THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT.

This is the third Branch of the government, as determined by the Constitution, and is of supreme importance and dignity. Its sphere is to interpret the Constitution, to decide controversies, to try offenders and to pronounce sentence on them, to enforce rights, and to keep the whole organism of the government in proper place and proportion. It is attached to the governmental machinery as a Regulator. Without it the other Departments must be the judges of the extent of their own powers; the Constitution would be practically inoperative to prevent inharmonious or mischievous legislation; and the executive would possess the authority to try as well as punish offenses.

The officers of this Department of the government are expected to be men of much weight and dignity of character, of wide legal culture, and are selected for, and continued in, office under such circumstances as to guarantee, to a fair extent, the requisite distinction and impartiality.

All this we shall see as we proceed to analyze its different branches. These consist of the United States Supreme Court, the Circuit Courts, the District Courts, and the Court of Claims. The local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts, though similar to the State Judiciaries, are connected, by their relations to the General Government, with this Department.

The importance of this branch of the government has become more evident as time has passed, and the conflict of parties has put the whole to test. The acrimonious party spirit of our early post revolutionary history, which continued into Monroe’s administration, was, in great part, the result of a want of due confidence in, and respect for, the judiciary. Experience showed that our people were law abiding, and that the Legislative and Executive powers, equally with the people, were willing to submit to the official interpretation of the Constitution, and all ready to join hands to maintain its authority.

CHAPTER LVII.
THE SUPREME COURT.

1. This is the highest tribunal in the United States. If the whole government be figuratively regarded as an arch this is the “Key Stone of the Arch” without which the whole structure would crumble and fall. In all cases of dispute as to the meaning of the Constitution and the range of powers it confers, or implies, it has sovereign power to decide; and from that decision there is no appeal. Its declaration, as to the meaning and application of the Constitution and the body of statutes enacted under it, becomes the law of the land. It is the great bulwark against tyrannical use of power, and conflicting enactments, whether by National or State Legislatures.

2. This court has one Chief Justice and nine Associate Justices, all appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. They are appointed for life, or during good behavior; they may be impeached for bribery or other high crimes, and then removed from office. They may also resign; but if they conduct themselves properly and choose to retain their offices, there is no power by which they can be removed, except the power of death. The Constitution itself makes this provision, in order that the judges may be removed as far as possible from the influence of party politics. It is therefore expected that their decisions will not be biased by party or political considerations; and it may not be amiss to say that the provisions for keeping the judges of the United States Courts in office for life, meets with almost universal approbation; and has caused many to hope that the States would alter their Constitutions and adopt the same plan; believing it to be the surest way of preserving a pure and independent Judiciary, on which depend the rights and liberties of every citizen of the commonwealth.

3. This court holds but one term in a year, which commences on the first Monday of December, and sits until it has disposed of the business before it. Its sessions are always held at Washington, the capital of the nation; there it has access to the Congressional and Law Libraries, and to all the departments and records of the government when necessary.

There is a class of causes which may be commenced in this court. In these cases it has original jurisdiction. They are such as affect ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; and those in which a State shall be a party. In other cases it has only appellate jurisdiction. The greater part of its business is to hear and determine appeals from inferior courts, mainly from the United States Circuit Courts; and in some instances from the highest State courts.

4. It has not only original, but exclusive jurisdiction in causes where a State is a party, and when proceedings or suits against ambassadors, or other public ministers or their servants, are instituted. Its power to try appeals from lower courts, called appellate jurisdiction, gives it the position of the highest court in the nation.

It has power also to restrain or to prohibit proceedings in the United States District Courts, when acting as courts of Admiralty; or in cases of maritime jurisdiction. The judges of this court hold the Circuit Courts, and allot themselves among the judicial circuits.

The practice and rules of procedure in this court are very similar to those of the Courts of Chancery and King’s Bench, in England. Issues of fact are tried by jury, the same as in other courts.

OFFICERS OF THE COURT.

5. The officers of this tribunal are the Judges, the Attorney General, a clerk, a crier, and a reporter. The three last named are appointed by the court. It is the duty of the Marshal of the District of Columbia to attend this court, and to serve process issuing from it.

An Attorney or Counsellor-at-Law, to be admitted to practice in this court, must have been a practitioner in the Supreme Court of the State where he lives.

6. The following are the names of all the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, from its establishment to the present time; with the dates of their appointments, and the States from which they were appointed:

7. The following are the names of the Associate Justices with the dates of their appointment and the States from which they were appointed:

CHAPTER LVIII.
CIRCUIT COURTS.

The next in dignity, power, and jurisdiction are the United States Circuit Courts. While the Supreme Court is always held in Washington, these are held in every State at such times and places as special law of Congress directs. These are often changed so as to accommodate both the people in the States and the judges of the Court. As now arranged, the whole Union is divided into nine circuits, each circuit comprising several States, according to the size and population of the States. The places are arranged with reference to convenience of access by all the people in the circuit.

This Court is similar in design and authority to the Supreme Court; indeed it is but a branch of it; the same officers presiding, and the same class of questions being adjudicated by it, viz.: those involving Constitutional Law; and this authority, so important to uniformity of interpretation of constitutional provisions, and to the enjoyment of rights guaranteed by that instrument to citizens of all the States, is made pervading—is carried within the reach of all.

2. The Circuit Courts are held by the Judges of the Supreme Court, who allot the circuits among themselves, and then travel each through his own circuit, until he has visited and held a session in every State which lies within it. A Judge of the Supreme Court is the presiding and supreme magistrate in every Circuit Court, but the Judge of the District Court of the district in which the Circuit is held, sits with the Judge of the Supreme Court, as Associate Justice.

JURISDICTION.

3. These Courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction. Causes may be appealed from the District Courts to the Circuit. They also have concurrent jurisdiction with the State courts, where the matter in dispute exceeds the sum of $500, and the United States are plaintiffs; or where an alien is a party, or where the suit is between citizens of different States. They have exclusive jurisdiction in all cases of crimes against the United States, except where the law especially confers the power on other courts. It extends to all cases under the revenue laws of the United States.

4. There is also a certain class of cases (too tedious to be described here in detail,) which may be removed from State and from District Courts, into these courts, and be tried and determined in the same manner as if they had been commenced here.

The officers of Circuit Courts are, first, the Judges; second, the District Attorney of the district in which the court is held; third, the Marshal of the district; and fourth, a Clerk, who is appointed by the court.

5. It may be interesting, and perhaps useful to know how the different circuits are formed, and what States lie in each. They have been from time to time increased in number, as the number of the States increased. In some cases States have been at first placed in one circuit, and afterwards detached and placed in another.

6. By the Acts of 1862 and 1863, the circuits were arranged as follows:

First Circuit—Rhode Island, Massachusetts, Maine and New Hampshire (by Act of 1820).

Second Circuit—Vermont, Connecticut, New York (Act of 1837).

Third Circuit—New Jersey and Pennsylvania.

Fourth Circuit—Maryland, Virginia, Delaware and North Carolina.

Fifth Circuit—South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida.

Sixth Circuit—Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Kentucky and Tennessee.

Seventh Circuit—Ohio and Indiana.

Eighth Circuit—Michigan and Illinois.

Ninth Circuit—Wisconsin, Missouri, Kansas, Iowa and Minnesota.

Tenth Circuit—California and Oregon.

But in 1866 this arrangement of the circuits was again changed; and this was done, we suppose, to make the circuits approximate nearer to the number of Associate Justices, as reduced from nine to six by the same act; for, it was then enacted that hereafter there should be no more Associate Justices of the Supreme Court appointed, until they were reduced (by death or resignation), to six.

7. The circuits by this last act were reduced to nine, and were arranged as follows:

First and Second Circuits to remain as before.

The Third was made up of the States of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware.

The Fourth, of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina.

The Fifth, of Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas.

The Sixth, of Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee.

The Seventh, of Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin.

The Eighth, of Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas.

The Ninth, of California, Oregon and Nevada.

We have inserted both of these circuit arrangements, because one new State (Nebraska), has been admitted since the act passed. Others will soon come in, and very probably the old number of circuits and judges will be restored.

CHAPTER LIX.
DISTRICT COURTS.

1. We come now to the lowest grade of United States courts, excepting the local courts in the District of Columbia, and the Territorial Courts. A United States District Court is held by a District Judge in every district. Every State constitutes at least one district, several of the larger States are divided into two, and some into three. There are at the present time fifty-nine Judicial Districts, and consequently the same number of District Judges, District Attorneys, District Clerks and Marshals. The Judges, Attorneys and Marshals are all appointed by the President and Senate; the Clerks by the respective courts.

TERMS.

2. By the law of 1789 every District Judge was required to hold four sessions a year, at such times and in such places as Congress directed. This is done to this day in a great majority of the States; but by later laws, in some of the districts only two or three sessions a year are required.

JURISDICTION.

3. These courts have exclusive jurisdiction in all admiralty and maritime causes. These relate to maritime contracts, and to crimes against the laws of the United States, committed on the sea and on navigable lakes and rivers. It embraces in this country all contracts respecting vessels and navigation; such as chartering, repairing, and fitting them out, seamen’s wages, &c. They have in some cases concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts, as in cases of piracy, and exclusive cognizance of cases where seizures are made for a violation of the revenue laws, or laws relating to imports and navigation; and causes against consuls and vice consuls where the amount claimed does not exceed $100. In short, they have concurrent jurisdiction with the Circuit Courts, of all crimes against the laws of the United States, the punishment of which is not capital. The trial of issues of fact in all causes except civil causes of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, must be by jury.

4. Appeals are taken from these courts to the Circuit Courts. The judges are appointed like those of the Supreme Court, for life, or during good behavior, and receive various amounts as salary, some more and some less, according to the amount of services to be performed in their respective districts.

5. When vessels are captured in time of war, either by the public armed vessels or by private armed ships, the facts and circumstances of the capture must be brought before a United States Circuit or District Court for adjudication; when the vessel and cargo are either condemned as a prize, or restored to their owners. When either of these courts adjudicate such cases, it is called a Prize Court.

We give the number of Judicial Districts in each State as they now exist, and the total number in all the States. They are as follows:

CHAPTER LX.
ADMIRALTY AND MARITIME JURISDICTION.

In ancient times—and long before this government existed—civilized and commercial nations had codes or laws which related especially to transactions upon the sea. Those respecting ships of war and warlike operations at sea were called the laws of Admiralty; those respecting vessels engaged in commercial affairs were called Maritime laws; and the courts empowered with jurisdiction to hear and try causes, or to take any judicial proceedings in those cases, were styled Courts of Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction. These laws, in many respects, differed so materially from the laws relating to affairs on land, that the authority and power to take proceedings in and adjudicate upon them was conferred upon a particular class of courts. Hence we see the origin of the names of such tribunals.

In this country the United States District Courts have been designated by the laws as the courts which shall have original and exclusive authority to adjudicate this class of causes; yet an appeal from the District to the Circuit Courts may be taken.

KIND OF CASES.

The word Maritime designates that which relates to the sea. Yet, in the United States, cases which come within Admiralty and Maritime jurisdiction are not restricted to the sea, or to transactions relating to business or crimes done on it, but are made to embrace those which occur on navigable lakes and rivers, and include seizures made for the violation of the laws of impost, navigation, or trade, suits for the recovery of seamen’s wages, contracts for building, repairing or fitting out vessels, and, briefly, all contracts where the subject-matter relates to the navigation of the sea. The District Courts have Admiralty and Maritime jurisdiction in all these cases, without regard to the amount claimed, and in criminal as well as in civil suits.

The foregoing remarks show the workings of our judicial system, as it applies to business done, and crimes committed upon the high seas.

CHAPTER LXI.
COURT OF CLAIMS.

1. This court was established by act of Congress in 1855. The law reads thus: “A court shall be established to be called the Court of Claims, to consist of three judges, to be appointed by the President and Senate, and to hold their offices during good behavior; and the said court shall hear and determine all claims founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any regulation of an Executive department, or upon any contract express or implied, with the government of the United States; which may be suggested to it by a petition filed therein; and also all claims which may be referred to said court by either house of Congress.”

2. On the third of March, 1863, the jurisdiction of this court was enlarged, and two additional judges appointed (making five), from the whole number of which the President was authorized to appoint one a Chief Justice for said court.

3. The mode of commencing proceeding before this tribunal is by petition; in which the claimant must fully set forth his claim, how it arose, its amount, and the parties interested therein. After the case has been heard and determined, the court reports to Congress what its decision is, and if favorable to the claimant, a bill is passed for his relief.

4. It holds one session a year, in Washington, commencing on the first Monday in October, and continuing as long as the business before it requires. It not only tries claims against the government, but by its enlarged jurisdiction, conferred in 1863, it also tries counter claims and set-offs which the United States may have against the claimant. Appeals are taken from the Court of Claims to the Supreme Court of the United States, when the amount in controversy exceeds $3,000.

5. Before the establishment of this court, the only remedy persons having claims upon the government had, was by petitioning to Congress for relief; which experience proved to be a long, tedious, and expensive mode of obtaining their dues. The petition now goes to this court, where it is heard and adjudicated in the same form, and by the same rules of procedure which are observed in other courts; for Congress has conferred upon it all the powers commonly possessed by other courts of law. It also has a seal.

6. It has greatly facilitated the settlement of claims against the government, and has relieved Congress of a great amount of labor, which was urgently pressed upon it at every session.

7. In addition to the five judges, it has a Solicitor, an Assistant Solicitor, and a Deputy Solicitor, all of whom are appointed by the President and Senate; and are officers of the court, whose duty it is faithfully to defend the United States in all matters and claims before this court.

A bailiff, a clerk, a crier and messenger, all of whom are appointed by the court, make up the remaining officials.

The claimants stand in the relation of plaintiffs, and the government in that of defendant.

CHAPTER LXII.
DISTRICT ATTORNEYS.

These officers are next in rank to the Judges of the Circuit and District Courts with which their duties are connected. Their relation to the government, in the class of cases that come before those courts, is the same as that of the Attorney General in the Supreme Court. They are its official legal counselors in all cases involving the interests of the General Government before the Circuit and District Courts in their several districts. They are appointed in the same manner; that is, nominated by the President, and confirmed by the Senate. It is their duty “to prosecute in such district all delinquents for crimes and offences cognizable under the authority of the United States, and all civil actions in which the United States shall be concerned.” They are his clients, and he must enforce their rights, and defend them, in the same manner that any attorney protects and defends his client in any of the State courts. In case of necessity, he may appoint a substitute to act in his place. All fees over and above what he is allowed as compensation for his services, he must report and pay into the United States Treasury.

3. He must defend collectors of the customs and other revenue officers in his district, when suits are brought against them in their official capacity, and must report to the Solicitor of the Treasury the number of suits determined and pending in his district. And when prize cases have been determined, or are pending in the District Court of his district, he must report the state and condition of each case to the Secretary of the Navy.

District Attorneys are appointed for four years, but may be removed at the pleasure of the President. Their compensation depends on the amount of business to be done in their respective districts. When important ports of entry, such as New York or Boston, lie in their districts, their duties are very numerous, and they receive a corresponding compensation.

CHAPTER LXIII.
UNITED STATES MARSHALS.

1. United States Marshals are the ministerial officers of the United States courts. Their duties and responsibilities are very similar, and nearly identical with the duties and responsibilities of sheriffs in the courts of the several States. They are appointed by the President and Senate, for a term of four years. They appoint their own deputies, and their compensation consists of fees instead of a salary; and depends entirely upon the amount of business they have to transact. There is a Marshal in every Judicial District in the United States, and there are fifty-nine of these districts in all. Every State forms at least one district, while the larger States are divided into two or three.

2. A District Court is held in every district; and it is the Marshal’s duty to attend the sittings of these courts, and also those of the United States Circuit Courts, when they happen to sit in his district. The Marshal for the District of Columbia must also attend the sittings of the Supreme Court, and execute its precepts. We have said that they are the ministerial officers of the United States courts; for it is their duty to serve all writs and precepts emanating from them, whether of a civil or criminal character; and to execute the judgments and decrees of these tribunals; and for this purpose they are authorized by law, (if necessary,) to command such assistance as they may need in the execution of their duties. Before they enter upon the duties of their office, they must be bound to the United States for the faithful performance of them, and must solemnly swear to do them, without malice or partiality; and that they will take only lawful fees. They are also held answerable for the delivery to their successors of all prisoners who may be in their custody at the time of their removal, or at the expiration of their term of office.

3. They also have the custody of all vessels and goods seized by any officer of the revenue. It is their duty also to summon, and to pay jurors and witnesses in behalf of any prisoner to be tried for a capital offense, under the laws of the United States. In the remarks made under the head “Census,” we stated that it was made the duty of the Marshals to superintend and direct the enumeration of the people; and to collect such statistical facts as the law requires. This they do through deputies, whom they appoint for that special purpose.

The United States Marshal is also required, on the first day of January and July of each year, to make a return of all the fees and emoluments of his office to the Secretary of the Interior; and if they amount to more than $6,000 per year, he must pay the surplus into the Treasury of the United States.

CHAPTER LXIV.
GRAND JURY.

1. By turning to the fifth article of the amendments to the Constitution, you will find these words: “No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury; except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war or public danger.” This constitutional provision makes a Grand Jury a very important agent or instrumentality in the execution of the laws, and also a safeguard of the liberties and rights of the people. It secures every person from the expense and disgrace of a trial for infamous crimes, unless a Grand Jury of his countrymen shall find upon inquiry and investigation, that there are good reasons for believing that the person so charged has committed the alleged offense.

2. This provision not only protects those who are charged with these crimes against the laws of the United States, but those also who may be charged with such offenses against the laws of any State; for no State can arrest and try any person for a capital or infamous crime without these preliminary proceedings of a Grand Jury; and should it do so, the United States Supreme Court would set its laws aside, as contrary to the Constitution of the United States. Here we see that the government is just as careful to protect its citizens from injustice by hasty judicial proceedings as it is to punish them after a fair and impartial trial.

3. A Grand Jury, when called to take cognizance of violations of the laws of the United States, to find indictments against those who are charged with them, is summoned by a judge of a United States court in the circuit or district where the alleged crime has been perpetrated; and it must take notice of all crimes against the laws of the United States, which may be brought to its knowledge, within the circuit or district in which it sits. Hence, if ordered by a Circuit Judge, its powers extend over all those States which lie in that circuit. But when ordered by a District Judge, its powers extend only to that district in which it sits, and a district never embraces more than one State, and in many cases a State is divided into two or three districts.

4. This shows us how much more extensive is the jurisdiction of a Grand Jury, when acting under the laws of the United States, than when acting under State laws. In the former it extends generally all over a State, and sometimes over several States. But in the latter it is confined to the county in which it sits.

GRAND AND PETIT JURIES.

A Grand Jury never acts but in criminal cases. A Petit Jury acts in both criminal and civil cases. The finding or conclusion arrived at by a Grand Jury is called a presentment, or an indictment. The finding of a Petit Jury is called its verdict.

5. Second, a Grand Jury sits alone (not in the presence of the court), and deliberates upon such matters of a criminal character as it possesses knowledge of, or which may be brought to its notice by the court or by other persons; and when it finds that great evils exist, and wrongs have been perpetrated, it presents them to the court, and calls the attention of the law officers to them; which is equivalent to a recommendation that judicial proceedings should be commenced to abate the evil, or to punish the wrong-doer. This is called a presentment of the Grand Jury.

And when they find, upon such evidence as they have, that a great crime has been perpetrated, or that they have good reason so to believe, and that it has been perpetrated by some person specified, they report their finding or conclusion to the Court. This is called an indictment by the Grand Jury; after which the person so charged is arrested, if at large, and can be found, and is either imprisoned or held to bail for his appearance at court to stand trial.

6. A Grand Jury never tries a case. It only says to the court by its presentment or indictment, that the case presented, or the person indicted, ought to be brought before the court, and tried for the alleged wrong or crime.

A Petit Jury sits with the court, hears the pleadings and arguments of counsel on both sides, listens to the evidence of witnesses; and then hears the charge of the judge, as to the law applicable to the case; after which they withdraw and deliberate alone upon the case, and if they agree in a criminal case, their verdict is “Guilty,” or “Not Guilty;” if in a civil suit, they say how much one party is indebted (if any), to the other.

7. The object aimed at in that article of the Constitution which stands at the head of this chapter, is to protect persons from false charges of crime, and hasty adjudication of such charges; for it substantially amounts to a declaration that no person shall be punished for a capital or infamous crime, unless one jury, before trial, shall, upon information and belief, charge him with the offense; and another, after trial, shall find him guilty of the alleged crime.

The above remarks are as applicable to Grand and Petit Juries, acting under State, as those which act under the United States laws.

CHAPTER LXV.
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS.

