece of thin card of the same diameter as the large end of boiler—viz., two and a quarter inches; this must be painted black, and is then gummed on the screen so as to correspond with the boiler end when the screen is in position; a hole, horizontal at the top and circular below, of this shape and dimensions must now be cut through both cards for an ash-pan, the lower edge being about one-eighth of an inch from the edge of the circle; at the back, over the hole, gum a piece of paper painted vermilion, and dotted with black to represent fallen cinders.

On this boiler end must now be made furnace and furnace-door. For this take a piece of ‘medium’ card, and on it describe a semi-circle, with diameter one and three-quarter inches. In this make a door shaped as in the [diagram], cut quite through the part marked a, b, c, d, except where the dotted line comes. Where this dotted line is shown it should be cut on the reverse side of the card, half through the card. This is the door, and it will then stand partly open. Round the circular part gum a piece of thin card, one-eighth of an inch wide. Fasten down with pins as before to dry, as annexed. When dry, paint the part which is to show outside black, and stick a piece of paper painted vermilion on the inner side of door. The vermilion should show through the partly open door, in order to give the ruddy appearance of fire. This furnace end may now be gummed on the boiler end (see [Fig. 11]). When in position the bottom will be parallel with the top of the ‘ash-pan’ opening, and about one eighth of an inch above it. It will stand out from the boiler end. Now with a large pin make holes all round the edge of the boiler end. They should be close together, like this:

. In these holes insert pins, with the heads showing outside, and this will give the effect of bright rivets.

Next take a piece of medium card, and make it of this size and shape:

As seen from front.. Where the dotted lines marked ‘1’ are shown, bend it at right angles from you; where the dotted lines marked ‘2’ are shown, bend at right angles outwards; it will, when looked at edgeways, appear like this:

As seen from above.. Paint it black on both sides, and gum the ends (2 to 3) on the screen just above the boiler end. The lever (4, 5) is to work in this on its centre (4). A narrow piece of thick card, about one inch and a quarter long, will do for the lever, while a pin inserted at 4 forms the centre on which it moves.

We then fix our ‘steam-gauge.’ It consists of a circular piece of white medium card, on which is shown the numbers 10, 20, 30, 40, etc., to indicate the pressure. A pin through the centre connects it with the steam-funnel. The pin represents the steam-pipe. We now require taps, which we make out of pins, by cutting off the heads and bending them at right angles about one-eighth of an inch from the headless end. The point is pushed through the card, leaving outside about one-eighth of an inch in addition to the bent part, as shown in accompanying [cut]. Above this we gum another piece of bent pin this size

and shape, for handle of tap. Two or three of these should be placed on the boiler end, at the left side above the furnace.

Fig. 11.—Appearance of screen,
but not the correct size.

Ash-box, full size.

Our screen will now appear as shown at [Fig. 11], and is ready for fixing. To enable us to do this, as its position is at the back end of the boiler, we first remove entirely No. 4 ‘raiseup’ and this must be done very carefully. A good plan is to cut out the bottom of the ‘raiseup,’ insert your finger and gently pull it, when, with a little coaxing, it will probably come out easily. The ‘raiseup’ being removed, we fix the screen firmly in its place, using plenty of gum on the inner side of the ‘over-raiseup,’ ‘side-boxes,’ and inner boiler end. To hold it in position while drying, stick two or three pins at the bottom into the ‘foundation,’ and tie a piece of cotton through the screen holes round the dome. This cotton must not be so tight as to pull off the dome or bend the screen. Let it dry.

Fig. 12.—Tender-side.—Exact size.

The next process is to provide ‘tender-sides.’ The name indicates what they are, viz. sides to the tender. They are made of wood; two pieces, each four and a half inches long, one inch and a quarter wide, and one-eighth of an inch thick, are required. The upper corner at the front end should be cut out to correspond with the projection from side-boxes (see [Fig. 5], a). Paint chrome-green, edged with black, then divide into panels with black lines, as at [Fig. 12], which is full size, and gives the exact appearance. If found too difficult, omit all the inner lines. It is advisable to practise making these fine lines on a piece of paper before making them on your ‘sides.’

Fig. 13.—Half-size.

When they are quite ready they are placed in position (one on each side) at the rear of the ‘foundation,’ and firmly gummed. They must be in an exact line with the ‘side-boxes,’ and reach a little each way beyond the pair of tender-wheels (as shown in [Fig. 1], P to R). To connect these, take a piece of ‘thick’ card of the shape shown ([Fig. 13], a). The diagram is half size. At M O and N P, cut, as before explained, V-shaped grooves, and gum up the shape as at [Fig. 13], b.

Paint the part marked A chrome-green; panel with black lines like sides of tender. Paint the parts marked B and C black. When quite dry, place in position; the part marked A is to be at the back end of the ‘tender-sides’ connecting them, the part marked B half-way along the top, in both cases extending to the outer edge of the wooden ‘tender-sides.’ The part marked C, which is narrower, comes between the ‘tender-sides,’ and should terminate just about the front end of them.

Fig. 14.—Back screen, half size.

Screen.—This shape, but about twice the size.

The ‘screen’ to be placed at this end now requires making. It should be just wide enough below to fit in between the ‘tender-sides;’ the upper part should be wide enough to reach the outside edges of the ‘tender-sides.’ The height should be a quarter of an inch less than the ‘screen’ already constructed ([Fig. 11]), with top-corners rounded, and with two holes near the top similar to those in the ‘screen.’ Near the bottom a hole, one inch wide and three-quarters of an inch high, should be cut—this is for the stoker to get coals out. The diagram ([Fig. 14]) gives the shape. Paint chrome-green, and edge with black.

