Definitions.
A right moral act, as it respects its tendencies, is one in which the thing chosen is for the best good of all concerned.
A right moral act, as to motive, is one in which the intention of the actor is to conform to the rules of rectitude.
A meritorious or praiseworthy act is one in which there is some sacrifice of feeling, either immediate or remote, in order to conform to law.
A virtuous act is one in which that which is chosen is right, both in tendency and in motive.
A virtuous character is one in which a general purpose exists to obey all the rules of rectitude. The degree of virtue is dependent on a correct judgment of what is right or wrong, and the strength or measure of the general purpose in controlling all other purposes. Some men carry out a general purpose much more steadily and consistently than others, and some men have much more correct ideas of what is right and wrong in conduct than others.
The natural character of a man is that which results from his constitutional powers and faculties of mind, of which God is the author.
The moral character of a man is all that results from his own willing.
Our highest idea of a virtuous character, as gained by experience and observation, is that of a mind so trained to habits of self-control and obedience to rule, that it has become easier to obey the laws of rectitude, than to gratify any excited desire, however imperative, which is seen to violate law.
Thus, then, it is shown that a virtuous character consists, not in the nature of the mind which is given by God, but in the purposes, habits, and feelings generated by voluntary acts, of which the man himself is the author; God being the cause or author, of this virtue only as he is the Creator of mind and of all its circumstances of temptation and trial.
In regard to the formation of a virtuous character, as a matter of experience, it usually results from a slow and gradual process of training and development. The general purpose to obey all the laws of rectitude originates, as a general fact, not as a definitely formed purpose, whose time of inception can be distinctly marked. Yet it is not unfrequently the case that persons who have passed a life of unrestrained indulgence, by some marked and powerful influence, are suddenly led to a decided and definitely marked purpose of virtuous obedience, and carry out this purpose with great success.
Any such sudden change, in popular language, would be called “the commencement of a new life.” And when this sudden change takes place under the [pg 140] influence of motives presented in the Bible, it is called by one class of theologians the “new birth” or “regeneration.”
Is True Virtue Possible before Regeneration?
In the discussions which are to follow, it will be found that almost every point debated involves, as a foundation question, “what is true virtue?” And the grand question at issue between the system of common sense and the teachings of all theologians who uphold the Augustine theory, is this: is true virtue possible to an unregenerate mind? Theology says no, common sense says yes. Theology teaches that previous to regeneration every voluntary act of every human mind is “sin, and only sin.” Common sense maintains, on the contrary, that every voluntary act which is in agreement with the best good of all concerned, when the intention is to act right, is virtuous without any regard to the question of the regeneration of the mind. In other words, theology teaches that true virtue is the right voluntary action of a mind after its “nature” is changed by God, and common sense teaches that true virtue is the right voluntary action of any mind without any change in its nature.
The discussion of this point involves the further consideration of certain mental experiences which will shed some light on the subject. It will be found that in case of all persons who are said to “act on principle,” or to be “conscientious persons,” that, in the greater portion of their voluntary acts, they have no conscious immediate reference to the rules of rectitude. There seems to be an unconscious general purpose to [pg 141] act right on all occasions, which becomes obvious only when a case occurs involving a seeming violation of the rules of rectitude. At such times the mind becomes conscious of its ruling purpose. But the greater portion of all the daily acts of life have been decided upon as in agreement with the all-controlling general purpose, and a man chooses to do many things in which he has no conscious reference to rule. And still such acts have, in past time, been subjects of reflection in reference to the question of right and wrong, and have been decided to be right, and it is in consequence of this decision that the mind no longer considers these questions with a conscious reference to rule.
The distinction between what is denominated “a man of principle” and an “unprincipled man,” is simply this, that the former is one who has formed habits of self-regulation by the rules of rectitude, and the latter has not.
This mental analysis is important in reference to deciding the character of a virtuous action.
A virtuous act, as defined above, is one in which the thing chosen is right and the motive is right. But it is not indispensable that the person who performs the act should be immediately conscious of a reference to rule in each right specific volition. It is sufficient that the mind be under the control of a ruling purpose of rectitude, so that all the subordinate minor purposes are in fact regulated, though unconsciously, by this purpose.
It is at this point that the class of theologians who make regeneration to include a voluntary act on the part of man, are in antagonism with the experience [pg 142] and common sense of mankind. Such maintain that every act of every human being is “sin, and only sin,” until a ruling purpose is formed to obey God as the chief end, and one also which is actually more efficient and stronger in controlling the ordinary acts of life than the purpose to gratify self. Previous to the existence of this general purpose, they maintain that every act of self-denial or self-sacrifice for the good of others is “sin, and only sin.” According to their theory, choosing that which is right because it is right, is not a virtuous act until a ruling purpose of universal obedience to God is formed.