1. The Supreme power in the United States is lodged in the general government, with its three branches: Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The authority of this government, however, is restricted to the powers expressly conferred on it by the Constitution; all other power being reserved to the States, or the people. The States also are sovereign in their own limits, over all questions not expressly assigned to the General Government. Instead of conflict of authority there is true harmony. The people elect the members of both the classes of legislators and executives, and both are equally employed in attending to the interests of the people confided to their care; the first to General, the second to Local interests. All the members and officers of each are the servants of the Sovereign People.

2. As soon as the general government was organized under the Constitution, there arose two parties. One wished to render the General Government prominent in order to secure concentration of strength and vigor of action; the other desired to exalt the State governments in the fear that the general government might prove ambitious of too much power, and disregard the welfare of the people. As in almost all party platforms, both these seemed to take too narrow a view. Washington was held to sympathize more with the first, Jefferson was the acknowledged leader of the second. Together they secured a very fair mingling of both these principles in the administration and general policy of the country. A strict adherence to the meaning and spirit of the Constitution would not seem to give special favor to either, or allow a conflict of interests.

3. The Supreme Court, or the Judiciary, is the regulating, or reconciling element, which the Constitution set over the whole to see that no undue or improper action should defeat its purposes, and that no collisions of authority should occur. Its decision is final, it being the last resort in cases of appeal; and, as the only final and authoritative interpreter of Constitutional Law, it may revise the action of all other branches of both general and local government, and put them in harmony.

4. It is plain that the authors of the Constitution intended to fuse the separate elements, or States, into one whole, where general matters were concerned; and to leave those elements perfectly free and absolute control of all questions involving only their separate and local concerns. The People, and their welfare, are the aim and end of both organizations. The possession of power for ambitious ends by general, State, or municipal organizations, or by individuals, was apparently as foreign to the thought of the whole Constitutional convention of 1787 as it seems always to have been to the mind of Washington. That great man was the leader of clear-sighted and pure-minded statesmen, and whatever weaknesses and faults have existed at any time (and there have always been an abundance of them, as there were in the times of Washington) among political leaders, it must be allowed that the Fathers had worthy sons who knew how to work correctly the problems left them by their predecessors. A single question proved quite unmanageable to the sons, as it had before to the fathers, and had to be settled by an appeal to arms; but it demonstrated the strength of the people and the ability of our institutions to withstand the severest shocks.

5. The original States adopted the Constitution after deliberate study, and all the States since admitted virtually do the same. Their general structure in their legislative, executive, and judicial arrangements is substantially the same as that of the General Government. The State Legislatures consist of two Houses, chosen in different ways, and for different terms; the relations between them being similar to those of Congress. Every State has a governor, answering to the President of the United States, who is the executive officer of the State government. The courts in all are organized on the same principle as the Supreme Court of the general government. Although there are small variations from the model, in various States, they do not affect the general resemblance; and, due allowance being made for the different subjects to be treated, the analysis of the general, or of any of State governments, will give a sufficiently correct view of all.

6. A State cannot make treaties with a foreign power, nor declare war against it. It cannot raise a revenue by duties on imports, nor control the postal service, or matters involving the interests of other States. It has therefore no Department for Foreign relations, its Secretary of State dealing only with State affairs. It has no Department of War, or Navy, and no Postmaster General. The Governor’s signature is necessary to the validity of laws passed by the two branches of the legislature, and in most of the States he has a veto power similar to that of the President. He has an executive council answering to the Cabinet. The courts are more numerous than those of the general government, to meet the wants of all classes of the people; ranging from a Supreme or Constitutional court, whose office it is to interpret and apply the constitution of the State; through all grades, of Common Pleas, Circuit, District, Police, and Recorder’s courts down to neighborhood courts held by Justices of the Peace, or Aldermen. There are various others in different States for special purposes.

7. States are subdivided for purposes of local government into counties and towns; and these into smaller portions for educational and other purposes.

Thus the whole is like an extensive system of machinery, wheel being fitted to wheel. From the lowest to the highest the people of each local division have entire control over the subjects in which they only are interested; and there is very little opportunity for the exercise of arbitrary power. Executive officers may be changed by election, or impeachment, if they do not give satisfaction, or prove unfaithful; and as many securities as it is possible to devise are provided against abuses, or, if a majority in any State (or the United States) believe that an improvement can be made, there are constitutional and legal methods for securing it.

Thus our country is insured against serious discontents for which no remedy is at hand; and from the revolutions and internal disturbances that interrupt the progress, and destroy the resources of so many other countries. It is a government of, for, and by the people. The value of any institution or office in the United States, from the school district and director to State legislature, Congress, governor, or President, is determined by the relation it bears to the Public Welfare; and when it ceases to be useful there are, as there ought to be, legal means for laying it aside.

CHAPTER LXVI.
INDIVIDUAL STATES.

The original thirteen States are here arranged in the order of size—the one having the largest area being placed first. They are ranked according to their present area, the claims of some of them at first extending to territory since erected into States; and one, Virginia, has been divided. Her former area would have ranked her as first.

The States that follow are placed in the order of their admission into the Union.

GEORGIA.

This State was the last settled of the original thirteen. It was founded in the benevolent anxiety of Gen. James Oglethorpe and others to relieve the distresses of the poor in England. Those imprisoned for debt were sent out in large numbers. With this object was connected the desire to prevent the extension of the Spanish settlements in Florida, and the English government favored the undertaking. This class of settlers proving indolent and improvident, a better was attracted by laying off many towns, in the best locations, and offering fifty acres free to every actual settler. Many Scotch and German emigrants improved this opportunity, to the great advantage of the colony.

Gen. Oglethorpe imitated the wise conduct of Penn, in his treaties with the Indians.

He commenced his settlement at Savannah, in 1733, cheerfully assisted by the South Carolinians, who were pleased to see a barrier placed between them and the Spaniards. Oglethorpe had several conflicts with them, and succeeded in protecting his colony. The introduction of slaves was at first forbidden; but, as the colony seemed to fall behind the neighboring provinces for want of laborers, the restriction was removed. In 1752 the company gave up their charter, and Georgia became a royal province. It took part with the other colonies in resistance to the aggressions of the English ministry, at the Revolutionary period, and its condition during the war was similar to that of North and South Carolina. Being new, and on the frontier, it was not conspicuous.

The northern part of the State is uneven, the central and lower sections productive under a wise and careful culture, but easily exhausted under bad management. She has long navigable rivers, and her manufacturing and commercial capabilities are excellent. The system of slave-labor and the misfortunes of the Civil War have embarrassed her progress, but the energy of her people is fast raising her to her proper rank as a flourishing State.

Georgia has an area of 52,009 square miles, equal to 33,285,760 acres. She was named after George II.

The population in 1870 was 1,200,000, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress.

The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and has two judicial districts; also four ports of entry—Savannah, Brunswick, St. Mary’s, and Hardwicke; and two ports of delivery—Augusta and Sunbury.

The capital is Atlanta. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in August. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Georgia in General Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William Few,from1789to1793.
James Gunn,”1789”1801.
James Jackson,”{1793”1795.
1801”1806.
George Walton,”1795”1796.
Josiah Tatnall,”1796”1799.
A. Baldwin,”{1796”1805.
1805”1807.
J. Melledge,”1806”1809.
George Jones,”1807”1807.
W. H. Crawford,”1807”1813.
Charles Tait,”{1809”1813.
1813”1819.
W. B. Bullock,”1813”1813.
William W. Bibb,”1813”1816.
G. M. Troup,”{1815”1818.
1829”1833.
John Forsyth,”{1819”1819.
1829”1837.
F. Walker,”1819”1821.
John Elliot,”1819”1821.
Nicholas Ware,”1821”1823.
T. W. Cobb,”1824”1828.
O. H. Prince,”1828”1829.
John P. King,”1833”1837.
W. Lumpkin,”1837”1841.
J. M. Berrien,”{1825”1829.
1841”1851.
A. Cuthbert,”1837”1843.
W. T. Colquitt,”1843”1849.
H. V. Johnson,”1848”1849.
W. C. Dawson,”1849”1855.
Robert Toombs,”1853”1861.
R. M. Charleton,”1852”1853.
Alfred Iverson,”1855”1861.
Joshua Hill,”1871”1873.
Foster Blodgett,”1871”1871.
Thomas M. Norwood,”1871”1877.
John B. Gordon,”1873”1879.
NORTH CAROLINA.

A Florentine navigator, sent out by Francis I., King of France, first published an account of this region. He visited it in 1524. Ribault, a French protestant, sent out with a colony by Admiral Coligni, in 1564, named the southern coast Carolina, from Charles IX. (in Latin Carolus), King of France. The colony was not permanent. In 1585 Sir Walter Raleigh made an unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony on Roanoke Island. Some fifty years later the colonists of Virginia made a settlement in the limits of this State, called Albemarle. This territory was patented to a company of noblemen. The first colony, founded before this patent was issued, and enjoying entire liberty, became an asylum from the religious intolerance, almost universal at that time. In 1666 they numbered 800.

Many French Huguenots, attracted by this freedom and the mild climate and extreme fertility of the soil, settled here and added greatly to the industrious and virtuous elements of the population. The revolutionary struggle was singularly bitter and bloody in this State and South Carolina, from the number and sanguinary character of the royalists and tories, and from the partisan or guerrilla mode of warfare adopted.

The majority were, however, determined and valiant patriots, and rendered it impossible for the British to establish a firm control over this part of the country.

The eastern surface is low, the western mountainous, and much of the midland is covered with pine forests which produce large quantities of turpentine. The soil is favorable to agriculture. Yams, rice, and cotton, in addition to the cereals, are raised with success. The fisheries in Albemarle Sound are an important source of wealth. A large number of minerals are found in the State. Like most of the Southern States, its resources have been but partially developed.

This is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 50,704 square miles, equal to 32,450,560 acres, with a population of 1,069,614 (one-third colored), and entitled to eight members of Congress. North Carolina, by act of 1866, was located in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina; and is divided into three judicial districts, called the districts of Albemarle, Pamlico, and Cape Fear. The collection districts, and the ports of entry and delivery in this State have been so often modified and discontinued that there is some uncertainty as to the number. There are, as near as we can determine, ten districts, ten ports of entry, and nine ports of delivery.

Raleigh is the capital. There the Legislature meets biennially on the first Monday in November. The State election is held on the first Thursday in August.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of North Carolina, and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Samuel Johnson,from1789to1793.
Benjamin Hawkins,”1789”1795.
Alexander Martin,”1793”1799.
Timothy Bloodworth,”1795”1801.
Jesse Franklin”{1799”1805.
1807”1813.
David Stone,”1801”1813.
James Turner,”1805”1816.
Nathaniel Macon,”1815”1828.
James Iredell,”1828”1831.
Montford Stokes,”1816”1823.
John Branch,”1823”1829.
Bedford Brown,”1829”1840.
Willie P. Mangum,”{1840”1853.
1831”1836.
Robert Strange,”1836”1840.
William A. Graham,”1840”1843.
William H. Haywood,”1843”1846.
George E. Badger,”1846”1855.
Asa Biggs,”1854”1858.
David S. Reed,”1855”1859.
Thomas L. Clingman,”1858”1861.
Thomas Bragg,”1859”1861.
Joseph C. Abbott,”1868”1871.
John Pool,”1868”1873.
Zebulon B. Vance,”1871”1873.
Matthew W. Ransom,”——”1877.
Augustus S. Merriman,”1873”1879.
NEW YORK.

The “Empire State” is very fortunately situated for the promotion of all the interests that form the basis of prosperity of a Nation. It contains the commercial metropolis of the country, which is connected, by its great navigable river, the Hudson, and the Erie canal, with the fertile interior and the commerce of the chain of great lakes in the west; while Lakes Ontario and Champlain furnish the means of profitable trade with Canada on the north. As its natural commercial facilities are unrivaled, so also, every auxiliary that can be furnished by art is employed to develop its resources and to attract trade and manufactures.

Its river was discovered by the celebrated navigator, Captain Henry Hudson, in 1609, and he gave it his name. He was employed, at this time by the Dutch, who claimed and settled the territory in the following year. They established posts on Manhattan Island, where New York now stands, and at Albany—calling the country in general, New Netherlands. They held it until 1644; laying claim, also, to Connecticut and New Jersey. Their rule was despotic, and when the Duke of York, afterward James II., King of England, sent a squadron to enforce English claims to it, the inhabitants declined to resist, and it became an English colony without a struggle. The city and colony received the name of New York and continued henceforth in English hands. Its position favored a steady-growth in population and wealth; and it took an active part in the Revolution. Its central position made it the pivot of the war, the leading struggles taking place in or near it. New York city was held by the British during most of the war, but the skillful strategy and watchfulness of Washington, and the valor of his officers and troops preserved the river in American hands throughout. It ratified the Constitution July 26th, 1788, and soon outstripped every State in all things, except education, no State being able to compare with Massachusetts in that respect.

New York is the largest and richest city in the Union. The State abounds in salt and mineral springs, and its central and western parts are unexcelled for agriculture; while the eastern, more mountainous, but nearer to markets, and more abundant in water power, is equally favorable to grazing and manufactures.

Its area is 47,000 square miles, equal to 30,080,000 acres. The population in 1870 was larger than that of any other State, being officially stated at 4,364,411. It has thirty-three Members of Congress.

It forms part of the second judicial circuit, and has three judicial districts; eleven ports of entry, and fourteen ports of delivery, with the privilege of eight or nine others if the President of the United States deems them necessary.

The Capital is Albany. The State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the first Tuesday in January in each year. The style of the enacting clause is: “Be it enacted by the people of the State of New York represented in Senate and Assembly.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Philip Schuyler,from1789to1791.
Rufus King,”{1789”1796.
1813”1825.
Aaron Burr,”1791”1797.
John Lawrence,”1796”1800.
John S. Hobart,”1798”1798.
William North,”1798”1798.
James Watson,”1798Resigned.
Governeur Morris,”1800”1803.
John Armstrong,”{1800”1802.
1803”1804.
DeWitt Clinton,”1802”1803.
Theodore Bailey,”1803”1804.
Samuel L. Mitchell,”1804”1809.
John Smith,”1804”1813.
Obadiah German,”1809”1815.
Nathan Sanford,”{1815”1821.
1825”1831.
Martin Van Buren,”1821”1829.
Charles Dudley,”1829”1833.
William L. Marcy,”1831”1833.
Nath’l P. Tallmadge,”1833”1844.
Silas Wright,”1833”1844.
Daniel S. Dickinson,”1844”1851.
Henry A. Foster,”1844”1845.
John A. Dix,”1845”1849.
William H. Seward,”1849”1861.
Hamilton Fish,”1851”1857.
Preston King,”1857”1863.
Ira Harris,”1861”1867.
Edwin D. Morgan,”1863”1869.
Roscoe Conkling,”1867”1879.
Reuben E. Fenton,”1869”1875.
Francis Kernan,”1875”1881.

PENNSYLVANIA.

“The Keystone State” has been eminently fortunate in three various ways. Its founder, William Penn, happily united benevolence and high political wisdom, with a thrifty and prudent economy, and possessed sufficient influence and tact to infuse his colony with his own qualities to a large degree, and the advantages acquired in the beginning, have shed their favoring influence on all its future, to the present time.

Penn, as proprietor of his province, had almost kingly power; yet, as a law-giver, he acknowledged the liberties of the people, and accustomed them to many of the forms of self-government afterward incorporated into the Constitution of the United States. His just and conciliatory conduct toward the Indians, and the exemption of Pennsylvania from barbarous Indian wars, in consequence, proves the utility of the practice of unvarying justice and kindness toward them; and stands in strong and significant contrast with the opposite course, so often pursued, and with results so distressing.

A colony was established by Penn in the southeastern part of the State, in the year 1682. The government was conducted by a governor, a council of three, and a House of Delegates, chosen by the people. The largest religious liberty was allowed, and punishment of crime was mitigated from the severity, customary in those times, to something like the mildness now practiced among us.

The colony enjoyed seventy years of enlightened government, and prospered greatly. A large immigration of hardy and thrifty Germans and Swedes spread over the State and supplied, in Revolutionary times, the “fighting material” which the religious principles of the Quakers forbade them to furnish.

The second eminent advantage of the State, was in its central position, the facilities furnished to commerce and trade by the Delaware river on its eastern boundary, and the Ohio, on the west, connecting it with the valley of the Mississippi.

The third superiority, later in development in some of its features, relates to its wealth of resources. Lying midway between north and south, its climate is temperate and mild. Its soil on the eastern border and along the valleys of its numerous rivers is of great fertility; while its inexhaustible coal deposits are far more valuable in promoting the steady growth of her citizens in wealth than mines of gold. Iron, copper, zinc, marble and slate are, apparently, inexhaustible. Her railroads and canals furnish a suitable means for the development of these resources, and the transportation for all her valuable commodities to profitable markets, and prove her later citizens to have inherited the economic wisdom and thrift of the founder of their State.

Pennsylvania valiantly bore the share in the struggles and sacrifices of the Revolution to which her position, her wealth and numbers, called her. Philadelphia—“The City of Brotherly Love” (the name means this,) was the first capital of the Republic. It was there that the Declaration of Independence was originated and signed.

Its area is 46,000 square miles, equal to 29,440,000 acres. The population in 1870 was 3,515,993, entitling her to twenty-seven Representatives in Congress.

It is in the third judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts. There are two ports of entry, and two collection districts. Harrisburg is the capital; the Legislature assembling on the first Tuesday in January, the State elections being held the second Tuesday in October.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in General Assembly met; and it is hereby enacted by the authority of the same.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William Maclay,from1789to1791.
Robert Morris,”1789”1795.
Albert Gallatin,”1793”1794.
James Ross,”1794”1803.
William Bingham,”1795”1801.
Peter Muhlenburgh,”1801”1802.
Samuel Maclay,”1803”1808.
Michael Leib,”1808”1814.
Andrew Gregg,”1807”1813.
Abner Lacock,”1813”1819.
Jonathan Roberts,”1814”1821.
Walter Lawrie,”1819”1825.
William Findlay,”1821”1827.
William Marks,”1825”1831.
Isaac D. Barnard,”1827”1831.
George M. Dallas,”1831”1833.
William Wilkins,”1831”1834.
Samuel McKean,”1833”1839.
James Buchanan,”1834”1845.
Daniel Sturgeon,”{1839”1851.
1845”1849.
Simon Cameron,”{1857”1861.
1867”1873.
James Cooper,”1849”1855.
Charles E. Buckalew,”1863”1869.
Richard Broadhead,”1851”1857.
William Bigler,”1855”1861.
Edgar Cowan,”1861”1867.
David Wilmot,”1861”1863.
John Scott,”1869”1875.
Simon Cameron,”1873”1879.
Wm. A. Wallace,”1875”1881.

VIRGINIA.

“The Old Dominion,” as this State has been called, in familiar style, has certain high claims to such a distinctive appellation. It was the colony in which the first permanent settlement was made, and for fourteen years before the perils of the wilderness were encountered by the Puritan Fathers of New England, it confronted famine and Indian hostility. Its people were quite different in character from those of most of the other colonies. While many were from the lowest classes, a goodly number of the gentry and nobility of England were transplanted to this colony. Some were men of wealth, character and influence; and the hereditary value of that element became conspicuous when revolutionary times came, and the colonial government, which had been from the first, kept closely dependent on the royal will, being set aside, permitted to this class a free field of action. None were more eloquent, more zealous, more valiant or wise, during the “time that tried men’s souls.” The talents, patriotism, and wisdom of Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and many others almost equally useful, attest the quality of the Virginian stock of patriots, and shed honor on their native State.

It was settled in 1607, at Jamestown. The infant colony was long exposed to danger of destruction by Indian hostility; but, favored by circumstances, grew up to strength, and became a protection to others. An almost constant struggle was maintained with the royal governors, who were disposed to encroach on their liberties. Notwithstanding the number of decayed and worthless gentlemen, and the dregs of the English populace, who entered as components into her population, as a whole, they proved worthy of the republic they so largely helped to rear. Their best blood was spilled in its cause, and their material support was never withheld in time of need.

This State is much varied in surface. In the southeast it is low and level; in the west and northwest mountainous, with numerous large streams and fertile vallies, and a charming climate. Its mineral wealth of coal, iron and salt is very great; its water power for manufacturing purposes unsurpassed; and its commercial position everything to be desired. None of these advantages have been more than partially improved; and the future of the State is destined to be exceedingly brilliant. Old and nourishing colleges testify to the interest taken in education; and railroads and other means of internal development have already prepared the way for its greatness. She exports tobacco, flour, oysters, and cotton, and her agricultural wealth is constantly improving.

Virginia is also one of the original thirteen States, and had an area previous to the division in 1862, of 61,352 square miles, equal to 39,265,280 acres; but after West Virginia was set off as a separate State, there were but 38,352 square miles left of this once great State, equal to 24,545,280 acres.

The population in 1860 amounted to 1,596,318, which entitles the State to nine Members of Congress. By the division the number of Representatives was cut down to nine; the new State receiving three out of the twelve. Population in 1870, 1,224,830.

Virginia lies in the fourth judicial circuit, which by the act of 1866, was composed of this State, Maryland, West Virginia, and North Carolina and South Carolina. There were two judicial districts in this State, anterior to the division; the Eastern and the Western. There is now but one.

