Elements of woodwork

by Charles A. King

CHAPTER IV

Tools

27. How to purchase tools.—(A.) The quality of the tools used by the mechanic is of the greatest importance. They should be selected carefully, and while it is the poorest economy to buy anything but the best, the best are not necessarily the most finely finished.

(B.) In purchasing tools, it is well to remember that those made especially for some dealer, and bearing his name, if sold for a less price than the best, are usually not of the highest grade, and should be shunned. It is wisest to buy standard makes, examining them carefully to be sure that there are no visible defects. The temper of steel may be discovered only by use, and any defects in the best grades of tools is made good upon complaint to the dealer.

28. Benches.—(A.) Figure 25 shows the type of bench used in the most up-to-date carpenter and cabinet shops, while that used by carpenters for ordinary work usually is of the type shown in Fig. 26.

(B.) In many manual-training schools, the benches are of the former type, and in the most completely equipped schools, are fitted with locked drawers and closets for the reception of tools, not only to keep the latter in condition for use, but to insure that the set of tools is complete, and to be able to place the responsibility for damage or loss.

Fig. 25.—Manual-training Bench.

Fig. 26.—Carpenter’s Bench.

(C.) The vises should be of the modern, quick action design, which, on account of the rapidity with which they work, are superseding the old-fashioned wooden and iron screw vises.

Fig. 27.—Two-foot, Four-fold Rule.

Fig. 28.—Zigzag
Rule.

29. Rules.—The two-foot, four-fold rule (Fig. 27) is the one generally used by carpenters. It is made of different grades, the more expensive makes being divided into 16ths, 8ths, 10ths, and 12ths, and having the ⅛“, ¼”, ⅜“, ½”, ¾“, 1”, 1½“, and 3” scales upon them. Although the cheaper rule is just as accurate, it is divided usually into 8ths and 16ths only. The form of rule shown in Fig. 28 is becoming quite popular, as it is longer. Since rules are easily lost or broken, many workmen have a good rule for scaling, and a cheaper one for general work.

30. The try-square (A.) consists of the beam (Fig. 29, a), which is generally of metal-lined wood, and the blade (b), which is a thin piece of steel.

(B.) Too much care cannot be exercised in the selection of this tool, as one which is not perfectly true may cause much trouble. To test a square, hold the beam against a perfectly straight and square edge of a board which is wide enough to allow a knife line to be made the entire length of the blade. Then turn the square over, the other side up, and, holding the beam against the same edge, move the blade to the line. If the jointed edge of the board and the square are perfectly accurate, the knife line and the edge of the board will perfectly coincide.

Fig. 29.—Position of Try-square in Squaring an Edge.

Fig. 30.—Use of Two Try-squares to See if Piece of Wood is “Out
of Wind.”

Fig. 31.—Position of Try-square when
Making Line.

(C.) The use of this tool in squaring an edge is shown in Fig. 29. The piece being squared should be in such a position that the try-square will be between the eye and the light; in this way, the slightest inaccuracy may be detected. In Fig. 31 is shown the position of the try-square when used to make a line by the edge of the blade. If working from the edge indicated, hold the beam against the edge with the thumb, and at the same time hold the blade down with one or two fingers, using the others to steady the square in its place upon the board. (D.) Two try-squares may be used to see if a piece of wood is “out of wind” (i sounded as in kind) by the method indicated in Fig. 30.

Two pieces of wood known as winding sticks, of exactly the same width and perfectly parallel, are often used in manual-training schools for this purpose; they are rarely used in a shop, however, as a workman generally will use two steel squares if the piece is too large to be sighted accurately without some aid of this sort.

Fig. 32.—Steel, or Framing, Square.

31. The steel, or framing, square (Fig. 32) is often used as a try-square upon large work, though its most important use is in framing, or roof construction. It is indispensable in finding the lengths and the angles of rafters, braces, etc. Its use for this purpose will be explained in “Constructive Carpentry.” The long side of the framing square is known as the “blade,” and the short side as the “tongue.”

Fig. 33.—Bevel and Steel Square.

The bevel is set at an angle of 45°.

32. The bevel (Fig. 33) may be set for use in marking and testing any angle, in the same manner that the try-square is used upon rectangular work. The sketch shows the bevel and the steel square in position for setting the bevel at an angle of 45°. It will be noticed that the blade of the bevel rests upon the same figures upon both the blade and the tongue of the square.

33. The gauge (A.), Fig. 34, is for the purpose of making lines parallel to the face or working side or edge. Usually it is made in four pieces: the “head” (a), which is held against the face side or edge; the “stick” (bb), upon which the head moves; the “thumbscrew” (c), which holds the head firmly in its position upon the stick; and the “point” (d), which makes the desired mark upon the wood.

Fig. 34.—Marking Gauge.

a, the head; bb, the stick; c,
the thumbscrew; d, the point.

(B.) A rule should be used in setting the gauge, unless one is certain that the point is located accurately with regard to the graduations upon the stick.

The point should be sharpened to work with either a push or pull cut, as at e.

(C.) The gauge should be grasped as shown in Fig. 35, and generally used with a push, though it is occasionally pulled toward the worker. One should always work from the face side of the piece.

If the point enters the wood too deeply, it may be set back, or the gauge carried on the corner of the stick as indicated, which will govern the depth of the cut. Do not use a dull gauge, or one with a round point like a pencil, as it will tear the wood, instead of making a clean cut or scratch.

Fig. 35.—Marking Gauge in Use.

34. The hammer (A.) is used by the average wood-worker more than any other tool. The “face” (Fig. 36, a) and the “claws” (b) should be tempered carefully, as they will either bruise or bend if too soft, or break if too hard. The eye (c) is made longer than it is wide, to prevent the head from turning on the handle, and larger at the outside of the head than it is at the neck, so that the handle may be firmly wedged in the eye or socket. The neck (d), by extending upon the handle as it does, adds much to the strength of the connection.

Fig. 36.—Claw Hammer.

a, the face; b, the claws; c, the eye; d, the neck; e, grain of neck.

The handle should be of young, tough, straight-grained hickory, elliptical in section, and of a size to be grasped easily.

The grain should be perfectly straight at the neck, and the annual layers should show lengthwise of the ellipse at the end, as at c. The handle should be fitted and wedged, or “hung” in such a way that a nail may be driven home in a flat surface without the knuckles striking, which means that the center of the handle should be about parallel with the flat surface. A line lengthwise of the head through the eye should exactly coincide with the long, or major, axis of the ellipse at the end of the handle, as at gg, or pounded fingers will result.

Fig. 37.

a, toenailing; b, tacking.

The bell-faced hammer is to be preferred to the flat-faced type, as it will not mar the wood so badly if the nail is missed, though more skill is required to use it. Upon rough work, the bell-faced hammer will sink the nail beneath the surface without bruising the wood badly. Upon inside work, the nails should be sunk beneath the surface with a nail set.

(B.) In nailing, the young workman should acquire the habit of grasping the handle of the hammer at the end, as this will give greater force to the blow. Upon light work, the hand will naturally slip a little toward the head. Nails should generally be driven in a slanting direction, as they hold better than if driven straight. When nails are driven as shown at a, Fig. 37, it is called “toenailing,” and when driven sufficiently to hold, but not driven home, as at b, they are said to be “tacked.” Nails are driven this way when they are to be pulled out again, as in stay laths, and in fastening pieces temporarily.

Fig. 38.—Blind Nailing and Use of a Nail
Set.

In forcing matched boards together, do not pound directly upon the tongue edge of the board, but upon a waste piece of the same material, as the tongue will be bruised so that the next board will not form a good joint. Care should be used that the hammer does not strike the edge of the board when the nail is driven home. To guard against this, a nail set should be used to sink the head beneath the surface, as in Fig. 38, so that the next board will come to its place without trouble. This is called “blind nailing.”

35. The hatchet (A.) is used for hewing light work, for shingling; and as a heavy hammer, though the face is rarely tempered to stand very heavy usage (Fig. 39, a).