That is to say, it is the ruling purpose, or the want of a ruling purpose to obey God in all things, which decides the character of every specific act of choice. Thus if a child is trained to be honest, truthful, and self-denying, and succeeds very often in conforming to such instructions, there is no true virtue in any such acts until a ruling purpose of obedience to God is generated, which is habitually more controlling than the impulses of self-indulgence. This is the point where the people and theologians are at issue.
The people insist that every act is virtuous when the thing chosen is right and the intention is right, even before the mind of a child has attained a ruling purpose of universal obedience. Theologians say no; such acts are “sin, and only sin,” in the sight of God.[8]
It will be shown hereafter that the theory of theology on this subject is not carried out consistently in practice, but that in the early training of little children theologians contradict their own theory and adopt that of the people.
Perfectness in Construction and Perfectness in Action and Character.
In a previous chapter we have seen [p. [103]] that our idea of perfectness in moral character and action always has reference to power. In a system where evil is actually existing, we regard a contrivance or an action as perfect when there is no power in God or man to make it better, even when evil is involved. A being is perfect in character and in action when his purpose is to do the best possible for all concerned, and when this purpose is carried out to the full extent of his power.
We have shown in the preceding chapter that the mind of man is perfect in nature or construction as being better fitted to its place in the best possible system of mind than it would be by any change possible either to God or man.
The preceding pages of this chapter enable us to point out what is the perfect moral character of minds which are perfect in construction. It consists in a ruling purpose to discover and to obey all the laws of the Creator, which is carried out to the full extent of power in the one who thus purposes.
It has been shown that the Creator himself is limited by the eternal nature of things to a system which, though the best possible, makes him, in one sense, the author of some evil, both natural and moral. He is the author only as the Creator of all things, and thus the author of all the consequent results of creation, even of those that are morally evil. In this sense alone is he the author of either natural or moral evil.
The infinite and eternal mind of God is limited, not [pg 144] by want of wisdom and knowledge, but by the eternal nature of things of which his own existence and natural attributes are a part. But finite minds are limited by a want of knowledge and wisdom which can be the result only of experience and training. For the want of this knowledge and training every finite mind, so far as we can discover by reason and experience, must inevitably violate the laws of God. And yet any mind may be perfect in moral character and action in exactly the same sense as God is perfect, (i.e.) it may form and carry out a purpose to conform to the laws of the existing system of things to the full extent of its knowledge and power. When this purpose is formed and carried out to the full measure of ability, the finite creature becomes “perfect, even as our Father which is in heaven is perfect.”
Common Sense Theory of the Origin of Evil.
What then is the cause or origin of evil as taught by reason and experience?
It is the eternal nature of things existing independently of the will of the Creator or of any other being.
What is the cause of the existence of this created system? It is the will of the Creator.
What is the cause or reason why God willed that this system should be as it is, with all the evil that exists? It is because it is the best system possible in the nature of things.
What is the cause or reason that any given event, however evil, is not prevented by God? It is because any change that would prevent it, would alter the best possible system, and thus make more evil than the one thus prevented.
Chapter XXIII. Laws and Penalties—Sin and Holiness.
The laws of God, in regard to voluntary action, are those invariable arrangements in mind and matter by which happiness or pain are connected with certain feelings and actions.
Thus it is an invariable arrangement that pain shall be connected with touching fire, and pleasure with seeing the light. So in regard to the intellect; pleasure is invariably connected with the exercise of wit and humor, and disgust with folly and fatuity. So the moral sense is invariably pleased with truth, justice, and integrity, and pained by the opposite.
Whenever, therefore, we discover what invariably affords pleasure or pain, we discover one of the laws of God.
To discover these laws, and to believe in them, is as indispensable to the right action of mind as light is indispensable to perfect eyes in order to see.
The first lesson of every new-born spirit is to discover the laws that relate to its own enjoyment. Whenever a child chooses any thing which secures enjoyment without harm to itself or to others, it is acting as its Creator designed, and this action is therefore right. And whenever it chooses what will cause needless pain to itself or to others, it acts wrong. Most of the choices of a little child are of what is right as giving enjoyment without harm.