There were also twelve collection districts in this State, and twelve ports of entry, all of which remain the same as they were before West Virginia was cut off, for they were all located on the Atlantic coast, or on the bays and rivers running into the Atlantic Ocean; there are also ten ports of delivery.

Richmond is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in December.

The enacting clause of the laws of Virginia is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William Grayson,from1789to1790.
Richard H. Lee,”1789”1792.
John Walker,”1790”1790.
James Monroe,”{1790”1794.
1792”1794.
John Taylor,”{1803”1805.
1822”1824.
Stephen T. Mason,”1794”1803.
John Tazewell,”1794”1799.
Wilson C. Nichols,”1799”1804.
Abraham B. Venable,”1803”1804.
William B. Giles,”1804”1815.
Andrew Moore,”1804”1809.
Richard Brent,”1809”1815.
James Barbour,”1815”1825.
Armistead T. Mason,”1816”1817.
John W. Eppes,”1817”1819.
James Pleasant,”1819”1822.
John Randolph,”1825”1827.
Littleton W. Tazewell,”1824”1832.
John Tyler,”1827”1836.
William C. Rives,”{1832”1834.
1836”1845.
Benjamin W. Leigh,”1834”1836.
Richard E. Parker,”1836”1837.
William H. Roane,”1837”1841.
William S. Archer,”1841”1847.
Isaac S. Pennybacker,”1845”1847.
James M. Mason,”1847”1861.
R. M. T. Hunter,”1847”1861.
John W. Johnston,”1870”1877.
John F. Lewis,”1870”1875.
Robert E. Withers,”1875”1881.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

The first permanent settlement in this State was made in 1670, at Port Royal, where the French Huguenots had failed three-quarters of a century before. The noble company who had received a charter for the settlement and government of the Carolinas employed the celebrated philosopher, John Locke, to draw up a philosophical plan of government, which they attempted to carry into effect to the great annoyance of the colonists. It proved impracticable, and was finally abandoned.

The French introduced the culture of the vine with success, and rice was brought at an early day from Madagascar, the cultivation of which became extensive.

Many vexations were endured by the colonists by the injudicious management of the proprietary government, and at length they, by petition, obtained a revocation of the charter, receiving, in 1720, a governor appointed by the crown. They endured for many years all the horrors of warfare with the Tuscarora Indians, whom they finally defeated and expelled. Rutledge, Sumpter, and Marion were distinguished leaders of the patriots during the occupation of the State by the British forces; employing with success a partisan warfare, and defying the efforts of a superior British force to hold the State in subjection.

The climate has been likened to that of Italy, and the products of the north and of the tropics are equally cultivated. The State abounds in agricultural and manufacturing resources, and has a fine commercial position.

South Carolina is one of the original thirteen States, and has an area of 29,385 square miles, making 18,806,400 acres, with a population, in 1870, of 728,000, (over half colored,) which gives her five Members of Congress.

By an act of 1866, South Carolina was located in the fourth judicial circuit; it is divided into two judicial districts, called the Eastern and Western.

There are three collection districts in this State, and four ports of entry, to-wit: Georgetown, Charleston, Beaufort and Port Royal; but no ports of delivery.

The capital is Columbia. The State elections are held on the fourth Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third Wednesday in October.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Honorable the Senate and House of Representatives, now met and sitting in General Assembly, and by authority of the same.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Pierce Butler,from{1790to1796.
1802”1804.
Ralph Izard,”1789”1795.
Jacob Read,”1795”1801.
John Hunter,”1796”1798.
Charles Pinckney,”1798”1801.
Thomas Sumpter,”1801”1810.
John E. Calhoun,”1801”1802.
John Gaillard,”1804”1826.
John Taylor,”1810”1816.
William Smith,”{1816”1823.
1826”1831.
William Harper,”1826”1826.
Robert J. Hane,”1823”1832.
Stephen D. Miller,”1831”1833.
John C. Calhoun,”{1832”1842.
1845”1850.
William C. Preston,”1833”1842.
Daniel E. Huger,”1842”1845.
George McDuffie,”1842”1846.
Andrew P. Butler,”1846”1857.
Franklin H. Elmore,”1850”1850.
Robert W. Barnwell,”1850”1852.
William Desaussure,”1852”1852.
Josiah Evans,”1852”1858.
James H. Hammond,”1857”1860.
James Chestnut,”1858”1861.
Arthur P. Hayne,”1858.
Thomas J. Robertson,”1868”1877.
Frederick A. Sawyer,”1868”1873.
John J. Patterson,”1873”1879.
MARYLAND.

This territory at first was included in the patent to the Virginia colony; but was, in 1632, re-patented to Lord Baltimore, an English nobleman, who had embraced the catholic faith, and sought, in the American wilderness, an asylum where he and his co-religionists might enjoy the freedom from persecution denied them in England. It was called Maryland from the queen of Charles I., King of England. A part of this patent was covered by that subsequently made to William Penn, and produced much trouble between the descendants of these men, and their respective colonies. A settlement was commenced, mainly by catholic gentlemen, in 1634, and called St. Mary’s, on a branch of the Potomac.

The wise liberality that distinguished the settlement of Pennsylvania marked all the earlier history of Maryland. They cultivated friendly relations with the natives and with their neighbors. Lord Baltimore was liberal in his expenditures for the growing colony, and gave them a liberal government. When the civil war commenced in England, resulting in the death of Charles I. and the rise of Cromwell to power, the first troubles of the colonists of Maryland began, and continued until 1716, when the heirs of the original proprietor resumed their rights and maintained them until the Revolution.

This State was one of the original thirteen, and gave a hearty support to the patriot side during the war for freedom.

The surface of the country is, in great part, low and sandy; the climate agreeable and the soil favorable to agricultural pursuits. Her commercial position is excellent, being situated on either side of Chesapeake bay and bounded by the Potomac river on the west. The District of Columbia, containing the National Capital, was located on the last named river within her limits.

Maryland has an area of 11,124 square miles—equal to 7,119,360 acres. The population in 1870 was 780,806, which gives her six Representatives in Congress. By an act of Congress, passed in 1866, this State was put in the fourth judicial circuit, which is composed of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North and South Carolina. Maryland constitutes one judicial district; has ten ports of entry, viz.: Baltimore, Chester, Oxford, Vienna, Snow-Hill, Annapolis, Nottingham, St. Mary’s, Georgetown, and Havre de Grace; and twelve ports of delivery.

Annapolis is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Maryland.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Charles Carroll, (of Carrollton)from1789to1793.
John Henry,”1789”1797.
Richard Potts,”1793”1796.
John E. Howard,”1796”1803.
James Lloyd,”1797”1800.
William Hindman,”1800”1801.
Robert Wright,”1801”1806.
Samuel Smith,”{1803”1815.
1822”1833.
Philip Reed,”1806”1813.
R. H. Goldsborough,”{1813”1819.
1835”1836.
Robert G. Harper,”1816”1816.
Alexander C. Hanson,”1816”1819.
William Pinckney,”1819”1822.
Edward Lloyd,”1819”1826.
Ezekiel F. Chambers,”1826”1835.
Joseph Kent,”1833”1838.
John S. Spence,”1836”1841.
William D. Merrick,”1838”1845.
John Leidsker,”1841”1843.
James A. Pearce,”1843”1862.
Reverdy Johnson,”{1845”1851.
1863”1868.
David Stuart,”1849”1850.
Thomas G. Pratt,”1850”1857.
Anthony Kennedy,”1857”1863.
Thomas H. Hicks,”1862”1864.
John A. J. Cresswell,”1865”1867.
Philip F. Thomas,”——”1867.
George Vickers,”1868”1873.
William T. Hamilton,”1869”1875.
George R. Dennis,”1873”1879.
Wm. Pinckney Wythe,”1875”1881.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

This State is often called “The Old Granite State,” as well from its mountainous character as the resolute spirit of its inhabitants. It is small, having an area of only 9,280 square miles, which make 5,939,200 acres. Its population in 1870 was 318,300, entitling it to three Representatives in Congress.

The first settlement was founded at Dover, in 1624, by the English. It suffered much from Indian wars, and its growth was slow. It was made a separate province in 1680, having previously been under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts. It was one of the original thirteen States, and took an active and vigorous part in the Revolutionary War.

Its soil is light and unfavorable to agriculture, but furnishes good pasturage and produces fine cattle. It contains the White Mountains, the highest in New England. Its streams are utilized for manufacturing purposes. Quarries of marble and granite abound. Minerals, and precious stones of several varieties are found in various parts of the State. The hardy and enterprising sons to whom it has given birth are to be found in every State in the Union.

It lies in the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial district; and is embraced in one collection district, and therefore has but one port of entry. There are three ports of delivery.

The capital is Concord. The Legislature assembles on the first Monday in June, the State election being held the second Tuesday in March.

The enacting clause of the laws runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Paine Wingate,from1789to1793.
John Langdon,”1789”1801.
Samuel Livermore,”1793”1801.
Simeon Olcott,”1801”1805.
James Sheafe,”1801”1802.
William Plummer,”1802”1807.
Nicholas Gilman,”1805”1814.
Nahum Parker,”1807”1810.
Charles Cutts,”1810”1813.
Jeremiah Mason,”1813”1817.
Thomas W. Thompson,”1814”1817.
David L. Morrill,”1817”1823.
Clement Storer,”1817”1819.
John F. Parrott,”1819”1825.
Samuel Bell,”1823”1835.
Levi Woodbury,”{1825”1831.
1841”1845.
Isaac Hill,”1831”1835.
Henry Hubbard,”1835”1841.
John Page,”1836”1837.
Franklin Pierce,”1837”1842.
Leonard Wilcox,”1842”1842.
Charles G. Atherson,”{1843”1849.
1852”1853.
Benning W. Jenness,”1845”1846.
Joseph Cilley,”1846”1847.
John P. Hale,”{1847”1853.
1855”1865.
Moses Norris,”1849”1855.
Jared W. Williams,”1853”1854.
John S. Wells,”1855”1855.
James Bell,”1855”1857.
Daniel Clark,”1857”1866.
George C. Fogg,”1866”1867.
James W. Paterson,”1867”1873.
Aaron H. Cragin,”1867”1877.
Bainbridge Wadleigh,”1873”1879.

NEW JERSEY.

This State was first settled at Bergen by the Swedes sent over by the Christian hero-king, Gustavus Adolphus, in the year 1638. They, however, soon fell under the control of the Dutch, who claimed the territory. The next settlement was made at Elizabethtown, from Long Island, in 1664. New Jersey came into the hands of the English along with New Netherlands, but soon became an independent province; Philip Carteret becoming its first governor, in 1665. It was for some time under the control of the celebrated Quaker, William Penn, received a liberal form of government, and, not suffering from the Indians enjoyed prosperity for many years. Afterwards it passed through various vicissitudes in its government, was for a time joined to New York, but recovered its independent existence in 1738; and was one of the original thirteen States, taking a very prominent part in the Revolution. Its territory, lying between New York and Philadelphia, was the field on which the hostile armies fought and manouvered, for some years. It ratified the Constitution unanimously, December 18th, 1787. It has been rewarded for its patriotism and devotion to liberty by unbroken prosperity. Its manufactures are in a flourishing state. Its vicinity to the great commercial centres of the Atlantic coast; the mildness of its climate, and the adaptation of its soil to the growth of fruit and vegetables have made it the Garden State of the Union. Its agricultural wealth is much increased by its abundant beds of marl and peat. The extreme north is hilly and the extreme south low and sandy. Education receives much attention.

It has an area of 8,320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. The population, by the census of 1870, was 905,794, which gives her seven Representatives in Congress.

This State lies in the third judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are six ports of entry, and as many collection districts; and also eight ports of delivery.

Its capital is Trenton. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature assembles the second Tuesday in January.

The form of the enacting clause is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and General Assembly of the State of New Jersey.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Jonathan Elmer,from1789to1791.
William Patterson,”1789”1790.
Philemon Dickerson,”1790”1793.
John Rutherford,”1791”1798.
Fred’k Frelinghuysen,”1793”1796.
Richard Stockton,”1796”1799.
Franklin Davenport,”1798”1799.
James Schureman,”1799”1801.
Jonathan Dayton,”1799”1805.
Aaron Ogden,”1801”1803.
John Condit,”1803”1811.
Aaron Kitchell,”1805”1809.
John Lambert,”1809”1815.
Mahlon Dickerson,”1817”1833.
James J. Wilson,”1815”1821.
Samuel L. Southard,”{1821”1823.
1833”1841.
Joseph McIlvaine,”1823”1826.
Thos. Frelinghuysen,”1829”1835.
Ephraim Bateman,”1826”1829.
Garret D. Wall,”1835”1841.
Jacob Miller,”1841”1853.
William L. Dayton,”1842”1851.
John B. Thompson,”1853”1863.
William Pennington,”1858”1858.
William Wright,”{1853”1859.
1863”1866.
Robert F. Stockton,”1851”1853.
John C. Ten Eyck,”1859”1865.
Richard S. Field,”1862”1863.
James W. Wall,”1863”1863.
John P. Stockton,”1865”1866.
F. T. Frelinghuysen,”1867”1869.
Alexander G. Cattell,”1866”1871.
John P. Stockton,”1869”1875.
F. T. Frelinghuysen,”1871”1877.
Thos. F. Randolph,”1875”1881.
MASSACHUSETTS.

The “Bay State,” so named from the deep encroachments of the sea on her eastern border, was settled in 1620, at Plymouth, by English Puritans; a class of sternly pious men, who abandoned England to find freedom of worship in the savage wilds of America. They were men of great resolution and intelligence, and succeeded in imbuing the new colony with a fair degree of their own virtue. They suffered much, at first, from deprivation of the comforts they had left in England, and from the hostility of the Indians. They were too much in earnest to be tolerant, and persecutions of pretended witches, of Quakers and Baptists, have given them an unenviable notoriety.

This State was a leading one among the original thirteen, and the first to take up arms and to be invaded by the British forces at the commencement of the War of the Revolution. Her influence on the national character has been great.

This State is the first in the Union for cotton and woolen manufactures, its cotton mills alone employing about twenty-five thousand hands. In extent of all its manufactures it is third in the Union. The soil is sterile in great part, but the energy of the people finds abundant other sources of wealth. Commerce and fisheries receive much attention, and produce much wealth.

Education is carefully attended to, and its public school system a model for other States. She has an area of 7,800 square miles. Her population in 1870 was 1,457,351, and entitles her to eleven Members of Congress. It is in the first judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There are fourteen ports of entry, and twenty-five ports of delivery in this State.

Boston is the Capital, the metropolis of New England, and an important center of intellectual and business energy. The Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in January, and the State elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in General Court assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Tristram Dalton,from1789to1791.
Caleb Strong,”1789”1796.
George Cabot,”1791”1796.
Theo. Sedgewick,”1796”1799.
Benj. Goodhue,”1796”1800.
Samuel Dexter,”1799”1800.
Dwight Foster,”1800”1803.
Jonathan Mason,”1800”1803.
John Q. Adams,”1803”1808.
Timothy Pickering,”1803”1811.
James Lloyd,”{1808”1813.
1822”1826.
Joseph B. Varnum,”1811”1817.
Christopher Gore,”1813”1816.
Eli P. Ashmun,”1816”1818.
Harrison Gray Otis,”1817”1822.
Prentiss Mellen,”1818”1820.
Elijah H. Mills,”1820”1827.
Nathaniel Silsbee,”1826”1835.
Daniel Webster,”{1827”1841.
1845”1850.
Rufus Choate,”1841”1845.
John Davis,”{1835”1841.
1845”1853.
Isaac C. Bates,”1841”1845.
Robert C. Winthrop,”1850”1851.
Robert Rantoul,”1851”1851.
Edward Everett,”1853”1854.
Julius Rockwell,”1854”1855.
[2]Henry Wilson,”1855”1873.
Charles Sumner,”1851”1874.
George S. Boutwell,”1873”1877.
William Washburn,”1874”1875.
Henry L. Dawes,”1875”1881.

[2] Elected Vice President, and when inaugurated Mr. Boutwell was elected to fill out the unexpired term.

CONNECTICUT.

This State takes its name from its principal river, which, entering from the north, runs through the State nearly in the center. It was settled in 1633 from Massachusetts, the fertility of the valley of the Connecticut attracting them to brave the perils of conflict with the Indians, and with the Dutch, settled where New York now stands, who laid claim to it. The Dutch withdrew, the Indians were subdued in many bloody battles, and a Puritan State—exceeding, if possible, the religious strictness of the Massachusetts colony, and not behind her in energy, in virtue, in attention to education, and love of liberty—soon grew up to wealth and prosperity.

A decisive battle in 1636, on the Mystic river, annihilated the Pequod Indians.

Connecticut, in 1700, followed the example set by Massachusetts in 1638, by founding Yale college, which, to this day, very fairly rivals Harvard in the former State. Both have contributed largely to the intelligence and culture of the American people. It took a leading part in the Revolution; ratified the constitution June 9th, 1788; and has displayed the zeal in promoting the public good that has been so prominent in the cultivation of her educational and material interests.

The surface of the State is uneven and rocky. Manufactures and commerce are the leading interests, although agriculture is not neglected. It is rich in minerals. Gold, silver, lead, iron, copper and bismuth are found, while marble, of fine quality, and granite abound.

Its area is small, embracing only 4,674 square miles, or 2,991,360 acres. It has four representatives in Congress. The population in 1870 was 537,418. It is part of the second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. She has five ports of entry, and five collection districts, with twenty-two ports of delivery.

It has had two capitals ever since the first two colonies, established at Hartford and New Haven, were united; and holds her State election on the first Monday in April. The Legislature meets the first Wednesday in May.

The enacting clause runs thus: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Oliver Ellsworth,from1789to1796.
William S. Johnson,”1789”1791.
Roger Sherman,”1791”1793.
S. M. Mitchell,”1793”1795.
Jonathan Trumbull,”1795”1796.
Uriah Tracey,”1796”1807.
J. Hillhouse,”1796”1810.
C. Goodrich,”1807”1813.
S. W. Dana,”1810”1821.
David Doggett,”1813”1819.
James Lanman,”1819”1825.
E. Boardman,”1821”1823.
H. W. Edwards,”1823”1827.
Calvin Willey,”1825”1831.
Samuel A. Foot,”1827”1833.
G. Tomlinson,”1831”1837.
Nathan Smith,”1833”1835.
John M. Niles,”{1835”1839.
1843”1849.
Perry Smith,”1837”1843.
Thaddeus Betts,”1839”1840.
J. W. Huntington,”1840”1847.
R. S. Baldwin,”1847”1851.
Truman Smith,”1849”1855.
Isaac Toucey,”1852”1857.
Francis Gillette,”1854”1856.
L. S. Foster,”1855”1867.
James Dixon,”1857”1869.
Orris S. Ferry,”1867”1879.
W. A. Buckingham,”1869”1875.
Wm. W. Eaton,”1875”1881.
DELAWARE.

The first settlement of Delaware was made by the Swedes, in pursuance of the policy of the valiant Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. European wars, in which he was engaged, and in which he lost his life in 1633, deferred the project, but it was carried into effect in 1638, near the present city of Wilmington. They extended their settlements from the entrance of Delaware bay far up the river, until the Dutch, from New Netherlands, who claimed the country, attacked and reduced them to submission, uniting New Sweden, as it had been called, to their own colony, in the year 1655. It fell, with that colony, into the hands of the English in 1664. It was included in the grant made to William Penn, in 1692. It was long attached to Pennsylvania, but in 1703 received permission to form a separate government, on the wise and liberal plan pursued by Penn. This form of government continued through the Revolutionary war.

The surface of the State is level, or gently undulating, the climate is agreeable, except that, in winter, the sea breeze is somewhat harsh; the soil is sandy but fertile. Grain and fruit are raised, peaches being produced in great profusion. Her commercial and manufacturing business is limited, and she is destitute of mineral wealth.

It is next to Rhode Island in size, containing the small area of 2,120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres. Population 125,015.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
George Read,from1789to1793.
R. Bassett,”1789”1793.
John Vining,”1793”1798.
Kensey Johns,”1794”1795.
Henry Latimer,”1795”1801.
Joshua Clayton,”1798”1799.
W. H. Wells,”{1799”1804.
1813”1817.
Samuel White,”1801”1810.
J. A. Bayard,”1804”1813.
O. Horsey,”1810”1821.
N. Van Dyke,”1817”1826.
C. A. Rodney,”1822”1823.
T. Clayton,”{1824”1827.
1837”1847.
D. Rodney,”1826”1827.
H. Ridgely,”1827”1829.
L. McLane,”1827”1829.
J. M. Clayton,”{1829”1837.
1845”1849.
A. Naudain,”1830”1836.
R. H. Bayard,”1836”1845.
P. Spruance,”1847”1853.
John Wales,”1849”1851.
J. A. Bayard,”1851”1864.
M. W. Bates,”1857”1859.
J. P. Comeygs,”1856”1857.
W. Saulsbury,”1859”1871.
G. R. Riddle,”1864”1867.
J. A. Bayard,”1867”1869.
Thomas F. Bayard,”1869”1881.
Eli Saulsbury,”1871”1877.
RHODE ISLAND.

