CARVETH READ, M.A.

AUTHOR OF

"THE METAPHYSICS OF NATURE"

"NATURAL AND SOCIAL MORALS"

ETC.

FOURTH EDITION

ENLARGED, AND PARTLY REWRITTEN

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO. LTD., 4 STATIONERS' HALL COURT.
LONDON, E.C.4

PREFACE

In this edition of my Logic, the text has been revised throughout, several passages have been rewritten, and some sections added. The chief alterations and additions occur in cc. i., v., ix., xiii., xvi., xvii., xx.

The work may be considered, on the whole, as attached to the school of Mill; to whose System of Logic, and to Bain's Logic, it is deeply indebted. Amongst the works of living writers, the Empirical Logic of Dr. Venn and the Formal Logic of Dr. Keynes have given me most assistance. To some others acknowledgments have been made as occasion arose.

For the further study of contemporary opinion, accessible in English, one may turn to such works as Mr. Bradley's Principles of Logic, Dr. Bosanquet's Logic; or the Morphology of Knowledge, Prof. Hobhouse's Theory of Knowledge, Jevon's Principles of Science, and Sigwart's Logic. Ueberweg's Logic, and History of Logical Doctrine is invaluable for the history of our subject. The attitude toward Logic of the Pragmatists or Humanists may best be studied in Dr. Schiller's Formal Logic, and in Mr. Alfred Sidgwick's Process of Argument and recent Elementary Logic. The second part of this last work, on the "Risks of Reasoning," gives an admirably succinct account of their position. I agree with the Humanists that, in all argument, the important thing to attend to is the meaning, and that the most serious difficulties of reasoning occur in dealing with the matter reasoned about; but I find that a pure science of relation has a necessary place in the system of knowledge, and that the formulæ known as laws of contradiction, syllogism and causation are useful guides in the framing and testing of arguments and experiments concerning matters of fact. Incisive criticism of traditionary doctrines, with some remarkable reconstructions, may be read in Dr. Mercier's New Logic.

In preparing successive editions of this book, I have profited by the comments of my friends: Mr. Thomas Whittaker, Prof. Claude Thompson, Dr. Armitage Smith, Mr. Alfred Sidgwick, Dr. Schiller, Prof. Spearman, and Prof. Sully, have made important suggestions; and I might have profited more by them, if the frame of my book, or my principles, had been more elastic.

As to the present edition, useful criticisms have been received from Mr. S.C. Dutt, of Cotton College, Assam, and from Prof. M.A. Roy, of Midnapore; and, especially, I must heartily thank my colleague, Dr. Wolf, for communications that have left their impress upon nearly every chapter.

Carveth Read.