(B.) A hand axe, or broad hatchet (Fig. 39, b), usually is a better grade of tool than the hatchet, and as it is of greater weight, is better adapted for heavy work. A hatchet or hand axe for general use should be sharpened as at c; but for hewing only, an edge like d will give the best results.

Fig. 39.—a, hatchet; b, hand axe.

(For explanation, see text.)

36. The mallet.—This tool should be used upon chisel handles, as a hammer will destroy the handle in a very short time. Mallets are of two shapes, the square-faced (Fig. 40, a) and the round mallet (b), the latter being preferred by many workmen as it will always strike a fair blow upon the chisel handle, while the square-faced mallet sometimes will miss, and inflict a painful blow upon the hand. In general, the handle of a square-faced mallet is round, which allows the mallet to turn in the hand; if the handle were made elliptical, like a hammer handle, there would be less likelihood of missing the chisel.

Fig. 40.—Mallets.

a, square-faced mallet; b, round mallet.

37. Saws.—(A.) The saws used by the carpenter are for cutting parallel with, or across, the grain, or a combination of the two, and all are composed of two parts, the “handle” and the “blade.”

The teeth of a ripsaw (Fig. 41, A) are suitable for sawing in a direction parallel with the general direction of the grain. The points of different saws may be from one third to one seventh of an inch apart, and form a series of chisels, the cutting edges of which are filed so that they are at right angles to the sides of the blade. In action, the saw is pushed against the wood, each tooth cutting a little deeper than the one preceding it.

The cutting-off saw (Fig. 41, B) has from six to twelve knife-pointed teeth to an inch, the cutting edges being parallel to the sides of the blade, and filed so that the point of the tooth is upon the side which is set beyond the side of the blade.

Fig. 41, A. Ripsaw.

dd, view and section of setting of teeth.

Fig. 41, B. Cutting-off Saw.

Fig. 41, C. Compass, or Keyhole, Saw.

Fig. 41.—Saws.
(In each of the three varieties of saw teeth shown in
Fig. 41, the set of the teeth is exaggerated.)

In all except the finest saws, the teeth are set; that is, the points are bent a very little in such a way as to make the cut wider than the thickness of the blade, so that the saw may cut through the wood without binding, which it could not do if the cut were the same thickness as the blade. The blades of all high grade saws are thinner upon the back than upon the cutting edge, but if the saw is to be used upon the finest work, this difference in the thickness of the two edges of the blade is supposed to make the setting of the saw unnecessary. For general work, it will be found that the saw will be much more efficient if it is given a set adapted to the size of the teeth, or to the nature of the work it is expected to do.

The compass, or keyhole, saw (Fig. 41, C) is used where it is necessary that the saw should cut both with and across the grain. It is used to start the cut for a rip- or cutting-off saw, when a cut has to be made in the surface of a board. This saw is used also in many places where it is not practicable to use a larger saw, and for sawing curves. In order to allow it to cut around curves easily, the face, or cutting edge, is considerably thicker than the back, and the blade is made of soft metal. It may then be given a heavy set, so that it will bend instead of breaking or kinking, as it would be liable to do from the nature of its work if made of tempered steel.

Some carpenters working upon job work, where it is desirable to carry as few tools as possible, have a narrow 20” or 22” saw sharpened like a compass saw, which for ordinary work is quite satisfactory as either a cutting-off or a ripsaw, thus making another saw unnecessary.

Fig. 42.—Backsaw.

The backsaw (Fig. 42) is used upon fine work; it is filed like a cutting-off saw, but the teeth have rather more hook, and it often has as many as fifteen teeth to the inch, though a twelve-tooth saw is as fine as is generally used. The thick back is to stiffen the blade of the saw, and if the latter becomes sprung, a light blow upon the back, as though to drive it upon the blade, will usually straighten it.

(B.) In buying a saw, select one which is thicker upon the cutting edge than upon the back; this allows the saw to be used upon very fine work with little or no setting. See that the handle fits the hand, and that the saw hangs to suit, or “feels right.” This is a matter concerning the balance and the weight of the tool, which cannot be described, but which any one accustomed to using tools will miss if a tool not possessing this quality is placed in his hand.

A saw blade, unless very short and thick, should bend so that the point may be put through the handle, and upon being released, instantly resume its shape. It should bend evenly in proportion to the width and the gauge of the saw, and should be as thin as the stiffness of the blade will permit, as a saw of this sort cuts less wood, and therefore runs with less resistance. A compass saw, being softer, is not expected to stand the above test.

A 26” or a 28” blade is best for a heavy rip or cutting-off saw to be used upon coarse work; but for fine work, a 22” blade, commonly known as a “panel saw,” is a convenient size, though a 20” or a 24” blade is preferred by many workmen.

Fig. 43.—Use of the Saw.

Showing the method of using a try-square to insure accuracy.

(C.) A hard saw is best for fine work, but for general work most workmen prefer a saw of medium hardness, as the teeth of a hard saw are apt to break in setting, and its edge, if it comes in contact with metal, requires filing just about as quickly as that of a soft saw, and is much more difficult to sharpen. If always filed by an expert filer, a hard saw is superior in every way to any other.

Fig. 44.—Reset Saw
Handle.

(D.) The handle of the saw should be grasped firmly by three fingers, as in Fig. 43, with the forefinger extended along the side, thus making more room for the three fingers, and giving better control of the saw. Very little strength should be used in forcing a fine saw to cut, as its own weight generally is sufficient; if the saw is forced, it will not run smoothly, but will bind, and if a thin board is being worked, it is apt to split. The saw should be used from the face side of the material, so that any splinters or variation will be upon the back side and out of sight.

(E.) It is the custom of some carpenters to reset the handles of their heavy saws by drilling holes through the blade so that the handle may be fastened as close to the cutting edge as possible, as in Fig. 44. This brings the force of the stroke nearer the direct line of the cut, which obviously allows a more economical application of force. Never leave a saw in a cut, for if the piece of wood falls off the trestles, the saw is apt to be broken. (Saw-filing will be discussed later.)

Fig. 45.—Knife Blades.

A, used by wood-worker;
B, used in manual-training schools.

38. The knife blade used by the wood-worker for general work is similar to that shown in Fig. 45, at A. That shown at B is the form of blade in most common use in manual-training schools, as it is better adapted for whittling, its shape assisting the student to some extent to prevent the knife from following the grain.

39. Planes.—(A.) The plane is the most complex, as well as one of the most important, tools which the wood-worker uses, and a high grade of skill is necessary to keep it in order, as well as to use it properly.

Fig. 46.—Section of Iron Plane.

1, cutter, iron, or bit; 2, cap iron; 3, plane iron screw; 4, cap lever; 4a, cam; 5, cap screw; 6, frog; 6a, mouth; 7, Y lever; 8, vertical adjusting nut; 8a, vertical adjusting screw; 9, lateral adjustment; 10, frog screws; 11, handle; 12, knob; 13, handle bolt and nut; 14, bolt knob and nut; 15, handle screw; 16, bottom, or stock.

(B.) The only plane in use until recent years had a wooden stock, and the iron was adjusted by blows with a hammer; this form of plane has changed very little since the first types were invented, as planes of ancient times have been found which in all essentials are practically the same as those in use to-day.

(C.) Our modern planes are more easily adjusted and more convenient to use, though they will do no better work than the wooden planes of our forefathers, which are still preferred by many of the best workmen. The face of an iron plane holds its shape permanently, while it is necessary that the wooden plane should be jointed occasionally.

Fig. 47.—Result of Using Plane
with Improperly Adjusted Cap Iron.

(D.) There are planes for every conceivable purpose, all constructed upon the same general principle as the common bench plane which we shall discuss later. These planes are adjusted by screws and levers, which are very simple, and any one understanding them may easily comprehend the more intricate molding or universal planes.