This is the smallest of the States, having an area of but 1,306 square miles, or 835,840 acres.

It was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams, and became an avowed place of refuge for persecuted christians of all names, but especially for Baptists, among whom Mr. Williams was a leader. It was chartered as a separate colony in 1644, and the excellent constitution framed under it lasted until 1818. It was one of the original thirteen States and took an earnest share in the struggles of the revolution, though it was not represented in the convention that framed the Constitution, and did not ratify it until 1790.

Its citizens are mainly engaged in the manufacturing and commercial pursuits for which their excellent harbors and streams furnish eminent facilities. It has always been prosperous, its people being distinguished for industry and activity. Its population was, in 1870, 217,356.

Rhode Island forms part of the first judicial circuit; constitutes one judicial district; and has three ports of entry, and seven of delivery. It has two capitals, having been originally formed of two separate colonies. These are Providence and Newport. The election for State officers is held on the first Wednesday in April. The Legislature is held twice in the year, in May and January. The style of her enacting clause is: “It is enacted by the General Assembly, as follows.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Theodore Foster,from1790to1803.
Joseph Stanton,”1790”1793.
William Bradford,”1793”1797.
Ray Green,”1797”1801.
Charles Ellery,”1801”1805.
Samuel L. Potter,”1803”1804.
Benjamin Howland,”1804”1809.
James Fenner,”1805”1807.
Elisha Matthewson,”1807”1811.
Francis Malbone,”1809”1809.
C. G. Champlin,”1809”1811.
Jeremiah B. Howell,”1811”1817.
William Hunter,”1811”1831.
James Burrill,”1817”1821.
James D’Wolf,”1821”1825.
Nehemiah R. Knight,”1821”1841.
Asher Robbins,”1825”1839.
Nathan F. Dixon,”1839”1842.
James F. Simmons,”{1841”1847.
1857”1862.
William Sprague,”1842”1844.
John B. Francis,”1844”1845.
Albert C. Green,”1845”1851.
John H. Clarke,”1847”1853.
Charles T. James,”1851”1857.
Philip Allen,”1853”1859.
Samuel G. Arnold,”1862”1863.
Henry B. Anthony,”{1859”1865.
1865”1877.
William Sprague,”1862”1875.
Ambrose E. Burnside,”1875”1881.
VERMONT.

This State received its name from the French name of its range of mountains, (“verd mont” meaning “Green Mountain.”) It was settled in 1731, and was at first considered part of New Hampshire, and afterwards claimed by New York. These claims were vigorously resisted, but it had no organized government until 1777. It did good service in the Revolution; but was not admitted into the Union until 1791, making the fourteenth State. Col. Ethan Allen at the head of 270 “Green Mountain Boys” took possession of Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point in the name of the Continental Congress, in 1775, and thus assured the northern water communication with Canada to the Americans.

The climate of Vermont though cold, is pleasant and even, the soil fertile in the valleys, and the streams supply excellent water power, which, however, is little used. Maple sugar is produced in abundance, while its facilities for raising stock are equal to those of New Hampshire. Granite, marble of fine quality, and slate quarries abound. Its provision for education is very liberal.

It has three representatives in Congress; forms part of the second judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. One port of entry and two of delivery are authorized to be named by the President of the United States.

Montpelier is the capital. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in September, and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday in October.

The enacting clause begins: “It is hereby enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Vermont.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Moses Robinson,from1791to1796.
Stephen R. Bradley,”{1791”1795.
1801”1813.
Elijah Paine,”1795”1801.
Isaac Tichenor,”{1796”1797.
1815”1821.
Nathaniel Chipman,”1797”1803.
Israel Smith,”1803”1807.
Jonathan Robinson,”1807”1815.
Dudley Chase,”{1813”1817.
1825”1831.
James Fisk,”1817”1818.
William A. Palmer,”1818”1825.
Horatio Seymour,”1821”1833.
Samuel Prentiss,”1831”1842.
Benjamin Swift,”1833”1839.
Samuel S. Phelps,”1839”1851.
Samuel C. Crafts,”1842”1843.
William Upham,”1843”1855.
Solomon Foote,”1851”1866.
Samuel S. Phelps,”1853”1854.
Lawrence Brainard,”1854”1855.
Jacob Collamer,”1855”1865.
Luke P. Poland,”1865”1867.
George F. Edmunds,”1866”1881.
Justin S. Morrill,”1867”1879.

VIEW IN THE BLUE GRASS REGION, KENTUCKY.

KENTUCKY.

Kentucky was formed from the territory of Virginia, and in point of seniority is the fifteenth State of the American Union, having been admitted on the first of June, 1792.

The sobriquet of “dark and bloody ground” applied to Kentucky is very suggestive of the sanguinary conflicts of her pioneer population with the aboriginal lords of the soil. The celebrated Daniel Boone was among the first white men to explore the wilderness of Kentucky. The first white settlement was commenced at Boonesborough, about the year 1769. The area of the State is 37,680 square miles, equal to 24,115,200 acres.

The climate is mild, and adapted to the production of cereals, grapes, and fruits. The soil is very fertile. The surface presents a varied aspect in its several portions. The southeastern part of the State is mountainous, the central and northern portions are undulating, sometimes hilly. The river bottoms are very productive. The State is well timbered. Apple, pear, peach, plum and various other fruit trees are cultivated with great success. The staple products are corn, tobacco and hemp. Horses, mules and cattle are raised. Kentucky abounds in bituminous coal, lead, iron pyrites, marble, freestone, gypsum, and cliff limestone.

The population in 1870 was 1,321,000. She is entitled to ten representatives in Congress, is in the sixth judicial circuit and forms one judicial district, has one port of entry, Louisville, and two ports of delivery, viz.: Paducah and Columbus. Frankfort is the capital.

The State elections are held on the first Monday in August. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, and is composed of two houses—the Senate consisting of 38 members elected for four years; and a House of Representatives elected for two years. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
John Brown,from1792to1805.
John Edwards,”1792”1795.
Humphrey Marshall,”1795”1801.
John Breckenridge,”1801”1805.
Buckner Thurston,”1805”1810.
John Adair,”{1805”1806.
1806”1807.
1810”1811.
Henry Clay,”{1831”1842.
1849”1855.
John Pope,”1807”1813.
George M. Bibb,”{1811”1814.
1829”1835.
Jessie Bledsoe,”1813”1815.
George Walker,”1814”1814.
William T. Barry,”1814”1816.
Isham Talbot,”{1815”1819.
1820”1825.
Martin D. Hardin,”{1816”1817.
1817”1819.
1835”1841.
John J. Crittenden,”{1842”1849.
1855”1861.
Richard M. Johnson,”{1819”1823.
1823”1829.
William Logan,”1819”1820.
John Rowan,”1826”1831.
James T. Moorehead,”1841”1847.
Jos’h R. Underwood,”1847”1853.
Thomas Metcalf,”1848”1849.
Archibald Dixon,”1852”1855.
David Meriwether,”1852”1852.
J. B. Thompson,”1853”1859.
Lazarus W. Powell,”1859”1865.
J. C. Breckenridge,”1861”1861.
Garrett Davis,”1861”1873.
James Guthrie,”1865”1868.
Thomas C. McCreery,”1868”1879.
John W. Stevenson,”1871”1877.
TENNESSEE.

Tennessee belonged to the territory of North Carolina while a colony, and was settled by emigrants from it in 1757. They built Fort Loudon in East Tennessee, but were destroyed, or driven away, by the Indians, in 1760. Settlement was soon resumed, but continually harrassed by Indian attacks. In 1774 Col. Lewis and Capt. Shelby attacked and defeated them. They remained quiet until after the Declaration of Independence, when the Cherokees were stirred up by British emissaries. From 1776 to 1779 three several expeditions were made against them, the Indians being decisively defeated each time. The Cherokees and Shawnees were warlike tribes, and continued, for some years, to make occasional attacks on the settlements, which did not, however, prevent their steady growth.

In 1789 North Carolina renounced her claim to the territory, and in 1790 it became a separate province, being admitted into the Union as a Sovereign State in 1796, making the sixteenth, or the third admitted after the Revolutionary war—Vermont, in 1791, being the first; and Kentucky, in 1792, the second.

This State has an area of 45,600 square miles, or 29,184,000 acres. It had a population in 1870 of 1,257,983.

Tennessee is very agreeably diversified with mountain, hill and dale, containing within its limits fertility of soil, beauty of scenery, and a delightfully temperate climate. The State is generally healthy. The soil in the main is good, and while among the mountains it is not arable, it is favorable for grazing, and stock is largely exported.

Indian corn, tobacco, and cotton are the great staples.

Gold has been found in the south-east portion of the State. Among the other minerals found here are iron in abundance, some lead, silver, zinc, marble of very fine quality, and various others. The State is entitled to ten Representatives in Congress; is in the sixth judicial circuit; has three judicial districts; and has two ports of delivery—Memphis and Knoxville.

Nashville is the capital. The State election is held on the first Monday in August, and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in October, once in two years. The Legislature consists of a Senate of twenty-five members, and a House of Representatives of seventy-five members.

The enacting clause of the laws of this State is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William Blount,from1796to1797.
William Cocke,”{1796”1797.
1799”1805.
Andrew Jackson,”{1797”1798.
1823”1825.
Joseph Anderson,”1797”1815.
Daniel Smith,”1797”1809.
Jenkin Whiteside,”1809”1811.
George W. Campbell,”1811”1818.
Jesse Wharton,”1814”1815.
John Williams,”1815”1823.
John H. Eaton,”1818”1829.
Hugh L. White,”1825”1840.
Felix Grundy,”1829”1840.
Ephraim H. Foster,”{1838”1839.
1843”1845.
A. O. P. Nicholson,”1840”1843.
Alexander Anderson,”1840”1841.
Spencer Jarnagin,”1841”1847.
Hopkins L. Turney,”1845”1851.
John Bell,”1847”1853.
James C. Jones,”1851”1857.
Andrew Johnson,”1857”1863.
David T. Patterson,”1865”1869.
J. S. Fowler,”1865”1871.
William G. Brownlow,”1869”1875.
Henry Cooper,”1871”1877.
Andrew Johnson,”1875”1881.
OHIO.

The first permanent settlement in this important State was made on the 7th day of April, 1788. Though this fine territory lay nearest to the most populous and enterprising of the original States, the intrigues of the French before the Revolution, the hostility to which they excited the Indians, and the difficulties arising from the various claims of different States to the lands, which rendered titles insecure, prevented any permanent settlement until about the time when the present Constitution of the United States was originated. All these difficulties were now removed, and emigration, long restrained, rushed like a flood down the Ohio. 20,000 persons, during this year (1788), passed down the river in pursuit of new homes. Cincinnati and many other places were settled about this time. From 1790 to 1795 there was much suffering from the hostility of the Indians; but this period having passed, the settlements multiplied and grew apace.

The settlers were, in large part, from New England; accustomed to wring a thrifty living from a rocky soil; and their industry soon brought great results from this more generous field. The population increased rapidly. In 14 years it amounted to 72,000; and was admitted into the Union with that number Nov. 29th, 1802.

The climate is healthy and mild, the soil generally very fertile, and her inhabitants have made the most of it. Coal, iron, and marble are very abundant. Manufactures have not been much developed in this State, but they are steadily growing. The lake on the north, and the river on the south, with more than 5,000 miles of railway and canals, furnish all the elements of a great and steady growth.

It was, on its admission, the seventeenth State in the Union.

It has an area of 39,964 square miles, equal to 25,576,960 acres. The population in 1870 was 2,622,214, entitling her to twenty Members of Congress.

It is in the sixth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts, the Northern and Southern.

This State has three ports of entry—Cleveland, Toledo, and Portland; and four ports of delivery, to be located where the President directs.

The capital of this State is Columbus. The State election is now held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets on the first Monday of January, biennially.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Ohio.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
John Smith,from1803to1808.
Thos. Worthington,”{1803”1807.
1810”1814.
Edward Tiffin,”1807”1809.
Return J. Meigs,”1808”1810.
Stanley Griswold,”1809”1809.
Alexander Campbell,”1809”1813.
Jeremiah Morrow,”1813”1819.
Joseph Kerr,”1814”1815.
Benjamin Ruggles,”1815”1833.
William A. Trimble,”1819”1821.
Ethan A. Brown,”1822”1825.
Wm. Henry Harrison,”1825”1828.
Jacob Burnett,”1828”1831.
Thomas Ewing,”{1831”1837.
1850”1851.
Thomas Morris,”1833”1839.
William Allen,”1837”1849.
Benjamin Tappan,”1839”1845.
Thomas Corwin,”1845”1851.
Salmon P. Chase,”1849”1855.
Benjamin F. Wade,”1851”1869.
George Ellis Pugh,”1851”1861.
John Sherman,”1861”1879.
Allen G. Thurman,”1869”1881.
LOUISIANA.

The Spaniards, who found so much gold in other parts of the American continent, made repeated explorations of the region lying near the mouths of the Mississippi in the hope of discovering it there. Failing in this, they made no settlements. The French planned the establishment of a vast empire covering the best territory now in the bounds of the United States, and explored the Mississippi and its tributaries with untiring courage and zeal, both from the Great Lakes and from the mouth of the river. A few years after La Salle had perished in his bold wandering, a French naval officer, Lemoine D’Iberville, formed the first settlement in Louisiana (so named after the French King, Louis XIV., by La Salle.) This was in 1699; but no great progress was made until the Mississippi Company was formed in France, under the idea that Louisiana was rich in gold and diamonds; when, in 1718, eight hundred persons emigrated from France and settled at New Orleans. In 1732 the colony contained, in all, seven thousand five hundred persons, and continued to prosper until 1763, when, by the peace of Paris, all the French possessions in America except the territory west of the Great River, were given up to England. This remnant soon passed to the Spaniards, and again to the French, from whom it was bought by President Jefferson for $15,000,000, in 1803.

This purchase was regarded, even by Jefferson, as probably exceeding the powers of the government, under the Constitution; but it was essential to the development, unity, and greatness of the country. The Mississippi Valley is the heart of North America, and the use of the river as necessary to the value of the prairie States lying east of it, as to the defense and strength of the country. The possession of it could, alone, make the United States a great power among nations. Napoleon Bonaparte, then First Consul of the French Republic, designed, in ceding it to the United States, to give England, his relentless enemy, a powerful rival; but even his keen foresight could not have anticipated the wonderful growth in which the Louisiana Purchase was so necessary an element.

The surface of Louisiana is low, and the southern part often overflowed by the high water of the rivers. Many islands of great fertility and beauty lie along the coast; one of them consisting of an immense bed or mine of rock salt. Fruits grow to great perfection and orange trees are specially fruitful, a single tree often bearing 5,000 oranges. Cotton and cane sugar are the principal staples. New Orleans has an extensive commerce, and manufactures will sometime find in it a profitable field. The palmy days of this, as of all the other Southern States, is in the future; her most valuable resources having been scarcely touched. New Orleans will naturally become the third great commercial city of the Union, New York and San Francisco, only, being likely to take precedence of her.

Louisiana was admitted into the Union April 8th, 1812, making the eighteenth State.

She has an area of 46,431 square miles, equal to 29,715,840 acres. The population in 1870 numbered 732,731; she has six Representatives in Congress.

Louisiana forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and constitutes two judicial districts, viz.: the eastern and western districts of Louisiana. This State has one collection district, denominated the district of New Orleans; which city is the only port of entry. The shores of the river Ohio, and all the rivers emptying into the Mississippi, are attached to the district of New Orleans, though most of them do not lie in the State. Several of the cities and towns on these rivers are made ports of delivery. Collection districts are not always confined to one State.

New Orleans is the capital. The Legislature meets on the first Monday in January, once in two years. The State election is held on the first Monday in November.

The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana, in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Thomas Posey,October to December, 1812.
James Brown,from{1812to1817.
1819”1824.
Allan B. Macgruder,”1812”1813.
Eligius Fromentin,”1813”1819.
W. C. C. Claiborne,”1817”1818.
Henry Johnson,”{1818”1824.
1843”1849.
William Kelly,”1822”1825.
Dominique Bouligny,”1824”1829.
Josiah S. Johnston,”1824”1833.
Edward Livingston,”1829”1831.
Geo. A. Waggaman,”1831”1835.
Alexander Porter,”1833”1837.
Robert C. Nichols,”1833”1841.
Alexander Morton,”1838”1842.
Alexander Barrow,”1841”1847.
Charles M. Conrad,”1842”1843.
Pierre Soulé,”{1847”1847.
1849”1855.
Solomon W. Downs,”1847”1853.
John Slidell,”1853”1861.
Judah P. Benjamin,”1853”1861.
John S. Harris,”1868”1871.
Wm. Pitt Kellogg,”1868”1873.
J. R. West,”1871”1877.
INDIANA.

1. Indiana was first explored by the enterprising French Jesuits, who highly appreciated the beauty, resources, and grand future of the vast Mississippi valley. Wiser than their sovereign, Louis XIV., they would have taken firm and effectual possession of all this region, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, but Louis was too much occupied with his palaces, the splendor of his court, the banishment of Protestants, and war with his neighbors to lend a due support to their plans. They explored the region in 1682, formed a settlement at Vincennes in 1730, and made friends of the Indians. The career of the French, in Europe and America, was checked by the extravagance of the Court, and disastrous wars; and this little colony remained for nearly three generations solitary and stationary in the wilderness; fraternizing with the Indians and enjoying life as only the French can under such dreary circumstances.

2. After the Revolution all this region was included in the Northwest Territory. The grim earnestness of the Americans in pushing their fortunes alarmed, without conciliating, the Indians, and for a long time a deadly struggle alone could preserve the growing settlements from total extinction. The brave and talented Tecumseh and his twin brother, the Prophet, made a desperate effort to drive back or exterminate the settlers; but they were conquered, and the Indians retreated, step by step, before the advancing flood of emigration. In 1809 Indiana was erected in to a separate Territory, and admitted into the Union as a separate State on the 11th of Dec., 1816. It is 275 miles long by 135 in width. The surface is mainly level or gently undulating; the irregularities in the southern part, seldom rising more than two hundred feet, but with a rocky foundation to the soil, presenting many advantages to manufactures along the streams; these facilities are increased by the extent and value of bituminous coal deposits which underlie nearly one-fourth of the area of the State.

3. Indiana has a happier mixture of prairie and woodland than any other western State. Its commercial facilities are great. Reaching Lake Michigan on the northwest, Chicago forms a fine metropolis for the northern parts; while the Ohio on the south furnishes cheap transportation to Cincinnati and Pittsburg toward the east, or New Orleans to the southwest. Lying between the fertile and busy regions west and the great eastern markets, it is crossed in all directions by railroads. It is in the centre of the most highly favored part of the Union, and its advantages and resources seem boundless. Its staple in agriculture is corn, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the temperate zone are raised with success. The climate is mild, but it lies in the region of variableness in weather characterizing all the western States in its latitude.

The resources of the State have been in a course of rapid and uninterrupted development for 60 years, but they are so great, and there are so many other inviting fields luring emigrants further west, that a comparatively small part of its wealth has yet been reached. There is a magnificent provision for education, and its intelligent and enterprising citizens are worthy of the Great Republic.

4. Indiana was the nineteenth State in the Union. She has an area of 33,809 square miles, equal to 21,637,760 acres. Her population in 1870 was 1,673,046, which entitles her to thirteen Representatives in Congress. Indiana is the seventh judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. There is no port of entry in this State; but there are three ports of delivery, to-wit: Evansville, New Albany, and Madison which are attached to the New Orleans collection district.

The capital is Indianapolis. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets only once in two years, on the first Wednesday of January.

The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Indiana.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
James Noble,from1816to1831.
W. Taylor,”1816”1825.
W. Hendricks,”1825”1837.
N. Hanna,”1831”1833.
John Tipton,”1833”1839.
O. H. Smith,”1837”1843.
A. S. White,”1839”1845.
E. A. Hannegan,”1843”1849.
J. D. Bright,”1845”1852.
J. Whitcomb,”1849”1855.
C. W. Cathcart,”1852”1853.
John Pettit,”1853”1855.
G. N. Fitch,”1857”1861.
H. A. Lane,”1861”1867.
D. Turpee,”1863”1863.
J. A. Wright,”1862”1863.
T. A. Hendricks,”——”1869.
O. P. Morton,”1867”1879.
Daniel D. Pratt,”1869”1875.
Joseph E. McDonald,”1875”1881.
MISSISSIPPI.

This State was explored by De Soto, a companion of Pizarro, in his cruel conquest of Peru, in 1541, and later by the enterprising French governor of Canada, La Salle, in 1684. The first settlement was made by the French, at Natchez, in 1716. It was one of a chain of settlements by which they proposed to connect the basins of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes with the Mississippi valley and the Gulf of Mexico.