The grand law of God, as learned by experience, is that every mind must sacrifice the lesser for the greater [pg 146] good in gratifying its own desires. When the interests of others are not concerned, the child must always choose not what it desires the most, but what is best for itself. It is the first labor of the educator to make a child understand and obey this first part of the law of sacrifice.
But where the feelings and interests of others are involved, the law of God is, that the lesser good of the individual shall always be sacrificed to the greater good of the many. Each mind of the great commonwealth is to act, not to make self-gratification the first thing, but to make the greatest possible happiness with the least possible evil for the whole commonwealth the predominant purpose. And such is the system of the Creator that whatever is for the best good of the whole is for the best good of each individual.
Thus it appears that obedience to the laws of God, physical, intellectual, social, and moral, is to be chosen as the ruling purpose of each mind. And this is the mode by which all rational beings are to promote the end or design for which all things are made, (i.e.,) happiness-making on the greatest possible scale for the great commonwealth.
Now it is very certain that no human mind is able, by its own solitary investigations, to discover all the physical, intellectual, social, and moral laws of God.
Many of these laws we can learn by experience, but for the greater portion we are dependent on the instruction of others. Therefore truth on the part of educators, and faith on the part of the learners are as indispensable to the right action of mind as is light to the right action of the eye in seeing. Not a “dead,” [pg 147] merely intellectual belief, but a “saving faith” that controls the feelings and conduct.
We now are enabled to define the kind of inability as to obeying the laws of God, which inevitably attends every mind that commences its existence in this world. As yet there have never been perfectly true educators of young minds, while perfect faith, that is to say, “saving faith,” in the teachings that are true is as much wanting. The young child can not be made to understand, and therefore can not believe, or have faith in many of the laws of God and the penalties connected with them. This no one will deny.
Several Classes of Moral Actions.
There are several classes of moral actions. The first class includes those which in all cases destroy the best good of man. Of these are wanton cruelty to helpless creatures, and ingratitude in returning needless evil for good. In regard to such the mind, by its very constitutional impulses, revolts from them and feels them to be wrong without any process of reasoning. So also all those actions that in all cases cause enjoyment without evil, are instinctively felt to be right without any reflection.
But there are many actions that are entirely dependent on circumstances for their moral character. Thus to punish a little child in one case would be cruel and wrong, in another it might be benevolent and right. To take a woman, when not married to another, for a wife is right, but wrong if she is married. And so with thousands of other actions.
Again, some actions that do no harm to any individual at a given time, are wrong because they would [pg 148] be destructive to general happiness, if generally allowed; or, in other words, they are wrong in tendency. Thus, in a given case, a lie might do a great deal of good and no immediate harm. And yet it would be wrong, because leaving it to every man's discretion when it was best to lie would in the end destroy all confidence in human testimony.
Again, many of the laws of God can be discovered only by long experience of many communities. As soon as experience has shown that any practice will do more harm than good, then the law of God is discovered and it becomes obligatory. Thus the question of polygamy has been settled. Thus, too, the vending of alcoholic drinks has been decided to be wrong as a general practice.
Here comes up the distinction between wrong choices that deserve blame and punishment, and those that do not. In the natural system of the Creator all violations of law are followed by the natural penalties without any reference to the motives, knowledge, or ability of the agent. All questions among men, as to blame and retribution, have reference to the adding of other penalties and rewards in the present or future state. It is only in regard to such that the questions of blame, of justice, and of mercy are to be debated. Without revelation we have no evidence that the natural penalties of law are ever suspended, either as a matter of justice or mercy. In the case of great crimes and wrongs, that additional penalties are to follow in a future state is what all men fear, and this it is which induces self-inflictions to secure pardon for sin.
Now these are distinctions existing in all rational minds, and are continually referred to in every-day [pg 149] life. But it is impossible for any but an omniscient being to decide on all the motives that regulate the actions of others, while even our own motives are often so hidden and complex that we are blinded as to their true character.
The language of common life does not always recognize these distinctions. When a wrong action is done the actor is called a wrong-doer, and is blamed for the deed. And the fact that he believed that he was acting right, and even that he practices self-denial in performing what is imagined to be a duty, though it palliates, does not ordinarily end all displeasure. For in multitudes of cases the ignorance of duty results from pride or selfish neglect of inquiry. And few are competent to decide how far the ignorance is a misfortune and not a fault.
It is owing to this fact that most of the language of life assumes that all violations of law are blamably wrong, and are to be punished here or hereafter. In the most common use of the term, “sin is the transgression of law.” At the same time men recognize the distinction between sins of ignorance and willful sin.