If you desire to make a screen with a top to it, as in the engines more recently constructed, obtain a piece of thick card long enough for both screens (which now must be of equal height) and the top; arrange it something like the annexed figure, placing all the details of both screens as before described, and finally making V-shaped grooves at A and B, where the bends are to be made. Gum up into shape and afterwards gum in position as before described. Very often this kind of engine has no ‘tender,’ and is called a ‘tank’ engine.

Fig. 15.

Now obtain some coal and break it into small pieces—about the size of gum arabic when purchased. These are to be gummed on the card marked C, in [Fig. 13] to fill the space level between it and the back screen, and thus give the appearance of a tender well filled with coal. The tender will now be as represented at [Fig. 15].

Fig. 16.

Our attention must now be given to the wheels. We require five pairs. The diameter of these should be equal to the spaces cut out on the ‘foundation’ in [Fig. 1], viz. one pair one inch and a quarter, one pair (fly-wheels) one inch and three-quarters, and three pairs one inch and a half. They are to be cut out of ‘thick’ card; the fly-wheels should have sixteen spokes, the others may have eight or twelve. In the centre of each wheel make a pin-hole. [Fig. 16], full size, will show you how to mark and cut out your wheels. The shaded part is to be cut out neatly and carefully with a sharp knife. As each wheel is cut out, paint it chrome-green, and edge each spoke with black. Next obtain a piece or pieces of wood about three-eighths of an inch square at the end, and about one or two feet long. Cut off five pieces, each two inches and a quarter long—this is probably rather longer than required, but they can be cut shorter; they are for axles, and the ends should be painted black.

A piece of bearing shaft. Full size.

Bearing shaft complete, quarter of size.

Having all these prepared, fix each pair of wheels to an axle by sticking a pin through a pin-hole. They are not to be permanently fixed until the axles are stuck on the foundation, as possibly some of the pins may require to be placed higher or lower in the axles in order that all the wheels may be level at the bottom and the engine stand firmly when on a smooth surface. When this is done, fasten the wheels very firmly to the axles with pins cut in half. I should add, the wheels are not intended to revolve. Next provide ‘bearing-shafts’ by taking strips of thin card, the same length as the foundation, and about half an inch wide; draw a line down the the middle of each from end to end. Now fit them to the sides in order to mark on them the positions of the engine-wheel centres, A, B, C. At these make curves, as [shown]. Cut through the line (1,2); it follows the centre line except at the curves; the bottom is quite straight. Paint this ‘vermilion,’ or better still, ‘crimson-lake,’ and edge with white. The bearing shafts are continued round the ends front and rear, but for these it is best to take separate pieces of card of medium thickness; they are only a quarter of an inch wide; paint and edge like the side pieces. Gum in position on the sides and ends of foundation; only the curved parts at A, B, C appear above, the straight part of the upper edge is ‘flush’ (that is, exactly even) with the foundation.

Our copper wire (No. 9 in [list]) is now needed. Cut two pieces just long enough to fit tightly between the second and third ‘raiseups,’ fix them in position parallel with boiler, rather more than half-way up, and near the edge of the ‘raiseups.’

Lamps are now to be made and fixed on the space in front; they are best made out of pieces of wood—the remainder of that used for axles will be useful for this if cut down; they should be about three-eighths of an inch wide and thick, and half an inch high. Paint the front side of one white, of the other green; when dry, make a circle on this front, and paint all black except within the circles; make two similar for the back, but these paint vermilion for the centres. In the top of each insert a bent pin with its head cut off for a handle.

Now make the buffers, the instructions for making steam-funnel will tell you how: the only difference is that there is to be no hole in the circular card at the end. The front part is painted vermilion, the rest black. Two are required at each end; they are placed on the bearing-shafts front and rear, about three-eighths of an inch from the sides.

The ‘FUNNEL’ now requires our attention. It is made of paper, long enough and wide enough, when tightly rolled, to form a cylinder about half an inch in diameter and two inches long. Gum the edge down. For the top, cut a circular ring, of medium card, three-quarters of an inch in diameter outside, half an inch in diameter inside. Fit this neatly on the top of the cylinder. Paint it black and gum in the centre of the funnel-box, previously described. A gold line or strip of gilt paper round the top of the funnel improves the appearance.

Fig. 17.

Funnel top.

A circular piece of medium card three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with a black cross or diamond painted on it, should be placed in front of the funnel-box. ([Fig. 17]).

Safety-valves, connected with the ‘dome,’ should now be put. Obtain two rather thick sewing-needles, about two inches long; make with the points two small holes, one-eighth of an inch apart, just behind the red strip at the back of the ‘dome;’ push the eye end of one of these needles carefully through these holes, so as to allow them to stand out about an inch and a half. They should incline to each other at the top, but otherwise be perpendicular. They are connected with the dome by pins with the heads cut off, but whose points are stuck into a little cube of cork gummed on the top of the dome.

The engine is now tolerably complete, and only requires to be varnished. For this purpose, obtain some ‘crystal’ varnish, of good quality, and apply it with a large camel-hair brush. One good coat should suffice. Let it thoroughly dry before handling.

There are many little details which will probably occur to you. I have seen a metal cartridge-case used to represent a cylinder, a wire coming from the top representing the steam feed-pipe. Little pieces of chain, front and back, represent coupling-chains. In some, the apparatus for applying the vacuum brake is imitated. All you need do is to use your eyes and exercise your ingenuity. Should you fail at first, do not be discouraged; try once more. There are no obstacles but what may be conquered by patient and persevering attention.

II.—A Home-Made Humming-Top.

The humming-top is a familiar toy that does not cost much to buy. At the same time there is always a satisfaction in making a thing for oneself—particularly when it costs nothing.

As it happens that a good loud humming-top can be made for nothing, we feel sure that some of our readers will not be above trying their hands at it.