The Natchez Indians gave the early colonists great trouble, but were finally so completely conquered that the national name became extinct, the few remnants surviving, becoming incorporated with other tribes. They were supposed to have anciently emigrated from Mexico or South America, some of their customs being similar to those of the Peruvians.

In 1763 the French ceded all this territory to England, except that of Louisiana, which became the possession of Spain.

The Choctaw Indians held possession of the northern part of the State for a long time, and became considerably civilized.

The northern part of the State is prairie, the soil being extremely rich, while the south is sandy. The surface is generally level or undulating. Commerce and agriculture form its principal resources; though neither have been highly developed. Cotton is the principal staple. It is remarkably well adapted to the growth of fruit, though it has been very little cultivated. The State is well supplied with railroads, which, with the Mississippi flowing the whole length of her western boundary, furnish ample transportation for all the produce of her fertile soil.

The Territory of Mississippi became a State in 1817; making the twentieth State. The area is 47,156 square miles, equal to 30,179,840 acres. The population in 1870 numbered 834,170; which entitles her to six Representatives in Congress. The State lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into two judicial districts, viz.: the Northern and Southern districts of Mississippi. She has three ports of entry, viz.: Natchez, Vicksburg, and one near the mouth of Pearl river, to be established whenever the President may direct; also three ports of delivery, viz.: Grand Gulf, Ship Island and Columbus.

Jackson is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and her Legislature meets biennially on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Mississippi in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Walter Leake,from1817to1820.
Thomas H. Williams,”{1817”1829.
1838”1839.
David Holmes,”1820”1825.
Powhattan Ellis,”1825”1833.
Thomas B. Reed,”1826”1829.
Robert Adams,”1830”1830.
George Poindexter,”1830”1835.
John Black,”1832”1838.
R. J. Walker,”1835”1845.
James F. Trotter,”1838”1838.
John Henderson,”1839”1845.
Jesse Speight,”1845”1847.
Joseph W. Chambers,”1845”1847.
Jefferson Davis,”{1847”1851.
1857”1861.
Henry S. Foote,”1847”1853.
John W. Rea,”1851”1851.
Walter Brooks,”1852”1852.
Albert G. Brown,”1854”1861.
Stephen Adams,”1852”1857.
Henry R. Revels,”1869”1871.
James L. Alcorn,”1871”1877.
Adelbert Ames,”——”1875.
Henry R. Pease,”——”1877.
Branch K. Bruce,”1875”1881.
ILLINOIS.

Illinois was first visited by Europeans in the persons of French Jesuit missionaries in the year 1672, who explored eastern Wisconsin and northern Illinois in that year. The oldest permanent settlement in the valley of the Mississippi was made at Kaskaskia, in this State, in the year 1720, by the French. The name of the State is derived from the aboriginal inhabitants. In the Indian dialect it was “Illini,” and signified a perfectly formed man. The French settlers changed the name to Illinois. This State was formed from what was known as the Northwestern territory, and was the twenty-first of the American Union. It was admitted and became an independent State on the 3d day of December, 1818. It has an area of 55,405 square miles, equal to 35,459,200 acres. Its population in 1870 was 2,539,638. Extending through more than five degrees of latitude, Illinois has quite a variety of climate. The surface is level. The soil is fertile and the agricultural capabilities of this State are not surpassed by any sister State, if indeed by any portion of earth’s surface, of equal extent. Her staple products are corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, hay, and products of the dairy, besides large quantities of fruit. The State is rich in minerals. A large portion of the lead producing region of the country is in this State. Bituminous coal is found in almost every county in the State. Copper is found in large quantities in the north, and iron in both south and north. Lime, zinc, marble of excellent quality, freestone, gypsum, and other minerals, are found in various parts.

The State is entitled to nineteen representatives in Congress, and forms a part of the seventh judicial circuit. It forms two judicial districts, viz.: northern and southern. It has one port of entry, Chicago, and four ports of delivery, viz.: Alton, Quincy, Cairo, and Peoria. The capital is Springfield. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The legislature meets biennially on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the people of the State of Illinois represented in the General Assembly.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
J. B. Thomas,from1818to1829.
N. Edwards,”1818”1824.
John McLean,”{1824”1825.
1829”1830.
D. J. Baker,”18301 month.
E. K. Kane,”1825to1836.
J. M. Robinson,”1830”1841.
W. L. D. Ewing,”1835”1837.
R. M. Young,”1837”1843.
S. McRoberts,”1841”1843.
J. Semple,”1843”1847.
Sidney Breese,”1843”1849.
S. A. Douglas,”1847”1861.
James Shields,”1849”1855.
L. Trumbull,”1855”1873.
O. H. Browning,”1861”1863.
W. A. Richardson,”1863”1865.
Richard Yates,”1865”1871.
John A. Logan,”1871”1877.
Richard J. Oglesby,”1873”1879.
ALABAMA.

This State was, at first, held by Georgia under her colonial charter, but was given up to the general government, in 1802, for the sum of $1,250,000. It then became a part of the Mississippi territory, but was separated when Mississippi became a State, in 1817.

It was settled in 1711, at Mobile, by the French, it being a part of the territory explored and claimed for France by La Salle in 1684. The Indian name of Alabama means “Here we rest.” Its soil can scarcely be excelled for fertility in the world. It has every variety of climate, from the high and stern severity of a mountain region in the north, through all gradations, to the heat and luxuriant vegetation of the tropics along the southern coast. The center abounds in coal and iron, and various other minerals are found in abundance. Until the Revolution it was a hunting ground for the Indians. Being then stirred up by British emissaries, and threatening the security of the frontiers, they were severely chastised. After the return of peace, when the growing wealth and population of the original States excited them to enterprise, the territory invited population by its surpassing fertility, and it graduated to the importance of a sovereign State by admission into the Union, Dec. 14th, 1819, forming the twenty-second State.

It has an area of 50,722 square miles, equal to 32,462,080 acres, and had a population in 1870 of 966,988, by which she is entitled to eight Representatives.

It forms a part of the fifth judicial circuit, and is divided into three judicial districts, the Northern, Middle and Southern.

It has one port of entry, (Mobile,) and two ports of delivery, viz.: Tuscumbia and Selma.

The capital of the State is Montgomery.

The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the third Monday in November.

The enacting clause of its laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Alabama, in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William R. King,from{1819to1844.
1846”1852.
John W. Walker,”1819”1822.
Henry Chambers,”1825”1826.
Israel Pickens,”1826.Superseded the
same year by—
John McKinley,”{1826”1831.
1837”1841.
Gabriel Moore,”1831”1837.
Clement C. Clay,”1837”1841.
Arthur P. Bagby,”1841”1849.
Dixon H. Lewis,”1844”1847.
Benjamin Fitzpatrick,”1852”1861.
Jeremiah Clemens,”1849”1853.
Clement C. Clay, Jr.,”1853”1861.
Willard Warner,”1868”1871.
George Goldthwaite,”1871”1877.
George E. Spencer,”1868”1879.

MAINE.

This State forms the northeastern boundary of the Republic; Canada and New Brunswick lying north and east. It was at first a province, granted by charter to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, by the King of England, in 1638; but was united with Massachusetts by purchase in 1652. It was settled by the English, at Bristol, in 1625. It was admitted as a State into the Union March 15th, 1820, being the twenty-third in order of admission. It contains 31,766 square miles, or 20,330,240 acres in area. In 1870 the population was 626,463.

It has now five Representatives in Congress.

The northern part of this State is almost a wilderness, and furnishes large quantities of lumber, which are floated down her large rivers, and supplied, in great abundance, to the Atlantic seaports, and the West Indies. Ship-building is an extensive branch of industry, the great length and irregular line of coast forming numerous harbors. It has extensive fisheries, and a large sea-faring population. Its numerous streams are highly favorable to manufactures, though comparatively little has as yet been done in this direction. The climate is severe and the soil somewhat sterile, so that it ranks low as an agricultural State. It has received comparatively few additions to its population by foreign immigration; and its inhabitants are mainly from the old English stock, and the State ranks high in morality. It depletes itself by furnishing, like many other of the older States, annually, a large number of vigorous, enterprising young men to settle the new and fertile regions of the west.

It forms part of the first judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. It has thirteen ports of entry, and thirty-two ports of delivery.

The capital is Augusta, on the Kennebec river.

The State elections are held on the second Monday of September; and the Legislature meets on the first Wednesday of January in each year.

The enacting clause of its laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives, in Legislature assembled.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
John Holmes,from1820to1833.
John Chandler,”1820”1829.
Albion P. Harris,”1827”1829.
Peleg Sprague,”1829”1835.
Ether Shepley,”1833”1836.
John Ruggles,”1835”1841.
Judah Dana,”1836”1837.
Reuel Williams,”1837”1843.
George Evans,”1841”1847.
John Fairfield,”1843”1847.
Wynan B. S. Moore,”1848”1848.
James W. Bradbury,”{1847”1853.
1848”1857.
Hannibal Hamlin,”{1857”1861.
1869”1881.
Amos Nourse,”1857”1857.
William P. Fessenden,”{1853”1864.
1865”1869.
Lot M. Morrill,”1861”1877.
Nathan A. Farwell,”1864”1865.

MISSOURI.

This State was first settled by the French, at or near the present capital, in the year 1719. Here a fort was established, called Fort Orleans, and the neighboring lead mines were worked the next year. St. Genevieve, the oldest town in the State, was settled in 1755, and St. Louis in 1764. In 1763 it, with all the territory west of the Mississippi, was assigned by treaty to Spain. This territory was ceded back to France in 1801, and with Louisiana was purchased by the United States in 1803. It remained a part of Louisiana until the admission of the State of that name, when the remaining portion of that purchase was called Missouri. In 1821 it was admitted into the Union, forming the twenty-fourth State. This State has an area of 67,380 square miles, equal to 43,123,200 acres.

Her population in 1870 was 1,715,000, entitling her to thirteen Representatives in Congress.

The climate of Missouri is variable; in winter the thermometer sinks below zero; the summers are excessively hot; the air is dry and pure. The State is quite as healthful as any in the west. The soil is good and of great agricultural capabilities. The great staple is Indian corn. The other products cultivated largely are hemp, wheat, oats, tobacco. Sheep and cattle are considerably raised, and fruit culture is successful.

This State is in the eighth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, the Eastern and Western. It has no port of entry, and but one port of delivery, Hannibal.

The capital is Jefferson City. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and the Legislature meets on the last Monday of December. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Missouri as follows.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Thomas H. Benton,from1821to1851.
David Barton,”1821”1831.
Alexander Buckner,”1831”1833.
Lewis F. Linn,”1833”1843.
David R. Atchison,”{1843”1849.
1849”1855.
Gratz B. Brown,”1863”1867.
Henry S. Geyer,”1851”1857.
Trusten Polk,”1857”1861.
James S. Green,”1856”1861.
Waldo P. Johnson,”1861”1862.
John B. Henderson,”1862”1869.
Charles D. Drake,”1867”1871.
Carl Schurz,”1869”1875.
Francis P. Blair,”1871”1873.
Lewis V. Bogy,”1873”1879.
Frank M. Cockrell,”1875”1881.
MICHIGAN.

The name of this State is a contraction of two words in the Chippewa language, meaning “Great Lake,” and was applied, by the Indians, to the two surrounding the lower peninsula. It was explored by Jesuit missionaries, who established numerous missions among various Indian tribes, and pushed their way, through perils and fatigues, west to the Mississippi, which, they followed far north and south; to be soon outstripped by the adventurous La Salle. Detroit was founded about 1701. The settlements made little progress under French rule; and when, in 1763, it passed under English control, the conspiracy of Pontiac nearly destroyed them. It was not till 1796 that the United States government took possession of the territory. Its growth was much retarded by the war of 1812, when it endured, for two years, all the barbarities of Indian war.

A territorial government was organized in 1805. In 1818 the lands were brought into the market, since which its prosperity has been uninterrupted. It is remarkable in its position, and eminently so by its resources. The southern peninsula is very productive. The northern peninsula contains the richest copper mines in the world, and unlimited supplies of iron, while the quantity of the finest lumber, and the facilities for transporting it are superior. The fish taken in its lakes are excellent and abundant; its people are enterprising and intelligent; and its State authorities have established one of the best Universities in the Union. Its future promises to become equal at least to that of the most favored State.

The Territory of Michigan was changed into a State preliminarily June 15, 1836, and was fully admitted to an equality with all the States January 26, 1837, making the twenty-fifth State (Arkansas was admitted on the same day). Her area is 56,243 square miles, equal to 35,995,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,184,296, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. By an act of 1866, Michigan was located in the sixth judicial circuit; and forms two judicial districts, and has four collection districts and four ports of entry, viz.: Detroit, Port Huron, Grand Haven, and Michilimackinac; also five ports of delivery (if the President deem them necessary).

The capital is Lansing. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets biennially on the first Wednesday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “The people of the State of Michigan enact.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Lucius Lyon,from1836to1839.
John Norvall,”1836”1841.
Augustus S. Porter,”1839”1845.
William Woodbridge,”1841”1847.
Lewis Cass,”1845”1857.
Alpheus Felch,”1847”1853.
Thomas Fitzgerald,”1848”1849.
Charles E. Stewart,”1853”1859.
Zachariah Chandler,”1857”1875.
Kinsley S. Bingham,”1859”1861.
Jacob M. Howard,”1862”1871.
Thomas W. Ferry,”1871”1877.
Isaac P. Christiancy,”1875”1881.
ARKANSAS.

Arkansas was originally a portion of the Territory of Louisiana. It remained a part of that territory until 1812, when the present State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union. The remainder of the territory was then formed into the Missouri Territory, and so remained until 1821 when Missouri was admitted into the Union, and Arkansas was erected into a separate territory, bearing the present name. In 1836, a State constitution was formed at Little Rock, and Arkansas became a State in the Union. It constituted the twenty-sixth State. It has an area of 52,193 square miles, equal to 33,406,720 acres. The population in 1870 was 483,197, which entitles her to four Representatives in Congress. The eastern portion of the State, extending back one hundred miles from the Mississippi, is generally a vast plain covered with marshes, swamps, and lagoons. The Ozark mountains which enter the northwest part of the State divide it into two unequal parts, of which the northern has the climate and productions of the Northern States, while the southern portion, in climate and productions, resembles Mississippi and Louisiana. The lowlands of Arkansas are unhealthy, while the more elevated portions of the State will compare favorably with the most healthful and invigorating portions of the Northwest. There is a great variety of soil in this State. While some portions, like the river bottoms, are exceedingly fertile, other parts are sterile and barren.

The staple products are Indian corn, cotton and live stock. Arkansas gives indications of rich mineral resources.

This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts, the eastern and western. It has no ports of entry or delivery.

The capital of the State is Little Rock. She holds her State election the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets but once in two years, on the first Monday in January. The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Arkansas.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
William S. Fulton,from1836to1844.
Ambrose H. Sevier,”1836”1848.
Chester Ashley,”1844”1847.
William K. Sebastian,”1848”1861.
Solon Borland,”1848”1853.
Robert W. Johnson,”1853”1861.
Charles B. Mitchell,”1861”1861.
Alexander McDonald,”1868”1871.
Benjamin F. Rice,”1868”1873.
Powell Clayton,”1871”1877.
Stephen W. Dorsey,”1873”1879.

FLORIDA.

This peninsula was discovered by Ponce de Leon, a companion of Columbus, in 1512, on Easter Sunday, called by the Spaniards Pascua Florida, which, with the profusion of flowers found at this early season in that tropical region, caused him to name it Florida—“the flowery land.” It was first colonized by French Huguenots, for whom Admiral Coligni desired to find an asylum in the new world, from the fierce bigotry of the times. The first settlers (1564) became discouraged and returned; the second colony, established in 1566, was destroyed by the Spaniards. These founded a settlement in 1565 at St. Augustine, which was the oldest town in the United States settled by Europeans. It remained in their hands until 1763, when, by the terms of the “Peace of Paris,” it fell into the hands of the English. It was returned to Spain in 1783.

It was acquired from Spain by treaty made with the United States in 1819, but the American authorities did not take possession until July, 1821. The consideration given by our government was about five million dollars. It is a point running out from the Southeast border of our territory, of but little elevation above the sea level, and swampy, but covered with an exuberant growth of vegetation with a chain of lakes from south to north through the center. The warmth of the climate, where no winter is ever known, promotes the growth of the rarest and most beautiful flowers; the clustering vines and dense foliage render its forests almost impenetrable, and its delicate mosses are the wonder and delight of the naturalist; while the splendid plumage of its tropical birds, flitting among the lemon and orange groves, laden at once with bud, flower and fruit, combine to add the scenery of the equatorial regions to the homely but more useful vegetable growth and beauty of our temperate zone. It is a resort of invalids during the rigors of the northern winter, its otherwise excessive heat being tempered by the sea breezes from either side. With its marshes drained and its vegetable growth subdued and guided by the industrious agriculturist, its supply of the fruits and other production of warm climates would be inexhaustible. It is but partially settled, and its agricultural, commercial, and manufacturing facilities but slightly developed. Its wealth of resources remain to reward the enterprise and industry of the future. The railroad connections between its cities and other States furnish a sufficient basis for improvement.

Florida was admitted into the Union, March 3, 1845; making the twenty-seventh State. This State has an area of 59,268 square miles, equal to 37,931,520 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 187,756. She has two Representative in Congress.

Florida lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts; and has seven ports of entry—St. Augustine, Key West, Apalachicola, Pensacola, Magnolia, St. John’s River, and Fernandina; and two ports of delivery—Palatka and Bay Port.

The capital is Tallahassee. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is: “Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Florida, in General Assembly convened.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
David L. Yulee,from1845to1861.
J. D. Wescott,”1845”1851.
Jackson Morton,”1849”1855.
S. R. Mallory,”1851”1861.
A. S. Welch,”1868”1869.
Thomas W. Osborn,”1868”1873.
Abijah Gilbert,”1869”1875.
Simon B. Conover,”1873”1879.
Chas. W. Jones,”1875”1881.

IOWA.

1. The name of this State in the Indian tongue is said to mean “This is the Land.” Few States have a surface, soil, and position so uniformly excellent for all their different sections. A high rolling prairie, well drained by streams, of great fertility, and almost no sterile or waste land; beautiful to look upon in its alternations of rise and fall, of prairie, stream, and timber; bounded on its extremes by the two mighty branches of the “Father of Waters,” with numerous smaller rivers hundreds of miles in length within its limits; its southern region underlaid by a vast bed of coal, its northern rich in deposits of lead; a climate free from the severity of Minnesota and Wisconsin winters, and from the intemperate heats of Missouri and Kentucky summers, it is a land to be satisfied with; and justifies the picturesque name given it by its ancient appreciative owners.

2. It was first visited by Europeans in 1673. Marquette and Joliet, two French Jesuit missionaries, whom the vast magnitudes of the North American continent seemed to stimulate like new wine, roamed alone over these immense distances, preserved by their characteristic French cordiality from the suspicion and hostility of the numerous warlike Indian tribes—who everywhere received them with hospitality, treated them with respect, and dismissed them with assistance—passed, in that year, down the Mississippi, and, landing a little above the mouth of the Moingona—which, from the similarity of sound, they corrupted into Des Moines, (Monk’s River)—they fearlessly followed an Indian trail fourteen miles into the interior to an Indian village. Some tradition or prophecy had forewarned the Indians of venerable white visitors, and they were received at once as expected and honored guests. The new religion they announced, and the authority of the king of France which they proclaimed, raised no remonstrance or hostile feeling, and they were sent on their way down the river with the “Pipe of Peace.” The grand visions of the future entertained by these and other French explorers were never realized by that nation. It was more than a hundred years later that the first settlement was made by Julian Du Buque on the site of the present city of that name. He obtained a grant of 180,000 acres from the Indians, established a trading post, and worked the lead mines, with great profit; but the time had not come for dispossessing the Indians, and almost fifty years more passed before any other settlement was attempted.

3. In 1832 the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes united under the Winnebago chief, Black Hawk, to invade and repossess the lands in Illinois which they had ceded to the government. Gen. Atkinson met and defeated them on the Upper Iowa, taking Black Hawk and his son prisoners. They were taken east, kindly treated, and set at liberty; and in the following year a treaty was made which ultimately extinguished the Indian title to the whole of Iowa, the Indians removing west of the Missouri. In the same year a settlement was made at Burlington. The time for Iowa had come. In 1834 it was joined to the Territory of Michigan, in 1837 was reorganized as part of the Wisconsin territory, and, in 1838, became a separate territory with the capital at Burlington. March 3d, 1845, it was conditionally, and Dec. 28th, 1846, fully admitted into the Union as a Sovereign State. In 1840 it had a population of over 40,000, in 1850 of nearly 200,000. A steady growth followed, and she has now, probably, a million and a half of inhabitants. Four parallel lines of railroad pass entirely across the State from east to west, three from north to south, and various others are in process of building or form intersecting lines. She is scarcely yet fully launched into her career of greatness. When her virgin soil shall all be broken up and its hidden wealth evoked by her intelligent and skillful agriculturists, when the full tide of commerce on her two great rivers shall have set in to supplement her railroads, and mature organization shall have made all her resources available, she will take her proper place in the first rank of States in the Union, and her citizens will repeat with satisfaction and pride the Indian declaration, “This is the Land.”