The adjustment of the modern plane may be understood by a careful study of Fig. 46 and by comparing it with the plane itself. The “cutter,” “iron,” or “bit” (1) and the “cap iron” (2) are the essentials of the tool, and it is upon their condition and adjustment that the efficiency of the plane depends. If the cap iron is set too far from the edge of the iron, and if the cut is made against the grain, the shaving will not break before it leads the iron into the wood, as shown in Fig. 47. If the cap iron is set somewhat less than ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the cutter, according to the wood being planed, it will break the shaving nearly as soon as it is cut, as in Fig. 48, and will result in a smooth, clean surface. The closer the cap iron is set to the edge, the smoother the iron will cut, as the breaks in the shaving are thereby made shorter.

Fig. 48.—Result of Using
Plane with Cap Iron Adjusted Properly.

It will be seen that the closer the bottom of the cap iron (2) is set to the edge of the cutter (1), the shorter the breaks will be, as in Fig. 48, and the more smoothly the plane will cut. The plane “iron screw” (3) holds the edge of the cutter (1) and the bottom of the cap iron (2) in their desired relation. The “cap lever” (4) being pressed against the under side of the head of the “cap screw” (5), by the “cam” (4a), holds the iron in its place, and presses the cap iron (2) firmly against the top of the cutter (1). Unless the cap iron fits the face of the cutter perfectly, the plane will not work satisfactorily. The “frog” (6) carries all the adjusting mechanism of the plane, and may be moved backward or forward to reduce or enlarge the “mouth” (6a), which should be no larger than is necessary to allow the shavings to pass freely. The frog rarely will require readjusting after it has been properly located.

The “Y lever” (7) forces the plane irons (1 and 2) in or out simultaneously, which governs the projection, or “set,” of the edge of the cutter (1) beyond the face, or “sole” (b) of the “plane stock,” and thus the thickness of the shaving which the plane will cut. The “adjusting nut” (8) moves freely upon the “screw” (8a) and operates the Y lever (7). The “lateral adjustment” (9) is for the purpose of forcing the iron to cut in the exact center of the width of the face (b) of the plane. The two “frog screws” (10) hold the frog rigidly in the position which will make the throat (6a) of the desired size.

The above illustrates all the adjusting mechanism; the other parts of the plane are as follows: “handle” (11); “knob” (12); “handle bolt” and “nut” (13); “knob bolt” and “nut” (14); “handle screw” (15); “bottom,” or “stock” (16).

Fig. 49.—Setting a Plane.

The face, or sole, of the plane (b) must be perfectly straight, or good work cannot be done. The ends of the plane (h and t) are called the “heel” and “toe,” respectively. The “mouth” of the plane (between 6a and 2) must be kept clear of shavings, or it may become clogged.

(E.) In setting a plane, do not pass the fingers over the face, or sole, as cut fingers may result. Hold the plane as shown in Fig. 49, and look toward the light, when the exact projection of the cutter may be seen. Notice the position of the fingers of the left hand, and that the eye glances from toe to heel. This leaves the right hand free to make the adjustments. This is a workmanlike way of setting a plane, and in this, as in all handling of tools, awkwardness should be avoided.

40. Sharpening a plane.—(A.) An important part of this process is the grinding of the cutter. Set the cap back about ⅛” from the edge of the iron, and use it as a guide by which to grind the iron perfectly square, as at A, Fig. 50. The cap iron should be kept perfectly square, and never touched except to fit it to the cutter, or, if it is too thick to allow the shavings to pass freely, to file the top of it to the proper thickness. If the tool is kept in order skillfully, the cap will need care only upon rare occasions.

Fig. 50.—Whetting and Grinding of
Plane.

(For explanation, see text.)

The cutter should be held firmly to the grindstone or emery wheel and kept moving from side to side to prevent wearing the stone in one place. The grinding should all be done upon the beveled side of the cutter, which should be held upon the stone at an angle of about 20° (as at B, Fig. 50), more rather than less, as a thinner edge is apt to “chatter,” or vibrate, if it strikes a hard place in the wood. Many workmen use a rest when grinding; this insures a true bevel. Any device which holds the tool firmly at the same place on the stone will do for a rest.

In whetting the cutter, the screw of the cap iron should be loosened and the cap iron carried back until the screw stops at the top of the slot of the bit, as at C, Fig. 50. The screw is then tightened with the fingers to hold the cap in place; this gives a better grasp of the iron, though some workmen prefer to take the cap off entirely while whetting.

Fig. 51.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Beveled Side of a Cutter.

The bevel of the iron should be held exactly upon the surface of the oilstone, as shown at C, Fig. 50, the iron being grasped as in Fig. 51. Keep the right wrist rigid and allow the arm to swing from the shoulder, bending only at the elbow. In this way the rocking motion may be reduced to a minimum; this is necessary to preserve the bevel. Though the bevel may be maintained better by imparting a short circular motion to the plane iron, or to any edge tool which is being sharpened, it seems an awkward and fussy method of work, and rarely is used by an expert workman. By long practice the mechanic finds that a stroke made nearly the entire length of the stone will impart an edge quicker, and after the knack has been acquired, the bevel will be preserved just as well.

Turn the whetstone end for end frequently, and work upon the farther end, as in this way the stone may be kept true much longer than if one place upon it is used all the time. This will also minimize the danger of pulling the tool off from the nearer end of the stone, which will generally make regrinding necessary.

Fig. 52.—Whetting or Oilstoning the Plain Side of the Plane Iron.

When the beveled side has been whetted, lay the face, or the top of the iron, perfectly flat upon the stone, as in Fig. 52, holding it down with the fingers of the left hand, using the right hand only to move the iron back and forth. Care should be used that under no circumstances is the face of the iron lifted the slightest degree from the stone. At this stage of sharpening a plane iron, the utmost care is necessary that the face of the cutter does not lose its perfectly straight surface at the edge, as the slightest deviation from absolute accuracy at this place will prevent the cap iron from fitting properly, which will cause endless trouble, as the shavings will be forced between the cap and the face of the iron (see C. of this topic).

Fig. 53.—Shape
of Edge of
Plane Iron.

(B.) The shape of the cutting edge of the plane cutter has an important influence upon its efficiency. Imagine the edge divided into three equal parts: the middle part should be perfectly straight, or almost imperceptibly rounded; the two outside thirds should be slightly and gradually rounded until the corners of the iron are so short that there will be no danger of their projecting below the face of the plane. This gives the edge an elliptical shape, as shown in Fig. 53, which is somewhat exaggerated, as the shape shown is about that which would be seen if a moderately coarse jack plane were held as in Fig. 49.

(C.) In order to insure fine work, the cap iron must be fitted so carefully to the face and the edge of the cutter that, if necessary, it may be placed less than ¹⁄₆₄th of an inch from the cutting edge, though this would rarely be required except upon very cross-grained wood.

In fitting the cap iron to the top of the cutter, a very fine, sharp file should be used. The filing must all be done upon the under side of the cap iron, at the places where it rests upon the face or top of the cutter; or, if preferred, the cap may be very carefully bent, but unless there is considerable fitting necessary, and unless the joint is perfected by the use of a file, this method is not recommended.

If sufficient care and skill are exercised, a plane may be sharpened and adjusted so finely that a veneer of .01” or less in thickness of bird’s-eye maple, burl walnut, ash, or similar wood may be smoothed. It is not wise, however, to spend the time necessary to keep a plane sharpened and adjusted to do this sort of work, as a scraper and sandpaper, or the latter alone, is the most economical way to smooth woods of such nature.

(D.) To remedy clogging of the mouth, remove the conditions which cause it; simply digging out the shavings is useless. An improperly fitted cap iron is one of the principal causes of trouble; the cutter may be ground so thin that when it is forced against a knot or hard place, the iron chatters, which allows the shavings an entrance under the cap iron. In this lies the only real advantage of a wooden plane over the modern iron plane, as in the former the iron is much thicker and stiffer. The cap iron may be so thick that it causes the shavings to curl too much, or the frog may be set too far to the front, which will make the mouth too small. This latter may be remedied by moving the frog back, but in a wooden plane, the mouth and the throat would have to be cut larger in order to allow the shavings to clear themselves properly.

Fig. 54.—Jack Plane.