London,
August, 1914

CONTENTS

page
[Preface][v]
[CHAPTER I]
INTRODUCTORY
[§1.]Definition of Logic[1]
[§2.]General character of proof[2]
[§3.]Division of the subject[5]
[§4.]Uses of Logic[6]
[§5.]Relation of Logic to other sciences[8]
to Mathematics (p. [8]); to concrete Sciences (p. [10]);to Metaphysics (p. [10]); to regulative sciences (p. [11])
[§6.]Schools of Logicians[11]
Relation to Psychology (p. [13])
[CHAPTER II]
GENERAL ANALYSIS OF PROPOSITIONS
[§1.]Propositions and Sentences[16]
[§2.]Subject, Predicate and Copula[17]
[§3.]Compound Propositions[17]
[§4.]Import of Propositions[19]
[§5.]Form and Matter[22]
[§6.]Formal and Material Logic[23]
[§7.]Symbols used in Logic[24]
[CHAPTER III]
OF TERMS AND THEIR DENOTATION
[§1.]Some Account of Language necessary[27]
[§2.]Logic, Grammar and Rhetoric[28]
[§3.]Words are Categorematic or Syncategorematic[29]
[§4.]Terms Concrete or Abstract[30]
[§5.]Concrete Terms, Singular, General or Collective[33]
[CHAPTER IV]
THE CONNOTATION OF TERMS
[§1.]Connotation of General Names[37]
[§2.]Question of Proper Names[38]
other Singular Names (p. [40])
[§3.]Question of Abstract Terms[40]
[§4.]Univocal and Equivocal Terms[41]
Connotation determined by the suppositio (p. [43])
[§5.]Absolute and Relative Terms[43]
[§6.]Relation of Denotation to Connotation[46]
[§7.]Contradictory Terms[47]
[§8.]Positive and Negative Terms[50]
Infinites; Privitives; Contraries (pp. [50]-[51])
[CHAPTER V]
CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSITIONS
[§1.]As to Quantity[53]
Quantity of the Predicate (p. [56])
[§2.]As to Quality[57]
Infinite Propositions (p. [57])
[§3.]A. I. E. O.[58]
[§4.]As to Relation[59]
Change of Relation (p. [60]); Interpretation of 'either, or' (p. [63]);Function of the hypothetical form (p. [64])
[§5.]As to Modality[66]
[§6.]Verbal and Real Propositions[67]
[CHAPTER VI]
CONDITIONS OF IMMEDIATE INFERENCE
[§1.]Meaning of Inference[69]
[§2.]Immediate and Mediate Inference[70]
[§3.]The Laws of Thought[72]
[§4.]Identity[73]
[§5.]Contradiction and Excluded Middle[74]
[§6.]The Scope of Formal Inference[76]
[CHAPTER VII]
IMMEDIATE INFERENCES
[§1.]Plan of the Chapter[79]
[§2.]Subalternation[79]
[§3.]Connotative Subalternation[80]
[§4.]Conversion[82]
Reciprocality (p. [84])
[§5.]Obversion[85]
[§6.]Contrary Opposition[87]
[§7.]Contradictory Opposition[87]
[§8.]Sub-contrary Opposition[88]
[§9.]The Square of Opposition[89]
[§10.]Secondary modes of Immediate Inference[90]
[§11.]Immediate Inferences from Conditionals[93]
[CHAPTER VIII]
ORDER OF TERMS, EULER'S DIAGRAMS, LOGICAL EQUATIONS,EXISTENTIAL IMPORT OF PROPOSITIONS
[§1.]Order of Terms in a proposition[95]
[§2.]Euler's Diagrams[97]
[§3.]Propositions considered as Equations[101]
[§4.]Existential Import of Propositions[104]
[CHAPTER IX]
FORMAL CONDITIONS OF MEDIATE INFERENCE
[§1.]Nature of Mediate Inference and Syllogism[107]
[§2.]General Canons of the Syllogism[108]
Definitions of Categorical Syllogism; Middle Term;Minor Term; Major Term; Minor and Major Premise (p. [109]);Illicit Process (p. [110]); Distribution of the Middle (p. [110]); Negative Premises (p. [112]); Particular Premises (p. [113])
[§3.]Dictum de omni et nullo[115]
[§4.]Syllogism in relation to the Laws of Thought[116]
[§5.]Other Kinds of Mediate Inference[118]
[CHAPTER X]
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISMS
[§1.]Illustrations of the Syllogism[121]
[§2.]Of Figures[122]
[§3.]Of Moods[123]
[§4.]How valid Moods are determined[124]
[§5.]Special Canons of the Four Figures[126]
[§6.]Ostensive Reduction and the Mnemonic Verses[127]