Iowa was the twenty-eighth State, on its admission, in 1845. It has an area of 55,045 square miles, equal to 35,228,800 acres. The population in 1870 was 1,191,802, which entitles her to nine Representatives in Congress. This State lies in the eighth judicial circuit, and makes one judicial district. She has no port of entry, but has three ports of delivery, to-wit: Burlington, Keokuk, and Dubuque; all of which are attached to the collection district of New Orleans, in the State of Louisiana.

Des Moines is the capital. The State election is held on the second Tuesday of October. The Legislature meets biennially on the second Monday in January.

The enacting clause of her laws is in these words: “Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Iowa.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
George W. Jones,from1848to1859.
Augustus C. Dodge,”1848”1855.
James Harlan,”{1856”1865.
1867”1873.
James W. Grimes,”1859”1869.
Samuel J. Kirkwood,”1866”1867.
James B. Howell,”1870”1871.
George G. Wright,”1871”1877.
William B. Allison,”1873”1879.

TEXAS.

This State forms the southwestern portion of the United States. The first settlement in Texas was made on Matagorda bay, under the French led by La Salle, in 1685. It passed into the possession of the Spanish in the year 1690.

After the independence of Mexico, in 1822, Texas remained a Mexican province until the revolution of 1836, when it gained its independence. It continued an independent republic, modeled on the United States, until 1845, when, the Texan Congress having accepted the conditions imposed by the Congress of the United States, it became the 29th State in the Union. It has an area of 237,504 square miles, equal to 152,002,560 acres. The population in 1870 was 797,500, which entitles her to six members of Congress.

This State embraces every variety of surface; mountain, plain, hill, and desert waste lie within its limits. The climate is free from the extremes of both the temperate and torrid zones, producing, in the north, many of the products of the temperate, and in the south many of those of the torrid zone. The variation in the temperature from the season of winter to that of summer is quite small, giving the State as equable a climate as any in the world. While it shares the genial climate of the “sunny South” it is free from all the deadly swamp exhalations of the lower Mississippi States. The soil, on the whole, is as fertile as any in the world. It furnishes the very best natural pasture all the year round. Cotton in large quantities—Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats and other small grains—tobacco, indigo and rice, are the staple products. The grape, mulberry and the vanilla, are indigenous and abundant. Cayenne pepper is grown in vast quantities. Fruit is no less various and abundant than its other products. The peach, nectarine, fig, plum, quince and a great variety of berries flourish here. Oranges, lemons, limes and melons, grow well. Live stock of all varieties and in vast numbers fatten on the plains, and are shipped in all directions to supply every demand.

Texas abounds in minerals. Rich silver mines are already worked successfully at San Saba. Gold in small quantities has been found west of the Colorado river. Coal is abundant. Iron is found in many parts of the State. There are also salt lakes and salt springs, copper, alum, lime, agates, chalcedony, jasper and a white and red sandstone.

Texas lies in the fifth judicial circuit, and makes two judicial districts, the eastern and the western. There are three collection districts in the State. The respective ports of entry for these districts are Galveston, La Salle, and Brazos Santiago. To these are attached nine ports of delivery.

The capital is Austin. The Legislature is composed of a Senate, elected for four years, and a House of Representatives, elected for two years. The sessions of the Legislature are biennial and are held in December. The Governor is elected for four years.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Thomas F. Rusk,from1846to1856.
Samuel Houston,”1846”1859.
Pinckney J. Henderson,”1857”1858.
Matthias Ward,”1858”1861.
John Hemphill,”1869”1871.
Lewis T. Wigfall,”1859”1861.
J. W. Flannagan,”1869”1875.
Morgan C. Hamilton,”1871”1877.
Samuel B. Maxey,”1875”1881.

WISCONSIN.

1. This State was visited and crossed by the early French explorers about 1665, and a settlement was made at Green Bay in 1669 and soon after on the Mississippi, at Prairie du Chien. It was the policy of these enterprising men to connect the French settlements on the lower St. Lawrence by a chain of stations on the lakes and rivers with the mouth of the Mississippi. This would have passed through the heart of the country and have laid open its chief resources at once. It was a bold conception. We see it nowhere among the English explorers and settlers, who seemed not to like to lose sight of their ships; but it is quite in keeping with the grand and rapid genius of the French; and, as in so many other cases, by attempting too much they lost the whole. The English, if slower, were sure, and consolidated their possessions on the coast, gradually pushing westward as they were able to hold their ground.

2. The French explorers have left traces of their untiring activity in the names of rivers and places, and even Indian tribes, but the attention of their home government was soon withdrawn from them. No further extension was given to settlement for near 150 years, notwithstanding it was so easy of access from the south by the Mississippi river, and from the east by the chain of great lakes. Very fortunately, as it now seems, all this vast and valuable territory in the heart of the continent, equal, perhaps in its natural wealth, to the original resources of the whole of Europe, was reserved to reward the labors and consolidate the beneficent power of a Nation of Freemen, carefully trained and adapted to their high destiny.

3. The tide of emigration flowed westward by way of the Ohio river, and the States south were settled and admitted into the Union long before Wisconsin received even a Territorial government. This occurred in 1836, and in 1840 the census gave it but little over 30,000 inhabitants. Population now flowed steadily to it and we find, in 1850, over 300,000 inhabitants. It was admitted into the Union in 1848, making the thirtieth State. Its high latitude probably had something to do with this deferred settlement, the milder winters of the more southern range of States attracting the emigrants first. The climate, however, has important advantages over the States in question, being drier, less changeable, and not so subject to extremes. It is very healthy, and probably the oldest man in the country was living, hale and hearty, in this State, a few years ago, at the patriarchal age of 139. The climate is milder than in the same latitude farther east.

4. The surface is a high rolling prairie, open and mostly treeless, except near streams and bodies of water in the south, but in the north covered with timber. Vast forests of pine grow on the northern slope, which is some 1,200 feet above the level of the sea. Some parts of the State fall 600 feet below that elevation; and a succession of ridges having a general direction east and west, separate the rivers flowing into Lake Superior, Green Bay, and Lake Michigan, while many streams flow southwest into the Mississippi. The State is 285 miles long by 255 wide. Its beautiful prairies, gratefully returning a bountiful harvest to the intelligent farmer; its numerous charming lakes and ponds; its remarkable commercial advantages by lakes and rivers, supplemented by canals and railroads; its great manufacturing facilities, and valuable mineral deposits, give great promise to its future. Wheat is the leading agricultural staple, but all the grains, vegetables, and fruits of the Northern States well reward cultivation. It has an area of 52,924 square miles, equal to 34,511,360 acres. In 1870 the population amounted to 1,055,167, which gave her eight Members of Congress. Wisconsin lies in the seventh judicial circuit (which is composed of Wisconsin, Indiana and Illinois,) and forms one judicial district. It has one collection district, one port of entry (Milwaukee,) and five ports of delivery, viz.: Southport, Racine, Sheboygan, Green Bay and Depere.

The capital of the State is Madison. The Legislature meets on the second Wednesday in January. The State election is on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

The enacting clause of her laws is as follows: “The people of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Henry Dodge,from1848to1857.
Isaac P. Walker,”1848”1855.
Charles Durkee,”1855”1861.
James R. Doolittle,”1857”1869.
Timothy O. Howe,”1861”1875.
M. H. Carpenter,”1869”1875.
Angus Cameron,”1875”1881.

THE DOMES OF THE YOSEMITE.

CALIFORNIA

Is said to have been visited by the Spaniards in 1542, and by Sir Francis Drake, a celebrated English navigator, in 1578. The first mission was founded by Spanish Catholics in 1769. It was sparsely settled by Mexican rancheros, who occupied themselves chiefly in raising cattle. In 1846 Fremont, who had been conducting an exploring party across the great plains and the Rocky Mountains, defeated in conjunction with Commodore Stockton, the Mexican forces in California, and took possession of it in the name of the United States; to which it was definitely ceded by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Feb. 2nd, 1848; the United States government paying Mexico for that territory and New Mexico $15,000,000, besides paying $3,500,000 indemnity, due from Mexico to citizens of the United States.

Scarcely had this arrangement been made, when it was published that California was rich in gold, and adventurers from all sections of the Union, and various countries of the Old World, rushed in like a flood. For some years, society there, composed in large part, of the wildest and most ungovernable elements of old communities, was like a seething volcano; but, to the immortal honor of American citizens, it was subdued by the superior resolution and summary vigor of the better class of emigrants from the States, and was admitted into the Union on the 7th of Sept. 1850, with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting slavery. The discussion in Congress on this point came near precipitating the Civil War that broke out ten years later. The difficulty between the slavery and anti-slavery parties was adjusted by compromise measures, for the time, but only served to allay the agitation produced by conflict of interests and opinions, which was irreconcilable.

California “The Golden,” proved extraordinarily rich in precious metals and other minerals, as quicksilver, platinum, asphaltum, iron, lead, and rare qualities of marble. Its gold mines alone from 1858 to 1868 produced over $800,000,000.

It is a broken country, traversed by two ranges of mountains. The valleys are exceedingly productive. They are unexcelled for wheat; all kinds of fruit grow in the greatest perfection; and the grape culture promises to equal, if not to excel, the products of the most famous vineyards of Europe. Surprising as is her mineral wealth, her agricultural possibilities are far greater, and her commerce is already immense, and bids fair, from her position and relations to Eastern Asia, and the western parts of South America, to rival that of the Atlantic States.

The world was ripe for the discovery of these unparalleled treasures, and civilization was prepared to use them for the good of mankind. The ready passage across the vast and inhospitable deserts of the American continent, by means of railways, has already changed (and will probably change still more in the future) the course of commerce; and San Francisco and New York may hope to rule, in large part, the commerce of the world.

California is remarkable for the salubrity of its climate, where the rigors of winter (save on the mountains), and the excessive heats of summer are equally unknown, and for the variety and magnitude of its natural curiosities. Of the last the Yosemite valley and the Big Trees are the most prominent. She has near 1,000 miles of railroad, and has made ample provision for education.

California was the thirty-first State. It has an area of 188,982 square miles, equal to 120,948,480 acres. The population in 1870 was 560,285, entitling her to four Representatives in Congress.

By act of 1866, this State, with Oregon and Nevada, constitutes the ninth judicial circuit, and forms two judicial districts. California has seven ports of entry, viz.: San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego, Sacramento, Sonoma, San Joaquin and San Pedro; also, one port of delivery, Santa Barbara. California was obtained from Mexico by conquest in 1846.

The capital is Sacramento. She holds her State election on the first Tuesday in September. Her Legislature meets on the first Monday in December, but meets only once in two years.

The enacting clause of her laws is: “The people of the State of California, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
John C. Fremont,from1850to1851.
William M. Gwin,”1850”1861.
John B. Weller,”1851”1857.
H. P. Haun,”1859”1862.
David C. Broderick,”1856”1859.
Milton S. Latham,”1860”1866.
John Conness,”1863”1869.
Cornelius Cole,”1867”1873.
J. A. McDougall,”1861”1867.
Eugene Casserly,”1869”1875.
Aaron A. Sargent,”1873”1879.
John S. Hagar,”——”1875.
Newton Booth,”1875”1881.

DELLS OF THE ST. CROIX RIVER, MINN.

MINNESOTA.

This State might be called the Mother of Rivers, since it contains the high watershed, or tableland, where the rivers sending their waters to two oceans, in three directions, have their sources. The head waters of the Mississippi, the St. Lawrence, and the streams flowing into the frozen ocean of the north are all found here. In 1680 the unwearied La Salle visited the head waters of the Mississippi, but this region was long left to the sole occupation of the Indians.

Fort Snelling, near St. Paul, was built in 1819. No other territory was acquired, by extinction of the Indian title to the soil, until 1837; and in 1849 the civilized population gathered about the trading posts and missions amounted to less than 5,000. It then received a Territorial government. A considerable portion of the State having in 1851 been ceded, by treaty with the Indians, to the government, was immediately entered on by the settlers; and in 1858 it was prepared to take rank among the sovereign States. It was admitted in May of this year, by act of Congress.

In 1862 the State passed through the appalling crisis of an Indian massacre of the outlying settlements. It began without warning, in the midst of fancied security, and before adequate protection could be forwarded, some 500 men, women, and children were murdered with all the accompaniments of savage cruelty. Some $3,000,000 of property was destroyed. In a short time sufficient force was gathered to overpower the savages, and they were in large part removed from the State.

The surface is undulating and high, and the soil, in good part, extremely fertile. Portions are open and rolling prairie; the remainder heavily wooded. Though the winters are long and cold, the air is dry and invigorating, and the climate healthy. It is specially favorable to the growth of wheat. Commerce is favored by the Mississippi, navigable to St. Paul, and by good harbors on Lake Superior, as well as by numerous railways. Its provision for education is excellent, and a State University at St. Anthony’s Falls promises to form a suitable crown to its intellectual advantages.

This State was admitted into the Union on the 11th day of May, 1858, and made the thirty-second State. It has an area of 83,531 square miles, equal to 53,459,840 acres. The population in 1870 amounted to 435,511. This State is entitled to three Members of Congress.

It lies in the eighth judicial circuit, which is composed of Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Arkansas and Minnesota. Minnesota forms one judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery.

St. Paul is the capital. The Legislature meets annually on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in January.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Henry M. Rice,from1857to1863.
James Shields,”1857”1859.
Alex. Ramsey,”1863”1875.
Daniel Norton,”1865”1871.
Mort. S. Wilkinson,”1859”1865.
William Windom,”1871”1877.
S. J. R. McMillan,”1875”1881.

OREGON.

Was discovered by Spanish adventurers in the sixteenth century. In 1792 Capt. Grey, of Boston, discovered the Columbia river and entered it, securing the sovereignty of the country to the United States by right of first exploration. It was more thoroughly explored by Lewis and Clark, appointed for that purpose by the United States government, in 1804-5-6. The northern part, (now Washington Territory,) was claimed by Great Britain, and the conflicting claims produced long and dangerous diplomatic contention, which was finally peaceably ended in favor of the United States.

In 1811 a fur trading company established a fort and settlement at the mouth of the Columbia, which was taken possession of by the English in the latter part of 1813. The country was claimed by them until 1846, when the boundaries were settled by treaty; giving Oregon to the United States. Settlement from the States, however, commenced in 1839, and continued to increase until 1848, when a territorial government was organized. The excitement consequent on the discovery of gold in California drew off many of its citizens; but was, in part, counteracted by the extraordinary inducements made to actual settlers. A State constitution was adopted by the people Nov. 9th, 1857, but it was not admitted, by act of Congress, into the Union, until Feb. 14th, 1859, making the thirty-third State.

The surface of the country is divided by three ranges of mountains, the Cascade, Blue and Rocky mountains. The Cascade Range has the highest peaks found in the United States. The climate is mild near the coast, but more severe in higher eastern parts. The high eastern regions are volcanic, containing vast tracts of lava, entirely sterile; the middle is well adapted to grazing, in many parts. The valuable farming lands are in the western division, along the various tributary streams of the Columbia. Wheat is the great staple; rye, oats, and vegetables, are grown with success. Fruit is also produced in abundance. Its supply of coal and copper is said to be unlimited; and it is specially celebrated for its extensive forests of gigantic trees. Manufactures and commerce are, as yet, undeveloped; but will be important in the future. Little has been done in the way of internal improvement.

Oregon has experienced the disadvantage of growing up in the shade of her splendid neighbor, California, but has a solidly prosperous future before her.

It has an area of 95,274 square miles, equal to 60,975,360 acres. The population amounted in 1870 to 90,922, which did not reach the number required to entitle it to a Member of Congress according to the fixed ratio. But every State is entitled to one member, whatever its population may be. By act of 1866, the States of Oregon, Nevada and California were constituted the ninth judicial circuit. Oregon forms one judicial district, and has one collection district, and one port of entry.

The capital is Salem, where her Legislature meets once in two years, on the second Monday of September. The State election is held on the first Monday in June.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Joseph Lane,from1859to1861.
Delazon Smith,”1859”1860.
Edward D. Baker,”1861”1861.
Benj. F. Harding,”1862.
James W. Nesmith,”1861”1867.
Benjamin Stark,”1861”1862.
Geo. H. Williams,”1865”1871.
Henry W. Corbett,”1867”1873.
James K. Kelly,”1871”1877.
John H. Mitchell,”1873”1879.

KANSAS.

1. Nearly every State in the American Union has some advantage that is peculiar to it, or that it shares in a degree so eminent as to distinguish it from all others. Kansas is not an exception, and some of these are exceedingly attractive. They enter, to some extent, into the painful and bloody history of its first settlement; the mighty tragedy of the Civil War having enacted its prelude on her fertile plains. The Kansas and Nebraska Bill, in 1854, repealed the Missouri Compromise, and this territory was opened to a trial of strength between Freedom and Slavery; the contest being transferred from the floors of Congress and the Representatives of the people to the settlers of the soil, who were to determine whether slavery should, or not, exist in it, as a State. The attraction of a decisive political struggle was added to the many favorable features of position, climate, and intrinsic value. Southern people sought to introduce their peculiar institution, and northern people resisted. There was much disorder and bloodshed. Every effort was made, by strategy and force, on the one side and the other. The southern party was signally defeated and there was henceforth no hope of preserving to the slave States a balance of power in the national government, and the civil war followed, almost as a natural consequence.

2. Kansas is larger by more than 3,000 square miles than the whole of New England. It lies very near the geographical centre of the country, and stretches a friendly hand, by the Pacific Railroads, to both the Atlantic and Pacific States. A good part of her soil is declared to be much superior to that of ordinary prairie land in richness, and to average four feet in depth. It is fairly watered and timbered, and freely produces everything, except the proper tropical products of the extreme south, that is grown in the United States. The climate is that of Virginia, without its excessive heat; which may, perhaps, be considered balanced by its occasional excessively sharp and cutting winds in winter. These, however, are tolerably rare, and the winters, for the most part, short and mild, the climate being, on the whole very healthy. Its deposits of salt are exceedingly rich, and other minerals abound in various parts. Its commercial position is excellent, and its manufacturing capabilities all that the future will be likely to require. Its resources, under suitable development, cannot be considered inferior to any other equal area in the country; which is speaking in the strongest language we can command, considering what may be said of so many different localities.

3. The eastern surface is a succession of waves, or undulations, the valleys generally extending north and south. A narrow section west of it, stretching across the State is more level and the soil lighter. Beyond this long reaches of level, fertile, and well watered lands are adapted to flocks and herds. These are much higher than the river beds, the valleys of which abound in bottoms, beautiful in appearance and situation, and of inexhaustible fertility. Vast beds of coal, a good quality and abundant quantity of iron ore, and petroleum and lead have been discovered. Corn and wheat are the leading staples, and it is believed that fruit culture will soon become a leading interest of this promising State.

Kansas was admitted into the Union as a State, Jan. 29, 1861, making the thirty-fourth State. Kansas has an area of 78,841 square miles, equal to 50,187,520 acres. The population in 1870 was 362,812, giving her three Representatives in Congress. This State is in the eighth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district. It has no ports of entry or delivery.

Topeka is the capital. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is as follows: “Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Kansas.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
James Henry Lane,from1861to1866.
Samuel C. Pomeroy,”1861”1873.
E. G. Ross,”1866”1871.
Alexander Caldwell,”1871”1877.
[3]Robert Crozier,”1877.
James M. Harvey,”——”1877.
John J. Ingalls,”1873”1879.

[3] Appointed by Governor to fill vacancy.

WEST VIRGINIA.

This is the only State ever formed, under the Constitution, by the division of an organized State. The interests of West Virginia were always different from those of the eastern part; and when, at the commencement of the Civil War, the eastern part seceded, the western remained loyal and was erected into a separate State; thus realizing the ancient wish of its citizens.

The act of Congress organizing it as a State was passed December 31st, 1862, with condition that it should take effect 60 days after proclamation of its admission by the President of the United States. This proclamation was issued April 21st, 1863; and it was admitted to representation in Congress as a sovereign State June 20th thereafter. A temporary government without representation in Congress had been formed in May, 1862. It was the thirty-fifth State admitted into the Union.

It is varied in surface, from high mountain ranges, hilly and undulating midlands, to level and rich river bottoms; and is nearly all available either for cultivation or grazing; while its valuable deposits of coal lie very near the surface in nearly all parts of the State. Iron abounds, and timber of the best quality. Its manufacturing facilities are great; and its canals and railroads, with the Ohio river on its northwestern border, furnish the means of making it one of the richest States in the Union. The climate is healthy, and the scenery picturesque, and in places it rises to wild grandeur.