41. The jack plane (Fig. 54) generally is 15” long, and its ordinary use is for the purpose of roughing out a piece of wood for jointing or smoothing. If it is properly sharpened, it may be used as a smoothing plane, or as a jointer upon small work, as it is capable of doing as good work as any plane.

The jack plane generally is ground more rounding, and the cap set farther back than in the other planes, especially if it is to be used upon rough work.

42. The jointer.—(A.) This tool is from 20” to 26” long, and is used to straighten edges and surfaces, or to fit them together. The shape of the edge of the cutter of this plane should be but slightly elliptical, less so than the jack plane or the smoother, unless the two latter are fitted for doing very fine work.

(B.) In using a jointer for squaring or jointing an edge, it should be carried to one side or the other of its face as may be necessary to take advantage of the elliptically shaped edge of the cutter, by cutting a shaving thicker on one edge than on the other, thus making the edge of the board square with the face side.

To make a perfectly square edge, the cut should be made in the center of both the iron and the width of the face of the plane. The plane should be held as shown in Fig. 55, the fingers under the face of the plane, the tops of the finger-nails touching the board lightly, guiding the plane, and keeping the bit cutting in one place upon its edge.

Fig. 55.—Method of Guiding a Jointer.

43. The smoothing plane (A.) is of the same type and mechanism as those described above, though it is but 9 or 10” long; if satisfactory work is expected from it, it must be kept in good order, with the cap iron perfectly fitted. For general work, it is not necessary to spend the time to insure that the plane should be continually in readiness to work upon hard, tough, cross-grained wood, as a plane to do the latter kind of work well is unnecessary upon softer or straight-grained wood. For ordinary work, the cap iron should be set from ¹⁄₃₂” to ¹⁄₁₆” from the edge of the bit, but for the finest work, the closer to the edge it will fit and allow a shaving to be taken, the finer the work that may be done. No wood used upon ordinary work is so cross-grained or knurly that it cannot be smoothed economically, if a properly sharpened and adjusted plane is used.

Fig. 56.—Knuckle Joint Block Plane.

(B.) A smoothing plane should cut a shaving as nearly the entire width of the bit as possible, therefore a very flat, elliptically shaped edge must be maintained. In using a plane or any kind of cutting tool, the direction of the grain of the wood should be carefully studied, and every advantage taken of it to facilitate the work.

Fig. 57.—Use of the Block Plane.

(For explanation, see text.)

44. The block plane (knuckle joint cap, Fig. 56) (A.) is constructed upon a somewhat different principle than the planes above described, as the adjusting nut (a) under the cutter at the rear end of the plane is raised or lowered to withdraw or advance the bit, and thus govern the cut of the tool. The size of the mouth is controlled by a movable section of the face at b. This plane has no cap iron, as the use for which it is intended makes it unnecessary. The block plane is used across the end of the wood, at right angles with the general direction of the grain. The iron, or cutter, is so placed in the stock of the plane that its cutting angle is as nearly in line with the cut as possible, with the beveled side of the iron uppermost. By this method of construction, the iron is given more stiffness to resist the chatter, or vibration, caused by planing end wood.

Fig. 58.—Using Block Plane upon Small
Pieces.

(B.) In using the block plane, do not make the cuts from edge to edge, or chips will be broken off at the corners; instead, plane from each edge, and stop the stroke before the other edge is reached; reverse the plane and work from the other direction, as shown at A, B, Fig. 57. Another and workmanlike way of using the block plane upon small pieces is shown in Fig. 58. Work from each edge as described above, turning the piece over for each stroke. In sharpening the block plane iron, the edge should be made slightly elliptical, and the bevel carefully maintained.

45. The correct position.—(A.) In using planes or any edge tools, a position should be taken which will furnish sufficient resistance to the pressure required for making the cut, as the pressure should be applied firmly and steadily. With experience, the correct position will be taken involuntarily, but the beginner should be continually upon the watch to overcome his awkwardness.

(B.) The habit of bending from the hips is acquired easily, and the young workman should learn to work in as nearly an erect position as possible, for if the bending of the shoulders is persisted in, a permanent stoop will result. Stand facing the work and clear of the bench in order to prevent unnecessary wear of the clothing.

Fig. 59.—Incorrect Use of Jack Plane.

(C.) Do not allow the plane to drop over the end of the board at either the beginning or the end of the stroke, as indicated at A, B, Fig. 59. To prevent this, the hand should be kept upon that part of the plane which is upon the board; at the beginning of the stroke, the weight should be upon the front end of the plane, as in Fig. 60, and at the end of the stroke upon the rear end, or upon the handle, as in Fig. 61. Begin and end each stroke with a lifting motion instead of allowing the plane to drop as it leaves or enters the wood. The plane should be held firmly, not rigidly; do not allow it to jump; this is caused generally by an attempt to take a shaving heavier than the plane should cut, or, if the cap iron is fitted and adjusted properly, by a dull iron. A cutter will jump or chatter if it does not fit solidly against the frog. In drawing the plane back after making a stroke, carry it upon the toe, or upon one corner; do not drag it flat upon its face, as the iron is thereby dulled as much as when it is cutting, or possibly more.

Fig. 60.—Beginning the Stroke with a Jack Plane.

Fig. 61.—Ending the Stroke with a Jack Plane.

(D.) Carry the plane parallel with the grain when it is possible, and take no more shavings off than is necessary to attain the desired results. The young workman should make a study of the grain and the peculiarities of the different kinds of lumber upon which he works, losing no opportunity to experiment upon and compare the qualities of every available wood.

(E.) In using edge tools of every kind, little is gained, and much is often lost, by working with dull tools; tools should be sharpened often and thoroughly. This is of the utmost importance, for even with the tools in the best possible order, it will require much care and skill to do good work.

46. Chisels.—(A.) Carpenters’ chisels are used for paring and mortising; the paring chisel should be light, smoothly finished, and ground with a sharper bevel than that used for mortising, for which the heaviest chisel is none too strong.

(B.) Chisels are “tanged” or “socket,” according to the method by which the blade and handle is joined. The tanged firmer chisel (Fig. 62, A) is the older form, and is not so strong as the more recently designed socket chisel (B). For light work, the tanged chisel is preferred by many, but more commonly the socket chisel is used, as it is stiffer, not so easily broken, and has no shoulder to catch upon the edge of the wood when the tool is used. The beveled-edge chisel (C) is a favorite tool with pattern makers; and the mortise, or framing chisel (D), is designed for heavy use. A set of chisels consists of one each of the following dimensions: ⅛”, ¼”, ⅜”, ½”, ⅝”, ¾”, ⅞”, 1”, 1¼”, 1½”, 1¾”, 2”.

(C.) A large, heavy chisel, 3½” or 4” in width, called a “slice” or “slick,” is used, like a paring chisel, upon heavy work.

Fig. 62.—Chisels.

A, tanged firmer chisel; B, socket
chisel; C, beveled-edge chisel; D,
mortise, or framing chisel.

(D.) Handles for paring chisels may be of any hard wood and of any convenient shape, as these should not be pounded upon. Although they are occasionally used for cutting small mortises, it is not a good practice unless the tops of the handles are protected by leather or fiber tops. Mortising chisels should have handles of the toughest wood obtainable, preferably hickory, with leather nailed with small brads upon the top to protect the wood. If a leather washer is fastened to the handle by a pin or dowel, the wood will in time pound down and the leather be broken out and destroyed, while if braided upon the handle, the leather may be renewed as often as necessary. An iron ring, or ferrule, is used by many to prevent the handle from splitting, but this will bruise the face of the mallet. A hammer should never be used upon any sort of wooden handle, or the handle will be very quickly destroyed, but a mallet will injure it comparatively little. In fitting the handle to the chisel blade, care should be used that they are in perfect alignment, as otherwise a sharp blow may break the blade.

(E.) In sharpening a mortise chisel, it should be ground at an angle of not less than 30°, as a thinner edge would be apt to break upon coming in contact with a knot. A paring chisel may be ground as thin as 20°, as it does not have to stand heavy blows, and a better edge for the purpose may thus be obtained. In whetting a chisel, the bevel must be carefully maintained, and the back kept perfectly straight, like the face of a plane iron, or it will be impossible to work to a line.