The materials are an empty baking-powder canister, or any wooden box, and two pieces of firewood. The plan of operations is to cut a slit in the side of the box answering to the hole in the toy, making it half an inch square or round, as the case may be, and making a hole in the lid and bottom of the box for the spindle to come through. To make a good job of it the bottom hole should be square and the top hole round, and the spindle should be cut to fit, pushing it in, of course, from the bottom. When the holes and spindle are cut, put a little glue round the lid to make the box tight, and insert the spindle with a little glue at each hole. For the usual fork or handle with which the top is spun, a plain slip of wood with a hole at the end will be found to answer.

Very simple preparations all these, and yet everything is ready except the string.

When the top is dry, wind round the string, passing it through the hole in the handle as [shown], and spin.

CHAPTER XXXVIII.—ARTIFICIAL WOOD: HOW TO MAKE IT AND WHAT TO MAKE OF IT.
By the late Dr. Scoffern.

You will admit, I think, that if instead of fashioning wood by tools it were possible to make the wood grow into the shape desired, it would not only be curious, but under certain circumstances useful. Suppose, for instance, I wished to have a boat; it would not only be curious, but in some cases useful, if I could make the boat grow under my eyes by almost imperceptible additions, instead of fashioning it, as now, from planks. This is just what I am going to show you how to do, and very pretty work you will find it in long evenings.

You must begin by making a fluid called cupro-ammonium (you cannot buy it), which has the singular property of dissolving woody matter just as completely as water dissolves gum. You make this cupro-ammonium thus: Go to a wholesale druggist, or a drysalter, and purchase a Winchester quart bottle full of the very strongest solution of ammonia. This is known commercially as ‘eighty-eighty’ ammonia, by which name you are to inquire for it. Were you to purchase less than the measure of a Winchester quart it would cost you a much higher proportionate price, because, being very irritating to the nose and eyes, the vendor will take good care to charge you for all the sneezes and eye-blinkings he has to encounter in measuring out your required quantity.

Next you will require an empty Winchester quart stoppered bottle, or a bottle of equal capacity. Being thus provided, you will pour just one half of the contents of the full bottle into the empty bottle; the reason for doing which will presently be seen.

Get now some copper wire—it matters not what size—and having got it, cut into such lengths that being thrust into one of your half-full Winchester quart bottles it shall lie partly immersed in the ammonia, and partly exposed to air, like this:—

You will observe that the [sketch] represents not one length of copper wire, but many, the fact being that the object of using copper at all is that it may be dissolved by the ammonia; and it stands to reason that in proportion as the copper is more so will the necessary strength of solution be arrived at more quickly. Contact of air being necessary to effect the solution affords the reason for your dividing the original ammonia into halves.

So your bundle of copper wire being placed in the half-full bottle as described, there let it remain and steep, but you must take care to remove the stopper of your bottle from time to time—say once a day, at least—shaking the contained fluid well about, so as to promote air contact. An interesting change will be seen to take place. The ammonia solution, originally colourless as water, grows blue and bluer still, until so very blue that you cannot see through it. To this blue solution the name of cupro-ammonia has been applied. It has the remarkable property of dissolving wood, as we shall presently discover in our workings.

Before going further I must point out to you that this cupro-ammonium has a very strong smell; not a disagreeable smell, far from it; the smell of hartshorn, in point of fact. Not an unhealthy smell, but one may easily have too much of it. To be working amidst sneezing and eyes full of water is not agreeable, so I will tell you betimes how, in your small workings, you may avoid this inconvenience. The smell depends on a colourless gas ammonia, which is a light gas and very tractable. If you sit in a draught and on the windward side whilst working, and in the open air, the ammonia is blown away from you and you smell nothing. If you work in a room and before a chimney, up which there is a draught, then again you smell nothing, because all the ammonia evolved goes up the chimney. These points being remembered, no trouble will be experienced in doing such small work as I shall teach you; but before working with cupro-ammonia could be conducted on a large manufacturing scale, as it now is conducted, special means had to be devised for disposing of the ammoniacal atmosphere.

Good, so far! And now about the tools. The hand, with its four fingers and a thumb, is so excellent a tool for an infinity of purposes, that certain thoughtless people would seem to be under the impression that whatever new thing they may have to do can be done without tools altogether. This is a mistake; tools you will want, but they are of the simplest description.

Inasmuch as cupro-ammonium not only stains the skin but irritates it, do not let it touch the skin. There is no danger in the matter, only inconvenience. You do not want the ladies of your family petulantly complaining about those boys having been ‘dabbling with their filthy chemicals.’ Should your fingers get stained, a little vinegar will get out the stain, but not without a certain smarting that may as well be avoided.

The chief tool you will have to employ will be a finger of the right hand. Some operators may prefer the forefinger to others; the second will come most natural. But whichever finger you determine to employ, case it in india-rubber. This is easily done, and as follows: Having procured a sheet of raw or unvulcanised india-rubber, cut a piece off, hold out your finger, and get some friend, after warming the rubber, to stretch it over the finger so:—

squeezing the rubber where it comes round the finger above into a flattened crest. The two surfaces will stick together quite as much as is desirable. Now let the operator, with a pair of sharp scissors, and at one sweep, cut away the crest close up to the finger. You will then have an india-rubber finger-stall.

If you choose to be a little more extravagant, you may provide yourself with an india-rubber glove. Gloves of this material are common enough now, being used for a variety of purposes, more especially by photographers for protecting their hands against the corrosive and poisonous agents employed in the practice of photography. If, however, you do use gloves, see that they are thin, fitting well to the fingers. If thick they will interfere with the delicacy of touch necessary to your working. For my part, I do not recommend gloves, looking upon a finger-stall of india-rubber as superior.