It has an area of 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres.

The population, in 1870 was 445,616. This State has now three Members of Congress. West Virginia was subsequently put into the fourth judicial circuit, and constitutes one judicial district. Parkersburg, also, was made a port of delivery.

Charleston is the capital. The State election is held on the fourth Thursday in October. The Legislature meets on the second Tuesday in January.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
Peter G. Van Winkle,from1863to1869.
Waitman T. Willey,”1863”1871.
Arthur J. Boreman,”1868”1875.
H. G. Davis,”1871”1877.
Allen T. Caperon,”1875”1881.
NEVADA.

“The Snowy Land” derives its name from the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Range of mountains forming the eastern boundary of California. It lies in the western part of the basin of the Great Salt Lake and among those mountains, in whose rocky bosom was found the stimulus that has changed so much of the Pacific slope, and the Rocky Mountain region, from a wild and dismal waste to populous and thriving States.

Gold was found in moderate quantities among the mountains, and population began to scatter slowly over them about 1850, and soon settlers began to improve the valleys at the foot of the mountains on the east for agricultural purposes. Carson county was organized by the territorial government of Utah in 1854; but in June, 1859, rich deposits of silver were found; and emigration began to pour in rapidly. In March, 1861, the Territory of Nevada was organized, and the same month, three years later, it was admitted into the Union, making the thirty-sixth State.

The history of these States, so rich in precious metals, puts to the blush the fantastic fables of the Arabian Nights. The silver mines of Nevada are believed to be the richest in the world. The celebrated silver mines of Potosi, in South America, never produced over $10,000,000 a year, while in 1867, one mine in Nevada produced $17,500,000, and is thought to be almost, or quite, inexhaustible. The climate, like that of California, is healthy; the seasons are divided into wet and dry, and agriculture is dependent on irrigation. With time and pains its products will be considerable. It has much wild and sublime scenery, and some natural curiosities; as Lake Mono, with its waters so sharply acid as to destroy cloth and leather immersed in it. Its gloomy surroundings, and the great distance from the tops of the precipitous rocks surrounding its shores to the surface of the water lend an impressive and fearful character to its severe desolation. It lies below the reach of the winds, and no living thing can exist in its waters.

It has an area of 63,473 square miles, or 40,622,720 acres. The population in 1860, while yet a Territory, was 6,857. In 1870 it had increased to 42,491. In conformity with the Constitutional provision that every State shall have one Representative in Congress, Nevada has one. This State lies in the ninth judicial circuit, and forms one judicial district, called the district of Nevada.

Carson City is the capital. The State election is held on the first Tuesday in November; and the Legislature meets on the first Monday in January.

The enacting clause of the laws is in the following words: “The people of the State of Nevada, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows.”

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
James W. Nye,from1865to1873.
William M. Stewart,”1865”1875.
John P. Jones,”1873”1879.
Wm. Sharon,”1875”1881.
NEBRASKA.

1. Formed a part of the Louisiana Purchase from the French government in 1803. It received a Territorial government in 1854, and was, by the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, equally with Kansas, exposed to the introduction of slavery; but the Southern people limited their efforts in that direction to Kansas, and Nebraska did not share in its disorder and bloodshed.

2. The greater portion of the country consists of a high, rolling prairie. The soil in the eastern part of the State is nearly the same as that of the adjoining portions of Iowa and Kansas. It is a rich loam, finely pulverized, and admirably adapted to cultivation. The second district, near the center of the State, is strictly pastoral. The third, or western section, has a fair soil, but is destitute of timber, and insufficiently supplied with water.

Throughout the fertile portion of the State, wheat, corn, oats, and other cereals, and vegetables and fruits yield largely. Vast herds of buffaloes formerly roamed over its prairies; but they are now mostly exterminated. The altitude of Nebraska secures to it a dry, pure, and salubrious atmosphere. Rain is not abundant, but, in the eastern part, is sufficient for the purposes of the agriculturist. Salt, limestone, and coal are found in various localities, and not improbably other minerals will be found in paying quantities. The State is too new to fully estimate all its resources and capabilities.

3. The educational advantages are good. The Common School System, modeled on that of Ohio, is well supplied with funds, embracing one-sixteenth of the public land, or 2,500,000 acres. 90,000 acres were given to endow a State Agricultural College, and 46,081 acres to the State University.

Its commercial facilities are supplied by the Missouri River, the Pacific and other railroads, and are amply sufficient to develop its resources. The future of the State has many elements of promise. No public debt impedes its growth, and within the last few years it has increased in wealth and population more rapidly than any of the adjoining States or Territories. An unknown, but certainly not limited, amount of wealth still lies locked up in its soil, and its relation to ocean commerce by the mighty Missouri, and to inter-State trade by lying in the great traveled route between the Atlantic and Pacific States, with a remarkably fine, healthy climate, and the ease with which its soil is worked, contribute to form a powerful attraction to labor and capital, and we have no reason to suspect any decrease in its rapid progress.

4. On its admission, in 1867, it was the thirty-seventh State. It has an area of 122,007 square miles, or 78,084,480 acres.

Population in 1870, 123,000. It forms the ninth judicial district, and has no ports of entry or delivery.

The capital is Lincoln. The State election is held on the second Tuesday in October. The Legislature meets on the Thursday after the first Monday in January.

UNITED STATES SENATORS.
John M. Thayer,from1867to1871.
Thomas W. Tipton,”1867”1875.
Phineas W. Hitchcock,”1871”1877.
Algernon S. Paddock,”1875”1881.

CHIMNEY ROCKS OF THE WEST.

COLORADO

Was formed from parts of Kansas, Nebraska and Utah. Its Territorial government was organized by act of Congress, March 2nd, 1861. It is situated west of Kansas, on the great route from the Pacific to the Atlantic States, and on the dividing ridge, or backbone, of the continent. The rivers that find their head waters within the territory run southeast and south to the Gulf of Mexico, and southwest to the Gulf of California. The surface is nearly equally divided between a plain, gently descending from the abrupt mountain wall of rock constituting the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains, and the mighty mass of that chain, with its peaks, rising nearly three miles above the surface of the sea, now forming an elevated plateau, and again sending off spurs and lateral ranges containing beautiful valleys, or, in a more lavish and genial mood, taking a wide circuit inclosing an immense sunken plain containing hundreds of square miles of charming, well watered farming land called parks. Of these there are seven. It is a magnificent region, and contains all the elements of extreme mineral and agricultural wealth. It has mines of gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron. Coal abounds in all parts, oil flows from the wells with a little encouragement, and salt is easily obtained in some parts. An immense soda-fountain is found near Colorado City, called Fontaine qui Bouille (boiling fountain) and there are indications of cinnabar, platina, and precious stones.

The climate is fine, the general temperature like Southern Pennsylvania or Maryland; and, from the elevation, the air is very dry and pure. The plain rises by imperceptible degrees to 5,000 feet, (about one mile,) above the level of the sea, at the foot of the mountains. The numerous valleys, the parks, and much of the sloping plain, form as fine an agricultural region, with proper irrigation, as any State possesses, and much of the remainder furnishes excellent pasturage through the entire year. Occasionally heavy snow falls and for a few days extreme cold prevails, but these are exceptional years; and it does not lie long. Its effects can be guarded against with prudent care. Corn, wheat, and other small grains and vegetables reach their greatest perfection here.

It furnishes excellent manufacturing facilities along the unfailing mountain streams in the valleys, and will no doubt ultimately unite with Montana and Southwestern Dacotah to supply the immense central part of our domain with all the products of manufacturing genius and skill.

Denver the capital and principal city, is situated near the eastern base of the mountains, where these put on their severest and sublimest aspect. Clear lakes are set like stars, here and there, and the beautiful and grand in scenery are nowhere more striking, or more agreeably combined.

The Territory contains 106,475 square miles in area, and the population in 1870 numbered 29,706.

Several attempts have been made to obtain the admission of Colorado as a State into the American Union. An act to enable the people to form a constitution and State Government was passed by Congress, March, 1864. The constitution, framed under this act, was rejected by the people of the territory. Another constitution was framed and adopted in 1865, but a bill, passed by Congress for its admission, was vetoed by the President. Another attempt made in 1867 likewise failed by the President’s veto; since which time it quietly remained under its Territorial government, until March 3, 1875, when it was admitted by Act of Congress.

CHAPTER LXVII.
MOTTOES AND NAMES OF THE STATES.

United States—E Pluribus Unum, “Out of Many, One.”

Alabama—Has no motto. Name, from its principal river, means “Here we rest,” and denotes the satisfaction of the Indians with its agreeable landscape and climate.

Arkansas—Regnant populi—“The people rule.” Has the Indian name of its river. Is called the “Bear State.”

California—Eureka, her Greek motto, means “I have found it.” Derives her name from the bay forming the peninsula of lower California.

Colorado—Latin motto, Nil sine numine, means “Nothing can be done without divine aid.” Named from the river.

Connecticut—Qui transtulit Sustinet, “He who brought us over sustains us.” Name from her river, which means, in the Indian tongue, “The long river.” Is called the “Nutmeg State.”

Delaware—Motto, Liberty and Independence. Was named from Lord Delaware, an English statesman. Is called “The Blue Hen.”

Florida—Motto, “In God is our trust.” Name from the abundance of flowers when discovered, on Easter Sunday. In Spanish Florida means flowery.

Georgia—Motto, “Wisdom, justice and moderation.” Named from George II, King of England when it was settled.

Illinois—Motto, “State Sovereignty, National Union.” Name derived from an Indian tribe, also applied by them to Lake Michigan and her largest inland river. Means “We are the men.” Is called the “Sucker State.”

Indiana—Has no motto. Name suggested by its numerous Indian population. It is called the “Hoosier State.”

Iowa—Motto, “Our liberties we prize, our rights we will maintain.” Its Indian name means “This is the Land.” Is called the “Hawk Eye State.”

Kansas—Motto, Ad astra per aspera, “To the stars through difficulties.” Name means “Smoky water,” and is derived from one of her rivers.

Kentucky—Motto, “United we stand, divided we fall.” Bears the Indian name of one of her rivers. The Indians termed it the “dark and bloody ground.” It was the battle field of Northern and Southern Indians. Is called the “Blue Grass State.”

Louisiana—Motto, “Union and confidence.” Named from Louis XIV, King of France. It is called “The Creole State.”

Maine—Latin motto, Dirigo, “I direct;” indicative of sovereignty. Was named for a province of France. Is called “The Pine Tree State.”

Maryland—Latin motto, Crescite et multiplicamini, “Increase and multiply.” Name from the Queen of England, the wife of Charles I.

Massachusetts—Latin motto, Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem, “By the sword she seeks placid rest in liberty,” or “Conquers a peace.” The name was acquired from an Indian tribe and the bay on her coast. Is called the “Bay State” from her numerous bays.

Michigan—Latin motto, Tuebor, and, Si quæris peninsulam amœnam circumspice. “I will defend.” “If you seek a pleasant peninsula, look around you.” The name is derived from two Indian words meaning “Great Lake,” by them applied to Huron and Michigan lakes. Is called “The Wolverine State.”

Minnesota—French motto, L’Etoile du Nord, “The Star of the North.” The name, meaning whitish water, (foam of the falls,) is derived from the Indians.

Missouri—Latin motto, Salus populi suprema lex esto, “Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law.” Named from her great river. It means “Muddy water.”

Mississippi—Has no motto. It is named from the river, whose name signifies “The Father of Waters.”

Nebraska—Motto, “Equality before the law.” Its name is derived from one of its rivers, meaning “broad and shallow, or low.”

New Hampshire—Has no motto. It is named from a county in England. Familiar name is “The Old Granite State.”

New Jersey—Motto, “Liberty and Independence.” Named for the Island of Jersey on the coast of England.

New York—Latin motto, Excelsior, “Higher.” Named from the Duke of York. Is called “The Empire State.”

North Carolina—Has no motto. It was named for Charles IX, King of France. It is called “The old North,” or “The Turpentine State.”

Nevada—Latin motto, Volens et potens, “Willing and Able.” It was named from its mountains. Spanish name means “Snowy.”

Ohio—Latin motto, Imperium in imperio, “An empire in an empire.” It took its name from the river on its south boundary. It is familiarly called “The Buckeye State.”

Oregon—Latin motto, Alis volat propriis, “She flies with her own wings.” Name is derived from her principal river.

Pennsylvania—Motto, “Virtue, liberty and independence.” Named from Wm. Penn, “Penn’s woods.” Is called the “Keystone State.”

Rhode Island—Her motto is “Hope.” Named from the Island of Rhodes, in the Mediterranean Sea. Is familiarly called “Little Rhody.”

South Carolina—Latin motto, Animis opibusque parati, “Ready in will and deed.” Has the Latin name of Charles IX, of France (Carolus). Is known as the “Palmetto State.”

Tennessee—Motto, “Agriculture, Commerce.” Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. She is called “The Big Bend State.”

Texas—Has no motto. Has preserved its Mexican name. Is called “The Lone Star State.”

Vermont—Motto, “Freedom and Unity.” Has the French name of her mountains (Verd Mont, “Green Mountains”).

Virginia—Latin motto, Sic semper tyrannis, “So always with tyrants.” Was named from Elizabeth of England, the “Virgin” Queen. It is called “The Old Dominion.”

West Virginia—Latin motto, Montani semper liberi, “Mountaineers are always free.” Retained the former name, when divided from Virginia.

Wisconsin—Latin motto, Civilitas successit barbarum, “The civilized man succeeds the barbarous.” Has the Indian name of one of her rivers. It is called “The Badger State.”

CHAPTER LXVIII.
THE NATIONAL DOMAIN.

1. When the War of Independence closed, and the people and government had leisure to look about them and estimate their situation, they found the organized States covering the coast from Nova Scotia to Florida, (then in possession of Spain.) There was no vacant territory near the ocean; but west of the States—which run back only a few hundred miles—was a vast region, peopled by a few tribes of Indians and, in Kentucky and Tennessee, by a few hundred whites. These with singular hardihood and self reliance, had not hesitated to brave a thousand perils to get possession of the charming valleys and fertile savannahs of the eastern part of the great Mississippi Valley. The settlements were made near the mountains that skirted the western boundaries of the original States. Beyond, to the Mississippi river, extended as beautiful and fertile a territory as any land could boast; many times larger than the original territory, whose people, poor and few as they were, had fought for and won it by persistent bravery. It lay in virgin beauty and wealth, the prize of their strong hands and courageous hearts. The future of the new government once determined, and the fundamental Law of the Land adopted, they prepared to take possession by organizing a government over those already there, surveying and laying off the unsettled lands, and bringing them into market for sale and settlement.

2. The States had owned all the property, and held all the real power, up to the adoption of the present Constitution. It was now agreed that the unsettled lands should be considered as the common property of the whole country, and be administered by the General Government. It was not without much difficulty, and many severe contests, that this point was so settled. There were two parties; one headed by Alexander Hamilton who wished a strong, consolidated central government; the other, afraid to confer on it too much power lest it should prove a tyrannical master, wished to preserve most of the substance of power in the State governments. They were led by Thomas Jefferson. The adoption of the Constitution was difficult, and the struggle over it perilous to the confederation. It embraced the main views of the first party. But for the personal influence of Washington, who had presided over the Convention that framed it, and had, as it were, been its father, it could not have received the approval of the majority of the people. The people allowed their fears to be overruled by their trust in his wisdom and prudence.

He alone it has been believed could have put its machinery in successful operation; and the admirable manner in which the statesmen, in Congress and the executive offices, infused the spirit of freedom and moderation into the administration, following in the lead of the revered “Father of his Country,” settled it in the confidence and affections of the people.

3. We have dwelt on this point because it is intimately related to the organization and government of the Territories, and to the provision made for the increase of States. It was important that they should be in harmony with the original ones, and there were no means of securing this and providing against the future growth of governments, differing from those of the original States, but by giving the central power a general control over them. The Constitution conferred it on Congress. Ohio, and all the territory north of the Ohio river, was obliged to wait till this point was settled, before it could be opened to the entrance of emigrants. This region was early erected into a separate government, by Congress, called the Northwest Territory. The region south of the river was treated in the same manner a little later. In 1800 the Mississippi Territory was organized; thus covering all the ground originally belonging to the New Republic. These were, as population increased, divided into sections, of convenient size for the purpose of local self government, and states created as fast as the requisite number of citizens had collected within such limits; and the remainder continued under the preliminary territorial rule.

4. In 1802, the vast region west of the Mississippi was bought of the French government. This extended the National Domain from the mouth to the head waters of this river, and westward, north of the Spanish possessions, to the Pacific ocean. Many new States and Territories have been formed from it. The process of multiplication has not yet ceased in this region. In 1819 Florida was purchased; a part of Mexico was obtained in 1848, and again in 1853; and the increase of territory continued by the acquisition of Alaska in 1867. This policy has become, in a manner, traditional, and it is not unlikely that it may be continued to some extent in the future.

5. The government of the territories is established by act of Congress; the President nominates and the Senate confirms the Governor, Secretary, and Judges of the courts; and Congress passes all the general laws for the government of the inhabitants. A Territorial Legislature is elected by the inhabitants, which takes charge of all the local interests of the Territory. All these laws and organizations are temporary, and pass away when a State government is founded. Commonly, an act of Congress authorizes the election of Delegates to a Convention for framing a State Constitution; though the Territorial Government sometimes takes the initiative. This constitution is then submitted to the popular vote of the citizens in the Territory; and if they favor it, presented to Congress for its approval. If it is in harmony with our usages, and republican principles, Congress accepts it, and, if the President does not see cause to veto it, a new State has come into existence. In this manner the number of the States has become nearly three times as numerous as at the beginning.

CHAPTER LXIX.
THE INDIVIDUAL TERRITORIES.

The territories are here arranged in the order of seniority, the one which first received a territorial government taking the lead. The District of Columbia is older than any of them as acknowledged National property, the Louisiana Purchase having been made since it was ceded to the general Government; but it was the last to receive a territorial organization, Congress governing it directly without giving it representation until 1871. It is placed last for that reason.

NEW MEXICO

Was visited at an early period by Spaniards, who, excited by the success of the followers of Cortez and Pizarro in discovering rich mines of gold and silver, sought the wealth in the dangers and hardships of travel which is more often, if more slowly, found as the reward of patient toil. An expedition from Florida made the formidable overland journey to New Mexico, in 1537; and another from Mexico, after visiting the Gila River, passed eastward beyond the Rio Grande in 1540. In 1581 its mineral wealth became known and a mission was attempted; but no settlement was made until 1600, when formal possession was taken by an adequate army. The missions now became very successful and the mines were worked. Many of the natives were considerably advanced in some of the arts of civilization. In 1680 the natives revolted, from the severe servitude to which they were subjected, and drove the Spaniards out of the country. They only recovered it in 1698. It was never very numerously peopled by whites. In 1846 it was conquered by General Kearney, and in 1848 ceded to the United States by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The difficulties of transportation and the wild and lawless character of the inhabitants has prevented any extensive emigration to it by Americans. It is an elevated table-land, nearly 7,000 feet above the surface of the sea, crossed by several ranges of mountains sometimes rising 10,000 feet above the general surface of the country. The atmosphere is dry; little rain falls; and agriculture is usually successful only with irrigation. In the valleys, where this is employed, the fertility of the soil is marvelous. Often two crops are raised, on the same land, in the year. Wheat and other grains are raised in great perfection. Cotton is successful in some parts, fruit can be raised in abundance, and the soil is said to be specially favorable to the grape, the wine rivaling that of France.

Gold and silver abound, but the mines have never been effectively worked for want of transportation and the requisite capital. Stock raising is a profitable occupation in this Territory. Much of the land unfit for cultivation produces grass which cures in drying during the hot months, and preserves all its nutritious qualities. Sheep and mules are extensively raised. When the Pacific railroad shall open the country to immigration, and order, industry, and capital make the most of its resources, it will be ranked among the favored parts of the Union.

It has many natural curiosities, and much wild and beautiful scenery. The length of the Rio Grande, in its windings in the Territory, is about 1200 miles; and its valley from one to twelve miles wide. Its Territorial government was organized in 1850. The population, in 1870, was 91,878. Many tribes of Indians roam over the territory and through Texas, Arizona, and northern Mexico. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. It includes an area of about 100,000 square miles. Every free white male inhabitant living in the territory at the time of its organization had the right of suffrage, that right being regulated in other respects by its legislative Assembly.

UTAH

Was formerly a part of the Mexican territory of Upper California, and was acquired by the United States in 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. It was too distant, desolate, and dangerous a region for much settlement by Mexicans, and has little known history anterior to the explorations of Fremont between 1843 and 1846.