Fig. 63.—Drawshave.

47. Gouges may in general be described in the same way as chisels, except that they are curved instead of flat. The terms “inside” and “outside,” used in describing them, indicate whether they are ground upon the inside or the outside of the curve.

48. The drawshave (Fig. 63) is often used in cutting curves, in chamfering, and for roughing out work. The patent drawshave, with folding handles, is a safer tool to keep in the tool box, as the edge is protected, but it is not as satisfactory for general work as the ordinary rigid-handled tool. If the latter is used, a piece of wood should be fitted over the edge to protect both it and the hands when the tool is not in use.

Fig. 64.—Spokeshave.

49. The spokeshave (Fig. 64) should not be used in any place where a plane can be used, but only upon concave or convex surfaces; when used, it maybe either pushed or pulled.

Fig. 65.—Auger Bit.

50. Bits (A.) are of many different types, the most common being the auger bit (Fig. 65). The use of the “worm” (a) is to draw the bit into the wood, thus making a heavy pressure upon the bit unnecessary. The “lips” (bb) make an incision on the wood below the cut made by the “cutters” (cc), which take the shavings out and into the “twist,” which in turn lifts them out of the hole.

Fig. 66.—Cross-handled Auger.

(B.) Care should be used when boring a deep hole that the bit is removed before the shavings clog in the twist, which will happen if the hole becomes full of shavings which cannot be lifted out. Should clogging occur, do not use a great deal of strength in trying to back the bit out, or its “shank” may be twisted off; it is better to pull it out with a straight pull by means of a lever, if sufficient strength cannot be otherwise exerted, the pull being straight over the center of the bit from the “chuck,” not from the head of the bitbrace.

After boring the hole to the desired depth, do not turn the bit backward to remove it, as shavings will be left in the hole, but give it one turn back to loosen the worm, then turn as though boring the hole deeper, lifting under the head of the bitbrace in the meantime, by which process the shavings will be lifted out. These bits are numbered from ³⁄₁₆ths to ¹⁶⁄₁₆ths inch by 16ths of an inch. Sizes larger than these are known as augers.

Fig. 67.

A, German bit;
B, twist drill.

(C.) Large auger bits generally are fitted with cross handles, as in Fig. 66, as a bitbrace will not give sufficient leverage to make the bit cut the wood; these are called augers. The form shown is known as a “Ford auger.”

(D.) The German bit (Fig. 67, A) is used for boring small holes for screws and nails, and has entirely supplanted the gimlet of our forefathers, as its action is much more rapid. Its progression in sizes is from ¹⁄₁₆” to ¹²⁄₃₂” by 32ds of an inch; this tool is also called a screw bit.

Fig. 68.

A, extension bit;
B, center bit.

(E.) The twist drill (Fig. 67, B) is a valuable tool; every carpenter should own an assortment of twist drills for use in places where other bits may come in contact with iron. The sizes range from ¹⁄₁₆” to ⅝” by 32ds. The round shank drill may be purchased in any size up to 3”, by 64ths of an inch.

(F.) The extension bit (Fig. 68, A) is a very convenient tool for boring a hole of any size within certain limits, and is at times extremely valuable.

(G.) The center bit (Fig. 68, B) is often used in boring holes through thin material which would be apt to be split if an auger bit were used.

(H.) In filing an auger bit, it should be held as shown in Fig. 69, and a small, fine file used on the inside of the lips and the bottom of the cutters; in no case should the outside of the lips be sharpened, as the size of the bit will be reduced. In filing the cutter, be sure that its under side back of the cutting edge is filed enough to clear the wood after the cutter has entered it.

Fig. 69.—Filing an Auger Bit.

In doing this, it should be remembered that the bit progresses into the wood as it cuts, and unless the under side of the cutter is filed properly, it will bear upon the wood beneath it, back of the cutting edge, and prevent the bit from advancing. To remedy this, be sure that the cutter is kept filed thin, and that the under side is straight from the edge to the beginning of the twist.

(I.) If the lips (Fig. 65, bb) are filed off, an auger bit bores into the end wood easily.

51. The bitbrace, or stock.—(A.) This tool is used to hold the bit, and to furnish sufficient leverage to turn the bit into the wood. Bitbraces are made of different sizes, and with different devices for holding the “tangs” of the bits. A workman should own an 8” and a 10” swing bitbrace, as it is often necessary to use different sizes or kinds of bits alternately.

Fig. 70.—Ratchet Bitbrace.

(B.) The ratchet bitbrace (Fig. 70) differs from the ordinary brace only in the ratchet attachment. It is an indispensable tool to an up-to-date workman, as it may be used in many places where an ordinary brace would be useless; for general work, however, being heavier, it is less convenient than the plain brace.

52. The Screwdriver (A.) is one of the most important tools in a carpenter’s kit, and to be of use should be of finely tempered steel, for if too soft, it will turn over, and if too hard, it will break. The edge should be as thick as the slot of a screw will allow, in order to have as much strength as possible.

(B.) A round-handled screwdriver is not so satisfactory as one with an elliptical or polygonal handle, as it is impossible to obtain as good a grip upon the former as upon the latter; a round handle, planed flat upon the two opposite sides, is quite commonly used.

(C.) Ratchet screwdrivers are useful in many places where it is difficult to use two hands, and there are patent quick-action screwdrivers on the market which are suitable only for certain kinds of light work, as what is gained in speed is lost in power. The screwdriver bit is a short screwdriver blade, tanged to fit a bitbrace; it is essential in doing economical work, as screws may be driven much more rapidly than by hand, and it is also valuable on account of its greater leverage in driving heavy screws.

Fig. 71. Fig. 72.
Compasses. Calipers.

53. Compasses, or dividers (Fig. 71), are used to draw circles and curves, and for spacing and scribing, by which is meant the process of fitting a piece of wood to an uneven surface. Calipers (Fig. 72) are used to measure the outside of a round or oval object. Those shown are known as “outside” calipers; “inside” calipers, or those used for measuring the inside of a hole, have straight legs. These tools ordinarily are not considered a part of a carpenter’s kit, as they are generally used upon work requiring more exact measurements. Wood-workers’ tools are graded to sizes, generally nothing finer than 16ths of an inch; hence, the ordinary methods of measuring will usually give sufficiently accurate results.

Fig. 73. Fig. 74.
Pliers. Nippers.

54. Pliers.—(A.) These are indispensable little tools (Fig. 73), and every workman should own a pair. Those combining several tools are most useful; cheap tools of this sort are usually worthless.

(B.) Nippers (Fig. 74) are made to cut wire, but not to pull nails. Being tempered for cutting, those of good quality are hard and brittle, lacking the toughness necessary to pull nails, for which work a cheap pair of nippers may be purchased.

55. The scraper is one of the most useful tools in the kit of the carpenter who works upon hard wood. This tool may be purchased, or made of a very hard saw; it must be of hard, tough steel, or the edge will not last. A scraper should be about 3” × 5”, which is a convenient size for grasping with the hand. Many workmen make handles for their scrapers (Fig. 75, A and B), but cabinet makers, and others who use them continually, generally prefer to use them without handles. If a large surface is to be scraped, it is well to have a handle of a leather palm (Fig. 75, C). This is a piece of leather of suitable size and shape to protect the hand from the heat generated by the action of the scraper in cutting; the thumb is passed through the hole, and the broad part of the palm hangs between the scraper and the thick of the hand. For scraping floors, a scraper plane (Fig. 75, D) will be found valuable, though if much of this work is to be done, it will be the best economy to purchase one of the forms of floor-scraping machines.

Fig. 75.—Scraper.

A, B, handles for scraper; C, leather palm;
D, scraper plane.

Fig. 76.—Edges
of
Scrapers.

A, beveled
edge; B, square
edge.