The next tool that you must get is a pair of forceps, such as watchmakers use. It is a very inexpensive instrument, costing only a few pence, and in shape it is like this:—

The next tool—and the last I shall have to indicate—is a pair of sharp and delicately made scissors. Do not calculate on family resources, taking the first pair of scissors that may come to hand: get a pair of your own. See that they are first-rate when you are about it, and you cannot buy scissors of this sort at random at any hardware shop. Go to a surgical instrument shop, where you will be able to get what you want.

And now I leave your cupro-ammonium to brew, and you to get together the few tools indicated. When you are quite ready, we will proceed to see what to do with it.

The first exercise I shall put to you is the manufacture of an artificial wooden bottle. There will be no particular use in the thing when made, but it will be a curiosity, and the making of it is the very best exercise that suggests itself to me after many years’ experience.

You will perhaps here call to mind what I have told you about the pungent smell of our working fluid, cupro-ammonium, if one chances to get a sniff at it, and how that inconvenience may be avoided by a little management. In addition to that memory, please now bear in mind that the intensity of the smell of odorous things is in proportion to the surface exposed. Presently, in order to use your cupro-ammonium fluid, some must be poured out into a vessel into which you can dip little pieces of paper. Now it is evident that the smell of a pint of cupro-ammonium, or of any other smelling fluid, will be less intense if the vessel be a comparatively narrow-mouthed jug than if it be a basin; but supposing a basin to be desirable for collateral reasons, then much smell may be avoided by providing yourself with a temporary cover, say a glass pane, which may be laid over the surface, resting on the basin rim at the intervals when the dipping of your pieces of paper must be interrupted.

Next as to the paper you are to use in making this bottle of artificial wood. The best for your purpose will be what is known as printing demy. Writing-paper, having a glazed surface, is not favourable. The glaze is produced by animal size, a material that does not go well with cupro-ammonium. It matters little, practically nothing at all, whether the printer’s demy be new or whether it be printed upon. I have made excellent artificial wood out of, I believe, all the London daily morning papers; so choose your paper, and let us fall to work. Theoretically and scientifically it matters not what shape you cut your paper into, but practically, and present purpose regarded, there can be no doubt but that discs of a circular shape, and scored with cuts all round the circumference, are most convenient. The discs may conveniently run about the accompanying size.

The basis or model of our bottle about to be, or rather flask, shall be a common oil-flask. Provide yourself, then, with one of these, and cleanse it thoroughly from all oil, the least touch of which would be fatal to the success of our workings. Having done this, provide some sort of stand, into which the neck of the flask being stuck, the whole may be turned round and round in the progress of working. It matters nothing what this movable stand is. A candlestick does very well, if you can find a candlestick with candle-socket big enough to admit the neck of the flask. A marmalade pot holding sand can always be got, and into the sand the mouth and neck of the flask being stuck, every necessary purpose will have been answered.

Preliminaries being thus seen to, you pour out some of the cupro-ammonium in, let us say, a basin. Do not be sparing as to the quantity you pour out, for a reason to be explained presently. Take now one of your paper circular discs, and, with your forceps nipping it quite at the edge, dip it into the cupro-ammonium bath. For how long? Ah! that is a question to be solved. Assuming your stock of cupro-ammonium to be in good working order—assuming it to have been brewing with the copper wire for not less than a month, air having been furnished to it day by day, as already enjoined—then about three seconds will be long enough for each immersion. Nothing but practice will settle the point, and after only a little practice the operator cannot be mistaken. Immerse, then, for trial a paper disc, and, withdrawing it after about three or four seconds, lay it upon the crown of your flask and spread it out regularly by means of your forceps and rubber-protected finger. If it feels slippery like an eel the fluid has come to condition; but otherwise, if the disc instead of feeling slippery give the impression of harshness, then the conditions are not all that one would desire them to be. The main question is this: will the next disc, when steeped in the bath, removed, and pressed down, stick satisfactorily to the preceding disc?

This we shall now see. I have shown you [here] how the discs must overlap each other like the scales of a fish. You need not be particular in aiming at the mathematical symmetry of the scale lying on a fish’s skin; it would be folly to attempt such a result except your discs had been mathematically cut to pattern, and extremely difficult of execution in any case. Supposing the adhesion to be satisfactory, you can go on covering the entire surface of the oil-flask, and I should think common sense would suggest that when you have come down a certain distance in your working it will be more convenient if you take the flask out of its support and reverse it on a tumbler thus:—

When one course of overlap disc-layering has been finished in the way described, I would advise you, this being your first experience, to lay your work aside and let it dry. It will be easy now to see whether the overlap adhesion by all that was desired, and what the process is capable of. You are to remember, please, that we aim at no mere sticking together comparable to the result of gumming or pasting, but to an actual incorporation of material, so that junction being once effected, the layers can never more be separated by any known means. Were it otherwise, a thick material resulting from aggregated sheets of paper would have no claim to the designation ‘artificial wood.’ It would be simply papier-maché, reducible to paper pulp by mere steeping in water; whereas the material you and I are now engaged upon may be not only steeped in water, but actually boiled, and will never come to pieces. It will behave under those circumstances exactly like natural wood—that is to say, will soften a little to a certain depth, no more.

Cupro-ammonium is a very funny thing to work with, and has many curious ways. One curious point is this: Capable of effecting such complete adhesion—nay, more, incorporation, actual, bodily, as we have seen it to be—yet that quality ceases after only a few minutes’ removal from the bath. If you ask me the why and wherefore, frankly, I am unable to tell you, not myself knowing, though I have worked at this material for more than twenty years. So whatever work has to be done with cupro-ammonium has to be quickly done.