[§7.]Another version of the Mnemonic Verses[132]
[§8.]Indirect Reduction[132]
[§9.]Uses of the several Figures[134]
[§10.]Scientific Value of Reduction[135]
[§11.]Euler's Diagrams for the Syllogism[136]
[CHAPTER XI]
ABBREVIATED AND COMPOUND ARGUMENTS
[§1.]Popular Arguments Informal[138]
[§2.]The Enthymeme[139]
[§3.]Monosyllogism, Polysyllogism, Prosyllogism, Episyllogism[141]
[§4.]The Epicheirema[142]
[§5.]The Sorites[142]
[§6.]The Antinomy[145]
[CHAPTER XII]
CONDITIONAL SYLLOGISMS
[§1.]The Hypothetical Syllogism[147]
[§2.]The Disjunctive Syllogism[152]
[§3.]The Dilemma[154]
[CHAPTER XIII]
TRANSITION TO INDUCTION
[§1.]Formal Consistency and Material Truth[159]
[§2.]Real General Propositions assert more than has beendirectly observed[160]
[§3.]Hence, formally, a Syllogism's Premises seem to beg theConclusion[162]
[§4.]Materially, a Syllogism turns upon the resemblance of theMinor to the Middle Term and thus extends theMajor Premise to new cases[163]
[§5.]Restatement of the Dictum for material reasoning[165]
[§6.]Uses of the Syllogism[167]
[§7.]Analysis of the Uniformity of Nature, considered as theformal ground of all reasoning[169]
[§8.]Grounds of our belief in Uniformity[173]
[CHAPTER XIV]
CAUSATION
[§1.]The most important aspect of Uniformity in relation toInduction is Causation[174]
[§2.]Definition of "Cause" explained: five marks of Causation[175]
[§3.]How strictly the conception of Cause can be applieddepends upon the subject under investigation[183]
[§4.]Scientific conception of Effect. Plurality of Causes[185]
[§5.]Some condition, but not the whole cause, may long precedethe Effect; and some co-effect, but not the whole effect, may long survive the Cause[187]
[§6.]Mechanical Causes and the homogeneous Intermixture of Effects;Chemical Causes and the heteropathic Intermixture of Effects[188]
[§7.]Tendency, Resultant, Counteraction, Elimination, Resolution,Analysis, Reciprocity[189]
[CHAPTER XV]
INDUCTIVE METHOD
[§1.]Outline of Inductive investigation[192]
[§2.]Induction defined[196]
[§3.]"Perfect Induction"[196]
[§4.]Imperfect Induction methodical or immethodical[197]
[§5.]Observation and Experiment, the material ground ofInduction, compared[198]
[§6.]The principle of Causation is the formal ground of Induction[201]
[§7.]The Inductive Canons are derived from the principle ofCausation, the more readily to detect it in facts observed[202]
[CHAPTER XVI]
THE CANONS OF DIRECT INDUCTION
[§1.]The Canon of Agreement[206]
Negative Instances (p. [208]);Plurality of Causes (p. [208])
Agreement may show connection without direct Causation (p. [209])
[§2.]The Canon of Agreement in Presence and in Absence[212]
It tends to disprove a Plurality of Causes (p. [213])
[§3.]The Canon of Difference[216]
May be applied to observations (p. [221])
[§4.]The Canon of Variations[222]
How related to Agreement and Difference (p. [222]);The Graphic Method (p. [227]); Critical points (p. [230]); Progressive effects (p. [231]);Gradations (p. [231])
[§5.]The Canon of Residues[232]
[CHAPTER XVII]
COMBINATION OF INDUCTION WITH DEDUCTION
[§1.]Deductive character of Formal Induction[236]
[§2.]Further complication of Deduction with Induction[238]
[§3.]The Direct Deductive (or Physical) Method[240]
[§4.]Opportunities of Error in the Physical Method[243]
[§5.]The Inverse Deductive (or Historical) Method[246]
[§6.]Precautions in using the Historical Method[251]
[§7.]The Comparative Method[255]
[§8.]Historical Evidence[261]
[CHAPTER XVIII]
HYPOTHESES
[§1.]Hypothesis defined and distinguished from Theory[266]
[§2.]An Hypothesis must be verifiable[268]
[§3.]Proof of Hypotheses[270]