56. Edges.—There are two forms of edges used in sharpening scrapers,—the square and the beveled edge; in sharpening either of these, the edge should be filed, whetted, and turned with a burnisher, which imparts a wire edge, indicated in Fig. 76, A and B, which shows enlarged views of the two forms of edges of scrapers. If the eye glances along the edge of a properly sharpened scraper, the edge will appear slightly curved; this edge must be given it by filing. After the scraper is filed, each corner which is to be turned must be whetted to a perfectly keen edge upon an oilstone, as the object of sharpening a scraper is to “turn” this edge at an angle with the sides of the scraper.

Fig. 77.—Angle
of Burnisher
with
Sides of
Scraper.

By “turning” the edge of a scraper is meant pushing the particles of steel which form the corner over so that they will form a wire edge which will stand at an angle with the sides of the scraper. When the edge has been skillfully turned, it will cut like a very finely sharpened and adjusted plane, and will work either with or against the grain without tearing the wood.

Notice carefully the angle of the burnisher with the sides of the scraper, as at a, Fig. 77, and as in Fig. 78, which indicates approximately the angle at which it should be held across the edge when seen in the view illustrated of either a square or beveled-edge scraper, the vertical lines indicating the scraper. The stroke must be from the bottom, up, as indicated. At A, Fig. 79, is shown the top view of the burnisher as it makes each of the strokes in turning the edge of a square edge scraper; notice that the burnisher swings in an angle of about 15°, one stroke only being made at each angle.

Fig. 78.—Method of Grasping Scraper
for Sharpening.

At B, Fig. 79, is shown the method of turning the edge of a bevel edge scraper; the student will notice that the angles are similar to those shown at A, except that the first stroke is made at nearly the same angle as the bevel of the scraper. An edge may often be turned at one stroke, and more than three should rarely be necessary. If more than three are made, the edge may be turned too far, which is worse than not being turned enough. The strokes should be made in the order indicated by the figures of the angles of the burnisher; otherwise it will be difficult to obtain satisfactory results.

The amount of pressure necessary to apply at this stage of the work cannot be described, but can only be discovered by practice. A steady, moderate pressure is all that is needed, but care should be used that the angle of the burnisher does not change during the stroke. This will give an edge suitable for common counter or table tops, hardwood floors, and similar work, if the skill to use the burnisher properly has been acquired.

The burnisher should be slightly lubricated with oil or with the end of the tongue, as this assists it to slide over the edge of the scraper without scratching.

Fig. 79.—Top Views of
the Angles of the
Burnisher.

If a scraper is to be used upon very fine work, a different shaped edge should be made; it should be whetted to four perfectly square and keen corners, each of which will furnish an edge. This is a more difficult method of sharpening a scraper, but it gives four edges suitable for fine work. The edge should be turned by carrying the burnisher as shown at A, Fig. 79, making the strokes at the different angles in the order indicated by the numbers. In sharpening any scraper, care should be used that no strokes are made back of the square, as stroke bc of Fig. 80. Keep the burnisher pointing down all the time, as indicated at a, Fig. 77, as in this lies the chief difficulty. Two or three strokes should be sufficient to sharpen the scraper.

To turn the edge of a scraper properly, a burnisher is necessary. This tool should be made of the hardest steel, and is often made by the workman himself of an old file, ground perfectly smooth and polished. Perhaps the most satisfactory burnisher within easy reach of the wood-worker may be made from a nail set, which may be fitted to a handle and ground to an awl point. The back of a narrow chisel or gouge may be used, though these are rather clumsy. The burnishers found in stores are generally unsatisfactory, as they are apt to be soft, and any steel which can be cut with a file is useless as a burnisher for sharpening scrapers, as the scraper will cut into it, instead of turning over.

Fig. 80.—Angle
to be Avoided
in Sharpening
Scraper.

If satisfactory results are not obtained, there may be several causes: the scraper may not be of just the right temper or texture; the burnisher may be soft or rough; the edge may not have been turned over evenly, or it may have been turned over too far, as indicated in an exaggerated way at a, Fig. 80, which is the result of carrying the burnisher around too far, as shown by the line bc. This may be remedied by using the awl point as shown at d, Fig. 81, holding the scraper and burnisher in about the same relative positions as indicated, guiding the burnisher by the thumb, which should be carried on the square edge of the scraper, moving with the burnisher its entire length. In this way the edge may be turned back to its correct angle, when a very light touch in the usual way will generally make the desired edge.

Fig. 81.—
Turning
Back the
Edge of a
Scraper.

If either the scraper or the burnisher is not of the right texture, throw it away, as it is worthless. If the burnisher is rough, it may be made smooth upon an oilstone. If the edge of the scraper is rough, it may be turned back again by laying the scraper flat upon the bench, the rough side up, and the burnisher passed over it several times; then proceed as with a new edge. In general, this is not so satisfactory as it is to file, whet, and sharpen the edge all over again, especially if the corner has been turned several times.

Though it may seem from the above explanation of the methods of sharpening scrapers that it is a very complex operation, it will be seen that it is not a difficult matter, if it is once worked out; usually it requires a little time and practice to acquire the knack that will make it possible to do it surely and well.

Fig. 82.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working upon a
Broad Surface.

Fig. 83.—Method of Grasping the Scraper when Working within
a Small Area.

Fig. 84.—Method of Grasping Scraper
when Working upon an Edge.

In using a scraper, it may be grasped as shown in Figs. 82, 83, 84, as best suits the work being done, and the strokes should be with the grain. In using this tool, as in the use of most others, the easiest way generally is the most efficient. As the young workman gains experience, he will gradually acquire the correct methods to use his tools for all the various purposes within their scope.

57. Nail sets are for the purpose of “setting” the nails, or for sinking them below the surface of the wood; and to stand the hard usage to which they are subjected, they must be very carefully tempered. The best form of nail set is that which has a cupped or hollow point, as it is not so apt to slip off of the head of the nail.

58. Wrenches are of many kinds and patterns and of every conceivable use, but that known as the “monkey,” or “Coe’s,” wrench (Fig. 85) is perhaps the most convenient for general work and has not been supplanted by any of more recent invention.

Fig. 85.—Monkey Wrench.

59. Handscrews (A.), if of good material and well made, will stand any legitimate use, and if properly used and cared for, will last a lifetime. However, a novice or a careless workman often destroys them rapidly by allowing the jaws to be under strain while in the position shown in Fig. 86, which will probably break the middle screw, and perhaps both.

Fig. 86.—Effect of the Unskillful Use of a
Handscrew.

(B.) In using handscrews for gluing, the jaws should be set to nearly the size of the material which is to be placed between them, before the glue is spread. In placing the handscrews upon the work, the outside screw should be turned back so that it will not prevent the jaws from being slightly closer at the outside screw than at the points. This will allow the strain which is applied in setting up the outside screw, to bring the jaws parallel, which is the only position in which handscrews should be allowed to remain.

In opening or closing a handscrew, the middle screw should be held in the left hand, and the outside screw in the right, as in Fig. 87; the screws should then be grasped so that they will not turn in the hand and the handscrew revolved in the desired direction. Never put unnecessary strain upon handscrews, nor leave them with a heavy strain upon them for a very long time.

Fig. 87.—Correct Use of Handscrew.

If the work is well fitted, no more strain should be used than is necessary to bring the joints well up, and no work should be glued unless the joints fit well. In any case, the outside screw should be turned back a quarter or a half a turn after the glue has set; this will relieve the strain, and add much to the life of the handscrew.

In gluing work which requires several handscrews to hold it while the glue is setting, the handles of the outside screws all should point one way, which allows the work to be handled much more easily, as the handles of the middle screws will form an even bearing upon the floor. If this is not done, the outside screws will be apt to be broken when a heavy piece of work is being glued and handled, as the weight of the work will rest upon the screws which bear upon the floor.

(C.) Before using new handscrews, the screws should be treated with beeswax and beef tallow, or with black lead mixed with oil or with wax. The latter compound is very dirty; the former lubricates the screws perfectly. The screws should be heated, and the lubricant applied hot.