Another point of very highest importance is the following: Do you remember my telling you not to be sparing in the quantity of cupro-ammonium poured from the ‘brewing bottle,’ as we will call it, into the dipping basin? The fact is that every bit of paper you immerse and withdraw weakens the original solvent power of the bath, so in proportion as the bath liquor is smaller in quantity, by so much more speedily will its working power be lessened. For a long time that working power can be, and in practice is, restored by additional copper steepage, but it cannot be restored indefinitely.

Now pour back your bath-liquor; put away your tools, hereafter to renew your bottle building. Go on adding layer to layer until your bottle is as thick as you wish it to be, then giving the thing a sharp crack with the hammer, the glass flask will crumble almost to sand, which, when shook out, your own flask of cuproxylene, or artificial wood, will remain without support, but quite able to take care of itself.

CHAPTER XXXIX.—How to Make an Astronomical Telescope.
BY FRANK CHASEMORE.

The investigation of astronomical phenomena can only be made with the aid of a good telescope, the purchase of which is attended with considerable cost. It is my purpose in this chapter to give such directions as will enable any boy with average ingenuity to make for himself, at the cost of a few shillings, an instrument with which he can observe the more interesting of these phenomena.

This telescope will be of the simple non-achromatic class—that is, the colour effect of the unequal refraction of light is not corrected. Object-glasses of the achromatic construction are very expensive. All refracting telescopes were of the simple class up to 1758, when Mr. John Dollond, who had a few years before set up in business in London as optician, discovered a way to correct the colour effect on the image. This was by making the object-glass compound, or of two or more lenses fitted to each other, each being made of a different quality of glass from the other and having a different refracting power, one lens correcting or neutralising the dispersing caused by the other. The lenses for our telescope can be had from Messrs. Dollond and Co., descendants of the above John Dollond, No. 1, Ludgate Hill, who have given me some valuable hints with regard to the construction of this telescope.

A refracting telescope consists of an eye-piece, a tube, and an object-glass; these are mounted on a firm stand. The object-glass at one end of the tube collects the rays of light, reflected from an object, to a point, in the focus of the eyepiece, which magnifies the image that is there formed, enabling the eye, placed at the orifice of the eyepiece, to see an enlarged image of the object.

Fig. 1.

The stand must be firm, so as not to vibrate when any one passes along the floor of the room, and it must have a vertical and lateral motion connected with it. [Fig. 1] shows what our instrument will be like when finished.

The first thing to be made is the tube; this must be thirty-nine inches long and two inches in diameter inside. Get a wooden roller four feet long and two inches wide. A piece of curtain rod will do. Now mix some strong glue. If you have not a glue-pot, mix it in a jar placed in a saucepan of water. Get some sheets of stout brown paper and well damp them. Take a strip of brown paper, that has not been damped, thirty-nine inches long and seven inches wide. Rub the roller all over well with powdered chalk and put this dry paper strip round it to form a case, lapping and gluing the edges together, but being very careful not to let any glue touch the roller. Now take your damped paper and rub it all over on both sides with hot glue, and roll it on the roller; roll it tightly and rub the glue well in, and rub each layer of paper well in to the under one, so that when dry it will form a mass of paper and glue. Put on enough paper to form a casing a quarter of an inch thick. When you have done papering set the whole on one side to get quite dry and hard. While this is drying we can be making the eyepiece and stand. For the eyepiece we shall want a piece of brass tube four inches long and large enough for the larger of the two lenses that form the eyepiece to go inside; that will be a little more than an inch in diameter inside. Get your lenses before getting the tube. This tube can be bought at the ironmonger’s.

Now for the lenses. Go to Messrs. Dollond and ask for a two-inch simple object-glass, forty inches focus. This will be one shilling and sixpence. For the eyepiece ask for two plano-convex lenses—one of one-inch focus, the other of two-inch focus. These will be three shillings and sixpence the pair. The object glass is to be double convex. Now, having got your lenses, we will fix them in the tube.

Fig. 2.

Cut a piece of cardboard three-quarters of an inch wide, and long enough to go all round inside the tube tightly, and not to lap. Push this in to form a lining at one end, and forming a shelf out of the thickness. This shelf is to be about two inches from the end. Now turn the other end of the tube up and drop the larger of the two lenses—which is called the field lens—on to the shelf with the rounded side downwards. Now push in on the top of it another cardboard lining three-quarters of an inch wide. Push this lining quite down on to the flat side of the lens to keep it firm. On to the shelf formed by this lining place a disc of cardboard the size of the inside of the tube, and with a hole cut in the centre half an inch in diameter. This hole must be cut quite clean. On to this disc push in a cardboard lining one inch wide to keep all firm. Now cut two discs of cardboard, one the exact size of the inside of the tube, with a hole in the centre a trifle smaller in diameter than the small lens, which is called the eye-lens; the other a quarter of an inch smaller, and having a hole in the centre the exact size of the eye-lens. Glue these two discs together (as in [Fig. 2]), being careful to get them concentric. When this is dry push the eye-lens into the ledge formed, the flat side downwards, and put the cardboard discs on to the lining in the tube, the rounded side of the glass inside the tube. Fasten the disc and lens in place with a narrow strip of cardboard, going all round just inside the tube.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

[Fig. 3] will show the arrangement of lenses and disc in the tube. The lenses are to be an inch and three-quarters from edge to edge; the disc is to be an inch from the eye-lens. Now get a tinman to make you a cap of thin brass plate (like [Fig. 4]). This is to fit tightly on the end of the tube over the eye-lens, and is to have a hole in the centre of the top three-eighths of an inch in diameter.

Now the eyepiece is finished, and we will get on with the stand.

Fig. 5.