(1) Must an hypothetical agent be directly observable? (p. [270]);Vera causa (p. [271])
(2) An Hypothesis must be adequate to its pretensions (p. [272]);Exceptio probat regulam (p. [274])
(3) Every competing Hypothesis must be excluded (p. [275]);Crucial instance (p. [277])
(4) Hypotheses must agree with the laws of Nature (p. [279])
[§4.]Hypotheses necessary in scientific investigation[280]
[§5.]The Method of Abstractions[283]
Method of Limits (p. [284]);In what sense all knowledge is hypothetical (p. [286])
[CHAPTER XIX]
LAWS CLASSIFIED; EXPLANATION; CO-EXISTENCE; ANALOGY
[§1.]Axioms; Primary Laws; Secondary Laws, Derivative or Empirical;Facts[288]
[§2.]Secondary Laws either Invariable or Approximate Generalisations[292]
[§3.]Secondary Laws trustworthy only in 'Adjacent Cases'[293]
[§4.]Secondary Laws of Succession or of Co-existence[295]
Natural Kinds (p. [296]); Co-existence of concrete things to be deduced fromCausation (p. [297])
[§5.]Explanation consists in tracing resemblance, especiallyof Causation[299]
[§6.]Three modes of Explanation[302]
Analysis (p. [302]); Concatenation (p. [302]); Subsumption (p. [303])
[§7.]Limits of Explanation[305]
[§8.]Analogy[307]
[CHAPTER XX]
PROBABILITY
[§1.]Meaning of Chance and Probability[310]
[§2.]Probability as a fraction or proportion[312]
[§3.]Probability depends upon experience and statistics[313]
[§4.]It is a kind of Induction, and pre-supposes Causation[315]
[§5.]Of Averages and the Law of Error[318]
[§6.]Interpretation of probabilities[324]
Personal Equation (p. [325]); meaning of 'Expectation' (p. [325])
[§7.]Rules of the combination of Probabilities[325]
Detection of a hidden Cause (p. [326]); oral tradition (p. [327]);circumstantial and analogical evidence (p. [328])
[CHAPTER XXI]
DIVISION AND CLASSIFICATION
[§1.]Classification, scientific, special and popular[330]
[§2.]Uses of classification[332]
[§3.]Classification, Deductive and Inductive[334]
[§4.]Division, or Deductive Classification: its Rules[335]
[§5.]Rules for testing a Division[337]
[§6.]Inductive Classification[339]
[§7.]Difficulty of Natural Classification[341]
[§8.]Darwin's influence on the theory of Classification[342]
[§9.]Classification of Inorganic Bodies also dependent on Causation[346]
[CHAPTER XXII]
NOMENCLATURE, DEFINITION, PREDICABLES
[§1.]Precise thinking needs precise language[348]
[§2.]Nomenclature and Terminology[349]
[§3.]Definition[352]
[§4.]Rules for testing a Definition[352]
[§5.]Every Definition is relative to a Classification[353]
[§6.]Difficulties of Definition[356]
Proposals to substitute the Type (p. [356])
[§7.]The Limits of Definition[357]
[§8.]The five Predicables[358]
Porphyry's Tree (p. [361])
[§9.]Realism and Nominalism[364]
[§10.]The Predicaments[366]
[CHAPTER XXIII]
DEFINITION OF COMMON TERMS
[§1.]The rigour of scientific method must be qualified[369]
[§2.]Still, Language comprises the Nomenclature of an imperfectClassification, to which every Definition is relative;[370]
[§3.]and an imperfect Terminology[374]
[§4.]Maxims and precautions of Definition[375]
[§5.]Words of common language in scientific use[378]
[§6.]How Definitions affect the cogency of arguments[380]
[CHAPTER XXIV]
FALLACIES
[§1.]Fallacy defined and divided[385]
[§2.]Formal Fallacies of Deduction[385]
[§3.]Formal Fallacies of Induction[388]
[§4.]Material Fallacies classified[394]
[§5.]Fallacies of Observation[394]
[§6.]Begging the Question[396]
[§7.]Surreptitious Conclusion[398]
[§8.]Ambiguity[400]
[§9.]Fallacies, a natural rank growth of the Human mind, noteasy to classify, or exterminate[403]
[Questions][405]