60. (A.) A grindstone of good quality, from 20” to 26” in diameter, is indispensable to a woodworking shop, and should be used frequently, as the efficiency of cutting tools is much increased if they are kept well ground, and much time may be saved in whetting them.

(B.) In selecting a grindstone, be sure that it is true and round, and of a coarse, even grit, which can be quite satisfactorily determined by examining several and selecting the coarsest, as that will doubtlessly be a fast cutting stone.

(C.) The stone should be carefully centered and mounted upon a frame; the face may be kept true by means of a file or other hard steel being held against it as it revolves, or a piece of ½” or ¾” gas pipe revolved from side to side of the stone as it is turned. Never allow a stone to rest with one side in the water, as it will be made softer and heavier upon that side, and soon worn out of true.

(D.) Do not use one place upon the surface of the stone continually, or a groove will quickly be worn there; instead, keep the tool moving from side to side. If properly cared for, a stone will hold its face indefinitely.

Fig. 88.—Emery Wheel Dresser.

61. Emery, corundum, carborundum, and other artificial abrasive wheels have in many cases supplanted the grindstone, as they cut much more rapidly. Any one not accustomed to using them must be careful that the temper of the tool is not destroyed, as the wheel runs at a high rate of speed, and a tool in unskillful hands is easily burned. To avoid this, the tool should be held lightly but firmly against the stone, and frequently dipped in water to cool it. If an emery wheel burns badly, it may be because it needs dressing; for this purpose a diamond emery wheel dresser is the best, but on account of its cost, various devices have been patented to accomplish the same result, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 88.

62. Whetstones.—(A.) These are used to give to a tool the keen edge necessary to cut wood smoothly. The natural stone in most common use is the “Washita stone,” which is quarried in the Ozark Mountains, and is thought by many to be the best natural stone for the general use of the wood-worker; it is fast cutting, and when of the best quality is of even texture.

(B.) Many workmen prefer an “Arkansas stone,” as it is finer and harder than the Washita. It is also more expensive, however, and is better adapted to the use of woodcarvers and engravers than to the use of wood-workers in general. It is usually not so fast cutting as the best of the Washita stones, but a finer edge may be obtained by its use. There are other natural stones, but none so generally used as the above. The purchase of a natural stone is to a great extent a lottery, as only about one stone in ten has a perfectly even texture, is free from cracks, and has reasonably good cutting qualities.

(C.) If a stone needs truing, lay a piece of coarse sandpaper upon a board, and rub the stone over it until it has been ground down. The best place, however, to true up a whetstone is upon the horizontal stone of a marble worker; this is a large grindstone, several feet in diameter, mounted on a vertical shaft, upon which are placed pieces of marble to be ground to a flat surface.

(D.) Artificial oilstones, made of emery, corundum, carborundum, and other artificial abrasives, are coming rapidly into use, and, as in the case of grindstones, eventually will supplant all others in many occupations, as they cut faster than any natural stone, may be made of any degree of fineness, and are of absolutely even texture. They are also able to resist many accidents which would destroy a natural stone.

(E.) Slip stones are used to sharpen gouges and curved tools of all kinds, and may be made in any desirable shape. An oblong stone, 8” × 2” × 1”, is the size of stone in most general use by the wood-worker, and should be fitted into a box or piece of wood with a cover to keep it clean. It may be laid either flat or on its edge, as suits the workman, though the stone may be kept true more easily if it is set on its edge.

(F.) The use of the oilstone is described under topic 40, A. The oil used should be a kind that will not gum; its purpose is to prevent the glassiness which is caused by the friction of the tool over the stone. Common machine oil is used by many, lard oil by others, and kerosene, or coal oil, is claimed by many workmen to be the only oil suitable for use upon an oilstone. Any one of these oils will give satisfactory results, but kerosene keeps the stone cleaner, thereby adding to its efficiency, and for this purpose lubricates quite as well as any of those above-mentioned.

63. (A.) Files are used for many purposes by wood-workers. An assortment consisting of 4” and 6” slim taper, or three-cornered, files; 8” and 10” flat, or bastard, files; 8”, 10”, and 12” round files; and 8” and 12” half round wood files and rasps should be in every carpenter’s kit. The 4” slim taper files should be used upon the finer saws, and the 6” upon the coarser ones, though the latter are used by some workmen for both saws. Upon jobbing work, it is necessary to have a few warding and knife files to use upon keys and odd jobs, and also to sharpen bits.

Files and rasps are made of every shape and size, and for every purpose. Wood files usually are tempered to stand lead or soft brass, and should never be used upon anything harder.

In drawing a file back between the cuts, do not allow it to drag, as it is injured thereby about as much as when it is cutting.

(B.) There are a great many other tools and appliances used by the wood-worker with which the workman should be familiar, but it is not necessary to describe them, as the above-mentioned are the most essential tools common to all forms of woodworking. There is no important principle involved in the construction, care, and use of woodworking tools which is not discussed in this chapter, and the student who becomes thoroughly familiar with the matter treated will have little trouble in learning to handle other tools.

Fig. 89.—Jointing a Saw.

64. Saw filing.—(A.) This is an accomplishment which every young wood-worker should master, as its possession will save expense and inconvenience, and add much to his efficiency as a workman.

(B.) The first step in sharpening a saw is to examine the edge carefully to see if the teeth are of an even length; if they are not, they should be jointed. This is done by using a flat file held perfectly square in a block, as shown in Fig. 89. One or two light strokes usually will be enough to make all the teeth of the same length. The edge of the saw should round slightly in the middle, say about ⅛” for a 24” or a 26” saw. If the edge is perfectly straight, it should not be jointed to this shape at once, but a little at each time for several filings.

Fig. 90.—Hand Saw Set.

(C.) After jointing the saw, be sure that it is properly set. This may be done by a saw set, of which there are several patterns in use; these are all of two types, the hand set (Fig. 90), and the anvil set (Fig. 91). Either of these forms is efficient, but as it is more convenient, the hand set is more commonly used. Do not give the saw too much set, or it will not cut smoothly, but will break the wood badly on the back side of the cut; there is also greater danger of breaking the teeth, and as more wood is cut out, more muscle must be applied. The point of the teeth only should be set, and care should be used that the blade of the saw is not sprung, which will be apt to result from setting the teeth too far from the point.

Fig. 91.—Anvil Saw
Set.

A saw to be used upon green lumber should have coarser teeth and more set than one which is to be used upon thoroughly dry, seasoned wood. A panel saw intended for use upon fine finishing work usually is ground so thin upon the back that it needs little or no set. Some workmen set a saw so heavily that it will do for several filings; while this is satisfactory for a soft saw to be used upon common work, it is not a good plan to treat a fine, hard saw this way, though the latter may be touched up once or twice.

Fig. 92.—Angle of the File
with the Edge of the
Saw.

(D.) In filing, it is important that the file should be carried at the same angle the entire length of both sides of the blade. For a cutting-off saw, the file should be carried at an angle with the side of the blade of from 60° for soft wood to 70° for hard wood, as shown in Fig. 92; and for general work, at an angle about halfway between the two. The file may be carried horizontally, as at aa, Fig. 93, which makes all the teeth of the same size; as at A, Fig. 94; or it may be carried as at bb, Fig. 93, which will make the teeth of the shape shown at B, Fig. 94. The latter method is preferred by many workmen, as it allows the file to run more smoothly, thus lengthening its life a little. There is no difference in the efficiency of the saws filed by these methods, but if filed as at bb, Fig. 93, it is more difficult to keep the teeth of the same size, and to make a good-looking job.

Fig. 93.—Angle of the
File with the Sides
of the Saw.

In filing a cutting-off saw, the top of the file should be held more or less slantingly, as shown in Fig. 95, according to the hook which it is desired that the teeth shall have. The more hook a saw has, the faster it will cut, but the cut will be rougher in proportion. Experience is necessary to discover just the right angles at which the file should be held; after considerable practice, the file will naturally drop into the correct position.