Let two circular pieces of beech five inches in diameter and one and a half inches thick, each to have a hole bored in the centre an inch in diameter, and going right through the wood. Take one of these pieces, and on the under side fasten, by three strong brass hinges that work stiffly, three legs, made of inch and a half square pine ([Fig. 5]). These legs are to be four feet six inches long.

Fig. 6.

Take the other piece of beech and fasten a rod or roller of wood, two feet and a half long and one inch diameter, into the hole, so that one end is flush with the top side of the wood ([Fig. 6]). Now fasten two uprights to the top, letting them into the wood ([Fig. 6]). These are to be three-quarters of an inch thick, and four and a half inches high, and are to be three and a half inches apart.

Fig. 7.

Bore a hole in each upright about half an inch from the top and about one quarter of an inch in diameter. Now get nine screw stair-eyes at the ironmonger’s, and about seven feet of brass wire one eighth of an inch thick. Get this wire straightened. Into the inside of each leg, and one foot from the top, screw one of the brass stair-screws. Now get a piece of wood, circular, three inches diameter and one and a half inches thick (a ribbon roller will do very well), and bore a hole right through the centre, one and a quarter inches in diameter. Round this piece of wood at equal distances screw three more of the screw-eyes. Now cut from your brass wire three lengths of fourteen inches, and turn a ring at each end of each piece, and hook one end of each piece into a screw-eye in the circular block, and the other end into the eye in each leg, closing up the rings so that they will not come unhooked. This arrangement will keep the top from tilting. Now the stand is finished, and we will take the tube in hand if it is quite dry and hard. Before drawing out the roller, cut the ends off quite square with a sharp knife, leaving the tube thirty-seven and a half inches long. Now draw out the roller without breaking the tube. We must next fix the object-glass. Cut a strip of cardboard half an inch wide, and long enough to go all round inside the tube without lapping, and to fit tightly. Push this inside, so that it will form a shelf half an inch inside the end of the tube. Glue this in its place. Upon this place the object-glass, and fix it there by gluing a strip of cardboard all round inside the tube on the top of the lens. To fix the eyepiece, cut from the roller used to make the tube on, a piece one inch long, and bore a hole right through the centre of it the exact size of the eyepiece tube. Glue this block in the other end of tube. Push the brass tube in this hole with the field-lens inwards. The telescope can be focussed by pushing in or drawing out the brass tube. Get a piece of deal eight inches long and three and a half inches wide and two inches deep. Cut a groove along the top as [Fig. 7], one inch deep and a little more than two and a quarter inches wide, to fit the outside of the tube. Glue this block on the tube, so that one end is thirteen inches from the front end of the tube (the eyepiece end). Put the block in its place between the uprights on the stand, and fix it there by two screws passing through the holes in the uprights and screwing into the block. Pass the rod attached to the uprights through the hole in the top of stand and through the hole in the block underneath.

Fig. 8.

Now we have only to make the arrangement for elevating the telescope. For this you will want the rest of the brass wire and the remaining three stair-eyes as well as two pieces of thin brass plate, four and a half inches long, half an inch wide, and one-sixteenth of an inch thick. Bend these pieces of plate as in [Fig. 8], making the bent parts one inch long, and get the ends cut as in the figure, and have holes drilled in the bent parts a little larger than the brass wire. Cut your wire into two lengths of eighteen and a half inches, and take them to the tinman and get him to cut a screw-thread nearly the whole length of each, leaving about two inches to each. At this end of each get him to turn a ring, and get him to close these two rings into one of the screw-eyes. Get him to make a screw-nut for each wire about the size of a farthing, but about twice the thickness. Screw the eye carrying these wires through the tube into the eyepiece block, screw the remaining two screw-eyes into two of the legs of the stand, on the outside of each leg and about one foot from the top of each. Bend the cut part of the brass plates into rings and close them in these screw-eyes. Now put the screw-nuts in their places in the brass plates, and put the screw wires through the holes in the top, and turn the nuts to the left, which will draw down the wires and with them the eyepiece of the telescope. To turn the telescope to the left turn the right-hand nut to the right, and the other to the left, and to turn it to the right reverse the action of the nuts. In making this telescope you must be very careful in fixing the lenses. They are to be placed so that the centres are to be in one straight line, which line is to be at right angles to the lenses. You can cover your tube with coloured paper to give it a finish. It will be advantageous, in using the instrument, by keeping out all light not wanted, to make a cardboard tube about six inches long and large enough to slide easily on the end over the object-glass and to project about five inches. The telescope is now finished, and will with ordinary care last for years.

Fig. 9.

Appearance of the Moon as seen through one of these telescopes on June 9th

It may be well to add that astronomical telescopes show the image inverted; this is done to save the use of erecting glasses which absorb light, and consequently make the image faint. If you wish to make yours useful for terrestrial purposes, you must insert in front of the field lens, and about four inches from it, a lens of the same focal length; this will turn the image right way up. The blurring of the image is sometimes caused by the two lenses composing the eye-piece not being at the distance apart proper for their focal lengths.

CHAPTER XL.—The Kaleidoscope, and How to Make it.
By W. J. Gordon.

The kaleidoscope is the most successful scientific toy of modern times. Immediately after its patenting by Sir David Brewster over three hundred thousand were sold in three months. Essentially it consists of a couple of mirrors arranged at an angle forming some even sub-multiple of three hundred and sixty. The angle usually chosen is the sixth, or sixty degrees.

Before proceeding to make a kaleidoscope for home use, it would be well to try a few experiments with two common pieces of looking-glass. Arrange them as in the diagram ([Fig. 1]), and placing an object at A, or standing them on a piece of colour work, notice the beautiful geometrical pattern formed by the various reflectors. Having experimented with various articles at the angle given, try the effect at another angle, and note how the slightest change affects the design.

Having grasped the general principle you can proceed to make one of the commoner varieties of the instrument as usually sold. These have three mirrors.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Cut three pieces of common glass into the shape here given. Let them be seven and a half inches long, one inch and five-eighths wide at A, and one inch wide at B ([Fig. 2]). If they are silvered on the back so much the better; if they are not, paint them black on one side. A very good black paint for the purpose is made by mixing vegetable black with gold size until it is as thick as cream. Seven-pennyworth of gold size and a pennyworth of vegetable black, obtained from the nearest oil-shop, will give you enough paint for a dozen kaleidoscopes, and be useful for other purposes into the bargain. The three mirrors are to be arranged in a tube, with their blackened sides outwards (see [Fig. 3]); and the tube is to be made accordingly. An old copy-book cover can be rolled into the shape, or a well-pasted strip of newspaper rolled round and round on a stick, as described in the chapter on the telescope, will give the tube with very little trouble. To fit the mirrors we have cut the tube should be eight and a quarter inches long, two inches in diameter at the broad end, and one inch and an eighth in diameter at the narrow. Of course the tube is not absolutely necessary; a square box two inches wide and eight inches and a quarter long will answer every purpose, but then the mirrors, instead of being kept in position by the sides of the case, will have to be wedged up by pieces of cork or balls of paper.

Fig. 4.

Having made the case, fix an eyepiece of tin or cardboard at one end, so that a hole a quarter of an inch in diameter comes in the centre of the angle made by the mirrors. This hole is shown in position in [Fig. 4], which represents the top of the tube or box.

At the other end of the tube a round piece of clear glass is to be fixed, and if the box is used a square piece will take its place. The round can be easily made from the square by chipping off the corners. An American glass-cutter, costing sixpence, can be obtained from most tool-shops, which will be found very useful in cutting glass for this and many other purposes. The secret in working wheel glass-cutters of all kinds is to keep the handle as nearly upright as possible and to bear firmly and equally on all parts of the work.

Having cut the plain glass end and fitted it close up against the broad end of the mirrors, the next thing is to cut a piece of ground-glass of the same size to fit over it. This ground-glass may be patterned, as in the kaleidoscopes of commerce. It is, however, more satisfactory to have it plain. Between the glasses you place the pieces of broken glass to form the designs.

‘The objects which give the finest outlines by inversion are those which have a curvilinear form, such as circles, ellipses, looped curves like the figure 8, curves like the figure 3 and the letter S; spirals and other forms, such as squares, rectangles, and triangles, may be applied with advantage. Glass, both spun and twisted, and of all colours and shades of colours, should be formed into the preceding shapes; and when these are mixed with pieces of flat coloured glass, blue vitriol, native sulphur, yellow ochre, and differently coloured fluids, enclosed and moving in small vessels of glass, they will make the finest transparent objects for the kaleidoscope. When the objects are to be laid upon a mirror plate, fragments of opaquely-coloured glass should be added to the transparent fragments, along with pieces of brass wire, of coloured foils, and grains of spelter. In selecting transparent objects, the greatest care must be taken to reject fragments of opaque glass, and dark colours that do not transmit much light; and all the pieces of spun glass, or coloured plates, should be as thin as possible.’

As far as the harmony of colour is concerned, it may be as well to note that the deepest red harmonises with an equal mixture of blue and green; that red goes best with green and blue, the blue being predominant; that orange-red requires a blue with a good deal of indigo; that orange-yellow wants pure indigo; that light yellow is best with violet and indigo half and half; that greenish-yellow shows off best by the side of pale violet; that green goes with a full violet; that greenish-blue combines with violet and red; blue with orange and red; indigo with orange-yellow; and violet with green.

Satisfactory effects can, however, be produced with almost anything bright and shining. The first kaleidoscope we, in the thirst for knowledge, took apart was found to have for its objects about forty pieces of red, green, blue, and brown stained glass, smashed up into irregular fragments of about a quarter of an inch in width and length, and as the shapes were varied and the colours crude, the patterns at every shake were almost as startling as those produced by a sixpenny catharine-wheel on the 5th of November.

The ground glass should be fitted into a cap, so as to be removable at pleasure, and the fragments of coloured glass to form the patterns should be left free to move between the glasses.

Having made this kaleidoscope, and coaxed it into acting properly, experiments with other contrivances should be made. Mirrors should be arranged at ninety, forty-five, and forty-five; at ninety, sixty, and thirty, and other angular combinations. A lens should be fitted at the end of the tube for magnifying purposes, and the tube should be attached to a magic lantern, and the patterns, almost equalling the chromatrope, thrown on the screen.

Fig. 5.

Having worked the fixed mirrors to the point of weariness, shifting mirrors should be tried, and then two mirrors, made to alter their angles by an arrangement of screws (see [Fig. 5]), as in the adjustable form of the instrument, should be experimented with.

You will soon find that when the inclination of the mirrors is not an aliquot part of 360 the reflections will not join, and then the following table from Sir David Brewster’s manual of the kaleidoscope may prove useful:—

In-
clina-
tion.		No. of
Re-
flec-
tions.		No. of
Pic-
tures.		No. of
Direct
Pic-
tures.
120 321
72 523
513⁄7743
40 945
328⁄111165
279⁄131367
24 1587
213⁄171789
1818⁄1919109
171⁄7211011

CHAPTER XLI.—HOW TO MAKE A PORTABLE STAGE AND FIGURES FOR THE LIVING MARIONETTES.
By F. Chasemore.