File every tooth upon each side of the saw to a perfect point, one half of the filing being done from each side; file the entire length from one side, then reverse the saw and file from the other side. This cannot always be the exclusive practice if a saw is in very bad shape, because if the teeth are of uneven sizes, care must be used, and more filed from some teeth than from others. It may, in such a case, be necessary to go over the saw two or three times, but it should be done very carefully, so that the bevel of the teeth may be preserved and their length kept the same. Observe each tooth, and press toward the point or the handle of the saw, as may be necessary. The file should be carried with its point toward the point of the saw, filing the cutting or the front side of the tooth of the farther side of the saw, and the back of the tooth next ahead on the nearer side with the same stroke. If the point of the saw is carried toward the handle of the saw, it makes the teeth chatter, and upon a hard saw, may make them break. It also causes an excruciating noise, and shortens the life of a file, as the continuous chatter against its teeth will soon break them, and destroy the file.

Fig. 94.—Results of
Filings as at aa and
bb, Fig. 93.

A ripsaw requires more set than a cutting-off saw, and if, as usual, the file is carried square with the blade both ways, the saw may be filed from one side.

After a saw is filed, it should be laid upon a perfectly flat surface, and given a light touch with a flat file or a whetstone, to remove the burr caused by the file, as in Fig. 96.

Fig. 95.—Method of Carrying a File
to obtain the Hook of a Cutting-off
Saw.

The teeth of the compass saw should be a combination of the rip- and the cutting-off saw, as it does the work of both as occasion requires. The teeth should be nearly as hooking as those of a ripsaw, and the front teeth filed at an angle of about 80° with the side of the saw. In filing the back of the teeth, the hand should be carried a little lower than horizontal. Figure 41, C, shows three views of the teeth of a compass saw.

Fig. 96.—Removing the Burr after Filing a Saw.

Suggestive Exercises

27. What should be the quality of all mechanics’ tools? Is a good, serviceable tool always finely finished? Are tools made especially for some dealer always reliable? What is the safest method to follow in buying tools? How may the efficiency of a tool be known?

28. Describe two forms of benches. Describe a modern vise.

29. Describe the rule in common use.

30. For what is the try-square used? Why should special care be used in purchasing one? How may a square be tested?

31. Compare the steel square and the try-square.

32. Describe the bevel and its use.

33. For what is the gauge used? Should the graduations of the gauge be depended upon in setting it? What special form of gauge is useful?

34. What will be the result if the head of a hammer is not properly tempered? Why is the eye shaped as it is? How is the handle fastened to the head? Describe the wood necessary for a hammer handle. How should a hammer be hung? How should nails be driven so that they will hold the best? What should be guarded against in driving up ceiling or matched boards? How and why should nail heads be sunk below the joint surface?

35. For what is a hatchet used? Describe two ways of sharpening a hatchet.

36. What is the principal use of a mallet? Describe and compare two forms of mallets.

37. What are the two parts of a saw? Describe the use of a ripsaw. After what tool is it modeled? After what tool are the teeth of a cutting-off saw modeled? What kind of saw combines the teeth of both? For what is it used? Why is it made of softer metal than are other saws? Describe a saw adapted to jobbing work. Describe the backsaw. How can the blade be straightened if it is sprung? What kind of saw is used for fine work? How should the thickness of the back of a saw compare with its cutting edge? What is gained by this? What test should the blade of a high-grade saw be able to stand? What are the best sizes for saws? Compare the practical features of a hard and a medium hand saw. How should a saw be held? How much force should be used upon a saw? How do some workmen change the handles of their saws to make the saws run more easily?

38. Describe the knife commonly used by the wood-worker. Why is the form of blade used in manual-training schools more suitable for whittling than the form used by the wood-worker?

39. Compare the old-fashioned and the modern planes. Describe the mechanism of the modern plane and its action. What should be the condition of the face of a plane? How should a plane be held so that one may see the adjustment of the cutter?

40. Of what use is the cap iron in grinding a plane bit? How may a grindstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? Upon which side of the bit should all the grinding be done? At what angle should it be ground? What is the objection to grinding a bit too thin? Where should the cap iron be while whetting? How should the bevel of the bit be held upon the stone? Describe the correct action of the arm while whetting. How should the whetstone be prevented from wearing unevenly? What motion should be avoided in whetting? What is the correct shape of the edge of a plane iron? What is the use of the cap iron? What is apt to result if the cap iron is too thick?

41. What plane is used generally for rough work? In what way does the edge of its iron differ from that of other planes?

42. What plane is used for straightening edges and surfaces? What should be the shape of the edge of the iron of this plane? How should a plane be carried to joint an edge square?

43. What plane is used in smoothing fine work? What should be the position of the cap in smoothing hard, cross-grained wood? How should edge tools of all kinds be used in relation to the grain?

44. Compare the construction and the use of the block plane with the above planes.

45. What position should be taken when at work with edge tools of any sort? Should the workman bend from his hips or from his shoulders? What should be guarded against at the beginning and the end of the strokes of a plane? Is it ever economy to work with dull tools? How should a plane be drawn back after a stroke?

46. What are the two forms of chisels? Describe the peculiarities and uses of each. Describe a durable form of chisel handle. Should a mallet or hammer be used in pounding upon a chisel handle? Why? Describe and give reasons for the difference in the grinding of the paring and the mortising chisel. Describe a set of chisels. What is a slice, or slick?

47. Describe a gouge. What is the difference between an inside and an outside gouge?

48. Describe the form and uses of a drawshave. Compare the utility of the rigid- and the folding-handled drawshaves. How should the edge of a rigid-handled drawshave be protected?

49. Describe the form and the use of a spokeshave.

50. What is the form of bit in most common use? Describe the different parts of an auger bit and their functions. How may the clogging of a bit be prevented? If a bit should become clogged in a hole, how should it be drawn out? Describe the form and the use of a German bit; of a twist drill; of an extension bit; of a center bit. Describe the method of sharpening a bit. Demonstrate. What part of a bit should never be filed? Why?

51. Describe the form and the use of bitbraces. Describe the ratchet brace. Which is the more convenient brace for common use?

52. What should be the shape and the temper of the point of a screwdriver? What should be the shape of the handle? What is the value of a screwdriver bit?

53. Describe the use of compasses; of calipers.

54. Describe the use of pliers. What is a good form for common use? Should wire-cutting nippers be used to pull nails? Why?

55. For what is a scraper used? What is the best size for a scraper? Describe handles for scrapers. Describe a leather palm and its use.

56. Describe a burnisher. How should a scraper be sharpened for rough work? For fine work? How may a burnisher be used when the edge of the scraper has been turned over too far, or when the edge is not sufficiently keen? How should the scraper be used in relation to the grain?

57. Describe the best form of nail set.

58. What is the form of wrench in most common use?

59. How long ought handscrews to last? What should be the position of the jaws when in use? Which screw should be set first? How should handscrews be treated to make them work more easily?

60. What are the characteristics of a good grindstone? How should a grindstone be trued?

61. Compare emery wheels and grindstones. What should be guarded against in the use of an emery wheel?

62. Why is it necessary to use a whetstone? What kind of stone is commonly used? What is a finer kind of stone? Compare the two kinds. How may whetstones be trued? What kind of stones are coming into use? Compare the wearing qualities of stones laid flat and edgeways. What forms of stones are used for gouges? What kinds of oils are used for oil or whetstones?

63. What kinds of files are used for saw filing? Describe the files generally used by wood-workers. Describe wood rasps and files.

64. Describe the jointing of a saw. What should be the shape of the cutting edge of a saw? Describe the purpose, and demonstrate the process, of setting a saw. Compare the set of saws for coarse and fine work. At what angle with the sides of the blade should a file be carried in filing a cutting-off saw? Compare the results of carrying the file horizontally and with an upward inclination. At what angle with the sides of the blade should the file be carried in filing a ripsaw? If the saw is in bad shape, should the attempt be made to bring it to a finished point when going over it the first time? What should be the direction of the point of the file while it is cutting? Compare the set of the ripsaw and that of the cutting-off saw. Compare the teeth of the compass saw with those of others.