These funny little people when well managed will afford great amusement at holiday and Christmas-tide gatherings. To see these little ladies and gentlemen dancing and singing and even lecturing on the miniature stage is very laughable, especially as they are only eighteen inches high. The following hints will enable any lad to make the figures, as well as a portable stage, for this entertainment.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

For the stage you must get some deal strips 11⁄4 inches square, and cut into four lengths 3 feet 6 inches long for the front and back cross-pieces; four 3 feet long for the uprights; and four 2 feet 6 inches long. These are to be fitted together with a mortise and tenon at each end of the cross-pieces, as in [Fig. 2]. The uprights are to have plain ends, with a screw-hole in each end. A screw-hole is to be made right through each corner of the top and bottom frames to screw them to the uprights by. [Fig. 3] will show how the corners are fitted, in which A is the upright, B is the top front cross-piece, and C is one end cross-piece. The stage is formed of some half-inch board cut long enough to rest on the back and front bottom cross-pieces, as seen in [Fig. 1], which is a view of the stage when finished and ready for use. You may, if you would like it more ornamental, put on a cardboard proscenium, but it would be in the way of portability, as when removed to take the stage to pieces it would get broken. The top, ends, and back are closed in with curtains, each curtain fastened by hooks to the cross-pieces, so that they can be taken off for packing purposes. The back curtain is to be long enough to hang down about one foot below the stage, and is to be put on very full, with numerous pleats. In the middle of this back curtain, cut a vertical slit about one foot long and about nine or ten inches above the stage, and round this slit stitch some elastic cord. This slit can be seen in [Fig. 1]. The front of the stage is closed with two curtains which meet in the middle, and can be drawn up to exhibit the figures. [Fig. 4] is a back view of these curtains, with a part of the upper frame to show how they are drawn up by the cords.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

The curtains are fastened permanently to the inside of the front top cross-piece. The cords are sewn one on each, at the edges that meet in the middle when the curtains are down, at a distance down from the top equal to the width of the top of each (as in [Fig. 4]). Six small rings are sewn on the inside of each curtain in a diagonal direction to the top corner, and the cords are threaded through these rings. On the inside of the cross-piece and at each end and in the middle are screwed small picture-rings (as seen in the [figure]); and underneath the back cross-piece at the left-hand corner is screwed another picture-ring. The cord of the left-hand curtain is passed through the left-hand ring; the right cord is passed through the right-hand ring, and led through the middle ring, and then through the left-hand ring also, and then the two cords are knotted together and passed through the ring in the back cross-piece. A loop is made in the end of the cord to pull the curtains up by. At the bottom of the left-hand back upright a brass hook or screw is screwed in to hook the loop on to, to keep the curtains up. Now the stage is finished and ready for the figures. The curtains at back and sides must be of some dark material. The figures must be about twelve inches high without the head, and must be made headless. The body and limbs must be made of some light material, and yet solid. Virgin cork is a very good material to make them of, and is easily worked. [Fig. 5] will show you how the body and limbs are made. The arms have no joint at the elbow; the legs are jointed at the knees. The arms and thighs are hung to the body by tapes, and the knee-joints are also made of tape. All these joints must be very loose and free. The upper end of each arm and the upper ends of the thighs must have a hole bored into them about two inches deep (as shown by the dotted lines in [Figs. 5] and [6]). The fore-fingers of your hands are to be inserted in these holes through the curtain at the back, and through holes in the clothes of the figures left for that purpose, and by moving your fingers you can make the figures gesticulate or dance at pleasure. [Fig. 7] will show you how this is managed. [Fig. 6] is a back view of the body and a side view of the limbs. The body has a recess cut in the upper part of the back (as in [Fig. 6]). This is to allow of your neck fitting into it to let your head take the place of the head of the figure. The shoulders of the body are worked out to project a little over the arms, and the lower part of the body is cut away (as in [Fig. 6]) to allow of the legs fitting in their places. The hands can be made closed or open, but a good plan is to have the right hand closed and a hole bored through it (as in [Fig. 6]), when a stick can be placed in it. The body and limbs should be carved carefully, and to as good a shape as your anatomical knowledge will allow. The figures must be dressed in fancy costume—in coat, waistcoat, breeches, stockings, shoes, etc. The female figures must be dressed in light materials. In all the figures the clothes are fastened up the back, and the collar of the coat and the necktie are prolonged into a band to fasten round your neck with a button (as seen in [Fig. 7]). You must make this part of the dress very carefully, so as to disguise as much as possible the junction of the real with the artificial figure. This will be aided by the curtain at the back being very full, as the folds will hang closely round your neck. You must paint your face to suit the character of the figure, and put on fancy hats, also in character.

Fig. 7.

To use the stage and figures. First put your frame together and screw it securely. Then put on your curtains and put in the stage-boards, which need not be fastened. Thread the cords through the rings, and see if they work properly. When all is right, place the stage on a table with the back towards you, and flush with the back edge of the table, and hang a tablecloth over the table, hanging to the ground at the front and sides to hide your legs. Place your figures on the ground underneath the table, and have a chair to sit down on behind the stage. Now choose your first figure, make your face up, put on a suitable hat, and hang the figure round your neck, as in [Fig. 7]. Now push the figure and your head through the slit in the back curtain, and your fingers in the holes in the legs and arms; and, while some one is playing a lively air on the piano, pull the curtain up, and commence your performance. If you can have help in pulling the curtain, do so, as it will leave your hands free. The legs can be worked with one hand, but the arms must have one hand each; but while the figure is gesticulating his legs will be still, so that you will have both hands at liberty. And if you use your left hand for the legs (using the two first fingers, one to each leg), you will be able to make the figures move one arm at the same time it is dancing. Of course you will have to learn one or two songs to suit the characters of the figures. You need not have more than two figures, as, if you have an assistant he can be changing the clothes of one while you are exhibiting another.

With this stage and figures, a lad with a good voice and plenty of comicality will be able to give from half to an hour’s entertainment. When the performance is over, take the stage to pieces and pack it up, rolling it up in the curtains. It will go into a very small compass.