The first American settlement was made by the Mormons, in July, 1847, and was supposed by them to be out of the territory of the United States, and beyond the reach of possible interference. Here, in the depths of the desert, they determined to build up a peculiar religious society embracing customs abhorrent to the views and institutions of modern civilized States. Their success was a surprise to the world, and probably to themselves; the capacity of the depths of the Great American Desert, as it was called, for cultivation, exceeding all previous expectation. But the war with Mexico, then in progress, threw this, before inaccessible, desert into the limits of the American Union; and the discovery of gold in the neighboring territory of California, throwing them almost midway between the old western settlements and the new Eldorado, subjected them to contact with, and interference by, the tide of modern civilization, as it flowed toward the setting sun; and in ten years from their first appearance in the Great Central Basin of the continent, they came again into hostile conflict with the established authorities they thought to have finally escaped. Though their conflict with the United States government, imbued with the habits and prejudices with which they antagonized, was deferred by the troubles which precipitated the Civil War, and their institutions remained substantially intact until that was past; the Pacific Railroad was then built through their territory, and, if they are no longer persecuted, and their peculiarities opposed by deadly force, the moral influence and dissolving power introduced by numbers is more surely wasting away the foundations of their political and religious edifice.

Utah was organized as a territory by act of Congress Sept. 9th, 1850. Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon church, became the first governor. In 1854 it was vainly attempted to remove him; and in 1857 an army was sent to enforce Federal authority. A final conflict was avoided by compromise. In 1862 the Mormons attempted to get admission into the Union as a State, with their “peculiar institutions,” but failed. A Territorial Government exists, but has little force, or vitality, while the Mormons are large in numbers. According to the habits of our people, conflict is avoided so far as possible, to await the more peaceable and natural solution of the difficulty by moral forces.

Utah is unique in one respect; though lying nearly a mile above the surface of the sea, and having a complete system of lakes and rivers, there is no visible connection of these with the ocean. It is a continent embosomed within the depths of a continent. The Great Salt Lake is 100 miles long by 50 broad, and its waters are very salt—three parts of the water producing one of pure salt. No fish can live in it. It receives the contents of many considerable streams. Whether they are kept in subjection by evaporation alone, or have a concealed outlet to the ocean is unknown. The soil, though in its natural state an apparent desert, is extremely fertile when irrigated, and produces wheat and other cereals in great profusion. Its mountains are believed to be rich in silver and gold; but the Mormons have discouraged mining, and very little has been done in that direction.

Cotton is highly successful in the southern settlements, and experiments with flax and silk culture have been very favorable. The climate is mild and healthy.

Utah is a highly promising section of our national domain. Its population in 1870 was 86,786; its area about 87,500 square miles.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY

Was organized in 1853, and then contained a much larger area. It was at first a part of Oregon, and its meagre early history was the same. The Straits of San Juan de Fuca were visited and named by a Spanish navigator in 1775. The English government claimed the territory north of the Columbia and for some years there was a joint occupation by both nations by special agreement. The difficulties concerning this boundary came near involving the two nations in war, but it was settled in 1846, giving the United States the territory to the 49th parallel of latitude. Vancouver Island was assigned to Great Britain.

Washington is estimated to contain, west of the Columbia river, where it flows down from British America, 22,000 square miles of arable land. There is much that is adapted only to grazing, and vast quantities covered with forests in the wild mountain regions of the eastern part of the territory.

It has an almost inexhaustible supply of coal, and more or less of the precious metals. The great distinction of Washington territory is its forests. The warm ocean currents from the Indian ocean, after traversing the eastern coasts of Asia, are thrown across the North Pacific against the western shores of North America, and effect an important modification in the severity and humidity of the temperature of our Pacific slope. The climate is much milder and more equable than in the same latitude east of the mountains, and the moisture is highly favorable to forest growth. It is the best ship building timber in the world. The trees are immense, often reaching a height of 300 feet with a diameter of 8 to 12 feet.

The portion of Washington territory lying west of the Cascade mountains is rich farming land, heavily timbered; while east of the Cascades the country is open prairie, well watered, with small and thinly wooded valleys. The land immediately about Puget Sound is sandy, not valuable for farming though producing timber, but a little way back is unrivaled in richness.

Corn does not thrive well, but wheat, oats, potatoes, &c., are very prolific. Large quantities of butter, cheese, and wool are produced. There is little snow in the winter and that soon melts away, except far up in the mountains. Washington shares with Oregon the possession and use of the Columbia river. There are fine fisheries on the coast and excellent oysters, and these produce a considerable trade. Immense quantities of lumber are exported to all parts of the Pacific coast of both North and South America, and even to Buenos Ayres on the South Atlantic. The French come here for their best and cheapest masts and spars. Thus we see that this corner of the Republic brings to the common stock of national treasures some of its best and most valuable material of wealth, and is prepared to whiten the Pacific with the sails of the unlimited commerce which is already beginning to grow up between us and the Asiatics. Puget Sound can float with ease the navies of the world on its peaceful bosom. The Northern Pacific railroad will originate here, probably, another great commercial emporium. Washington will, in due time, become a great and wealthy State.

Its area is about 70,000 square miles; and the population in 1870 was 23,901.

DACOTAH.

This territory received an organization and government in 1861. It contains 240,000 square miles; and is greater in extent than all New England together with the great and wealthy States of New York and Pennsylvania; and possesses some peculiar advantages.

The Missouri River passes from southeast to northwest diagonally through it, navigable for its whole length, a distance of more than a thousand miles; the Red River of the North skirts its eastern line, its valley being unrivalled for its richness, and adaptation to the growth of wheat. Except the extreme northern part it is said to have the dry, pure, and healthy climate of Southern Minnesota, with the soil of Central Illinois.

It is free from the damp, raw, and chilly weather prevailing in Iowa and Illinois, and from the embarrassments to agriculture often experienced in these States from excessive spring rains; while, in late spring and early summer, copious showers supply sufficient moisture to promote a rapid vegetable growth. The surface east and north of the Missouri is an undulating prairie, free from marsh, swamp, and slough, traversed by many streams and dotted with innumerable lakes, of various sizes, whose woody and rocky shores and gravel bottoms supply the purest water, and lend the enchantment of extreme beauty to the landscape.

It has all the conditions of climate, soil, and transportation, for the most profitable production of the two great staples of American agriculture, wheat and corn. West of the Missouri the country becomes more rolling, then broken and hilly, until the lofty chain of the Rocky Mountains is reached. These mountains cross the southwestern section. A most desirable stock raising region is furnished here, and mining will flourish in the mountains. In 1870 it had a population of 14,181. Yankton is the capital.

ARIZONA.

The Spaniards visited the valley of the Colorado at an early day; but the distance from Mexico, and the warlike character of the Indians, did not favor settlement beyond what was gathered about the few missions that were constructed so as to answer for fortresses.

The part of this territory lying between Sonora, (of which it formed part,) and California was acquired to the United States by the Gadsden treaty, made with Mexico Dec. 30th, 1853. The American government paid $10,000,000 for it. A Territorial government was organized Feb. 24th, 1863, and embraced part of New Mexico, containing, altogether, an area of 121,000 square miles, or 77,440,000 acres.

Efforts had been made previously to settle the country and develop its mines; and an overland mail stage route was established. This proved a success; but the fierce hostility of the Apache Indians, and the desperate character of such whites as had gathered there, fleeing from justice in California and Sonora, discouraged the immigration of law-abiding citizens; and the breaking out of the Civil War withdrew the soldiers in garrison there for the protection of the country. After the war the main stream of emigration followed the line of the newly opened Pacific railroad. The development of the mines required capital and machinery and, though they are thought to be the richest in the world, nothing could be extracted from them by individuals without means. So the population has increased slowly, the census of 1870 giving 9,658.

It is a strange and somewhat fearful land; in great part a region of desolate mountains and deep canons. There are many sections susceptible of cultivation that would produce immense returns under irrigation, but most of the efforts in this direction have miscarried from the desolating ravages of the Indians. The rainless season reduces the whole country to the semblance of a desert. It is, however, declared to have more arable land in proportion to its surface than New Mexico, or California; and will probably, in time, have a large and prosperous farming community. Cotton is easily cultivated, and sugar cane, in the lower parts, produces abundantly. Grains, vegetables, and melons are produced in the greatest possible perfection, and mature in an incredibly short space of time.

When the Apaches are subdued, and society is reduced to order, it will become a favorite resort of the thrifty farmers of the older States, and the diligent German and other foreign immigrants.

It contains many traces of a race that has disappeared; some of their dwellings yet remaining in a partially ruinous state. They were probably Aztecs, the race that ruled Mexico before the conquest by Cortez, or are more ancient still. Hideous idols are found, and various indications of a barbarous worship.

The completion of the Southern Pacific railway will introduce the hum of industry among its desolate mountains and along its numerous fertile valleys, and the acquisition of the mouth of the Colorado, a large river opening into the head of the Gulf of California, will give it a profitable commerce. Arizona lies south of Utah, to which it is superior in the number and size of its streams, its larger quantity of timber, and the amount of rain-fall in some parts, which is deemed, in some sections, sufficient to dispense with the necessity of irrigation.

IDAHO.

This territory was organized March 3rd, 1863. It originally embraced a vast territory lying on both sides of the main chain of the Rocky Mountains; but the eastern portion has since been erected into the territory of Montana. It has about 90,000 square miles of territory, and had, in 1870, 14,998 inhabitants.

Idaho has very little history prior to the organization of its Territorial government. Its chief attraction to settlers lies in its mines, as yet, and the population is floating, and, in large part, rough and sometimes disorderly. The difficulty of reaching it has prevented its rapid growth. It is exceedingly rich in the precious metals and this will, in time, attract a large population. The eastern and northern parts are very mountainous, abounding in wild and striking scenery and in natural curiosities. The soil in the southern, central, and western parts, is fertile, producing wheat and other small grain, and vegetables very successfully, but is unfavorable for corn from the late frosts of spring and the early cold of autumn. Snow falls to a great depth in the mountains; but the streams are numerous, and there is much choice farming land, which may, ultimately, serve to support its mining population.

It runs from the northern boundary of Utah to the south line of British America; Washington Territory and Oregon, lying west. When railroads shall render it accessible, and open the way for its treasures to a market, it will be filled with an industrious and hardy population who will find all the elements of a prosperity as great as any section of the Union enjoys. It has three beautiful lakes—the Coeur d’Aline, the Pen d’Oreille, and the Boatman—of some size, and navigable for steamers. Boisé City is the capital.

MONTANA TERRITORY

Was organized May 26th, 1864. It lies among the Rocky Mountains, in part on the western slope, but extending into the eastern valleys; and contains the sources of the streams forming the Missouri river; while Idaho lies west among the Blue mountains where the tributaries of the Columbia rise.

Montana abounds in mines of gold and silver; and these are said to be much richer than those of California. The average yield of ores in the latter State is $20 per ton, but the average in Montana is stated to be four times that amount. Great as is the yield of gold mines here it is declared that the ease with which silver is separated from its combinations in the ore will make that branch of mining more profitable. Copper also abounds. This territory has several eminent advantages over other mining districts. It is reached by steamboats on the Missouri river, from St. Louis, without transhipment: navigation being free to Ft. Benton, in the heart of Montana. The river voyage from St. Louis to Ft. Benton, is made in 28 days.

There is a large and constant supply of water, a point of great difficulty in most of the other mining regions; and the country everywhere furnishes easy natural roads, the principal range of the Rocky Mountains not presenting the broken and rugged character of most other ranges. Associated with this point is the important fact of great agricultural capability. It is one of the best grazing regions west of the Mississippi. Small grain and fruit are grown with the greatest ease, as also the more important vegetables. There is abundance of timber for all purposes of home consumption.

The area is stated at 153,800 square miles. The population in 1870 was 20,594.

ALASKA TERRITORY

Was acquired to the United States by treaty with Russia in the year 1867, for $7,200,000. It is a vast region containing 394,000 square miles, with 24,000 inhabitants.

It was first explored by command of Peter the Great of Russia in 1728. A government was first established on Kodiak island in 1790. In 1799 the Russian American fur company was chartered by the Emperor Paul.

The northern portion is a tolerably compact body of mainly level country about 600 miles square, and a line of coast runs south for a long distance, including many islands. The Aleutian group of islands is included. The principal value of the region to Russia was the fur trade. The annual export of these amounted to only a few hundred thousand dollars. American thrift will probably make much more of it.

The country is much warmer than its high latitude would seem to imply—Sitka in the southern part having about the same mean temperature, by the thermometer, as Washington! It is, however, extremely damp. In one year there were counted only 66 entire days without rain or snow. The coast is broken with mountains. The peninsula of Alaska has some very high mountains—Mt. St. Elias and Mt. Fairweather being estimated at 15,000 to 18,000 feet above the sea. The islands of the Aleutian group are volcanic in origin. There are several rivers, the largest, the Yukon, or Kwickpak being 2,000 miles long, and navigable for 1,500 miles. There are vast supplies of timber, much being pine, found nowhere else on the Pacific coast. Vegetables, and some grains, may be raised without difficulty, and the soil, in parts, is rich. Abundant supplies of coal are believed to exist. The precious metals and iron, it is thought, are to be found there, but the country has been very imperfectly explored.

In the lively and extensive trade that is likely to grow up with Japan, China, and the East Indies, it will no doubt be found of great value, and its resources contribute to the wealth of our country.

WYOMING TERRITORY

Was organized by act of Congress July 25th, 1868, and is the youngest of the territories. Its area is stated at 100,500 square miles, and it had a population, in 1870, of 9,118.

The Pacific railroad passes through it, to which its settlement is probably mainly due. Montana lies on the north; Dacotah and Nebraska on the east; Colorado and Utah on the south, with the northern part of Utah and Idaho on the west.

The main chain of the Rocky Mountains crosses it from northwest to southeast which maintain here the same general characteristic as in Montana, viz.: that of a rolling upland. Its outlying ranges are more broken. Most of the country is good arable, or grazing land, sufficiently fertile to give excellent returns for labor, though, in large part, requiring irrigation. A few regions are remarkably sterile, but they are limited in comparison with the fertile lands.

Gold mining has been successful, to a considerable extent; coal is extremely abundant and accessible; the supplies for the Pacific railroad being obtained in this territory. Iron has been found in considerable quantities, together with lead and copper ores. Oil and salt springs promise to be productive.

Thus without, as yet, developing any eminent specialty, the resources of this Territory seem to promise all the requisites of prosperity to a large population; while the climate is mild and extremely healthy, and the great thoroughfare between the east and the west furnishes all necessary facilities for transporting its supplies to the best markets. More intimate knowledge of its mineral deposits may perhaps give it a higher rank as a mining State.

THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

The first Congress convened under the new Constitution in 1789, held its session in New York. The seat of government was then removed to Philadelphia. There was much dissension as to where it should be permanently located. The North and the South, were each equally obstinate in their desire to locate it in their own section, and the quarrel threatened a rupture of the confederacy. The great political question of the time was the debts of the States contracted in carrying on the War of Independence. The South, disliking a strong central-government, opposed giving the charge of the finances of the country into its hands; while the North, strongly approved the plan of clothing it with authority to concentrate the strength of the nation to a reasonable extent, so that it might be able to act with vigor, and make the country formidable to its enemies. The reservation of as much power as possible to the individual States was a vital question with the South, since it wished to maintain Slavery, and it was always foreseen that the north must preponderate, ultimately, in the general government; and the north was unfriendly to slavery. The Constitution could make its way in the South only by compromise as to slavery.

The question was a very difficult and delicate one to adjust, but with much tact Jefferson and Hamilton, usually antagonists in politics, united to urge a compromise; the North conceding the location of the national capital, and the South the assumption, by the general government, of the State debts. This was accomplished in 1790, and Washington selected the site on his own Potomac, Virginia and Maryland uniting to give a tract ten miles square, extending to both sides of the river. A new city was laid out, and buildings erected which were occupied for the first time in 1800. This small territory, the government and control of which was lodged wholly in Congress, was called “Columbia.” This possession of its own capital was considered important in order to avoid a possible conflict of Federal and State authority.

The capital city was located on the Maryland side, and called Washington. The territory on the Virginia side was, in 1846, re-ceded to Virginia. On Feb. 21st, 1871, the District was made a territory, with a legislature for its internal government, and the right to be represented by one member in the House of Representatives.

The population in 1870 was 131,706. Washington is adorned with many immense buildings erected for the various departments of the government, and the capitol itself is one of the largest in the world, and cost $5,000,000. It is worthy of the great nation represented in its halls.

CHAPTER LXX.
THE ANNEXATION POLICY.

1. The original States of the American Union were all on the Atlantic seaboard. The central States were separated from the fertile valleys and plains of the Mississippi and its tributaries by mountains, while those lying at the northern and southern extreme found, in the vast forests filled with fierce and hostile savages, a still greater barrier against settlement westward. The “Old Thirteen” found their hands and thoughts sufficiently occupied with the establishment of their liberties, and the ultimate western boundaries of the country were left to be settled in future years. Fortunately for us England was too much occupied with the immense debt the useless American war had cost her to make difficulties over the cession of the western regions to us; and, at the peace, we were in possession of the whole region from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river. That was enough and more for the present; but the people were enterprising. We offered a home, freedom, and great opportunities to the oppressed and poor of other lands, and that region was soon sufficiently peopled to show what other regions were required to secure the prosperity of all.

2. It soon became clear that the development of the Western States east of the Mississippi required the possession of the lower part of the river and the territory on its western bank. Circumstances were favorable to its acquisition, and Louisiana, extending from the mouth of the river far up toward its head waters, including several hundred thousand square miles of as valuable land as was to be found on the continent, was purchased. It entered into the vindictive policy of Napoleon Bonaparte to injure England by strengthening America, and it was obtained for the comparatively insignificant sum of fifteen million dollars. This annexation was altogether essential to the security and development of the larger part of the original territory.

3. Florida was discovered and settled by the Spaniards, who claimed the coast along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi river. Though it was not commercially or agriculturally important to us, it became in the hands of a power not very friendly, the support and refuge of the barbarous and resolutely hostile Indians of our southern border. It was necessary to nearly exterminate them to obtain peace, but no absolute security could be assured while the Spanish territory protected them in their retreat before our armies. Peace, security against the Indians, and freedom from the intermeddling of a European Power required the acquisition of that peninsula and the Gulf Coast. After twenty years of occasional negotiation it was purchased for five millions of dollars. This was the most convenient way, also, of settling an account for spoliations on our commerce which we held against Spain, and the only means she then possessed of making payment. Thus another annexation was made under the pressure of circumstances.

4. By this time a sufficient degree of expansion and strength had been acquired by the New Nation to inspire in it great confidence in itself and grand views of its future, and the “Monroe Doctrine,” that the United States would refrain from all meddling with the politics of Europe, but would resolutely oppose the meddling of any European power with the politics of this continent, was adopted. This doctrine did not propose any interference with other governments already established here, but America was to be left to its present possessors, and European ambition was to look elsewhere for kingdoms to conquer or found. A tacit protectorate over all America was assumed, in order to prevent the entrance of any other element that might build up a system hostile to our interests and progress. It was a legitimate conclusion from the principles and necessities that had led to the inauguration of the annexation policy. The nation claimed that it had a right to keep the ground clear from obstacles to its natural development. It was a system of growth and protection involving no ideas of conquest by force, and no menace to governments already established.

5. The third addition to our territorial area took place under circumstances which all true Americans will ever regret. If stated by our enemies it would be said that, after encouraging the settlement of the territory of a neighbor by our own citizens, and giving them covert support in withdrawing that territory from its proper owners, we took possession of it, and when they naturally undertook to protect, or recover it, we made a war of invasion on them, employed our superior skill and vigor to disarm their State, and took as much more of their territory as suited our purposes; in short, that we picked a quarrel, and being the strongest bound and robbed them.

6. It cannot be agreeable to lovers of justice and defenders of equal rights, that there should be so much of truth in this statement as to render it impossible to clearly and distinctly prove the contrary. There was, however, an element of the necessary and unavoidable, even in this, that was more in harmony with the previous system of acquisition than appeared on the surface. Texas presented, perhaps, the finest climate and the greatest facilities for money-making on the continent. The Mexicans inherited the religion and hatred of protestants with the haughty, repelling spirit of the Spaniards, and wished to preserve the old Spanish policy of separating themselves from us by a broad barrier of desert and wilderness. They did not wish to settle Texas themselves, nor feel willing that any one else should. It is inevitable that enterprise and strength, impelled by self-interest, will disregard such wishes. Americans are neither perfect nor magnanimous enough to stand on ceremony when their interests are concerned. The best that can be said of them is that they are more moderate and self-contained than any other people. The necessities of the institution of slavery required more territory to balance the rapid increase of free States, and this precipitated the movement that was inevitable sooner or later from other causes. Indeed the first patent of territory obtained in Texas, from the Mexican government, was by a native of Connecticut. The rapid growth of commerce in the Pacific ocean, the agreeable climate and fertile soil of California, and the unsettled, wilderness state of that region, caused the commercial nations of Europe to look at it with longing eyes. The Monroe doctrine was in danger of being violated. England had fully prepared to plant a colony there when it was taken possession of by the American forces.

7. Thus the enterprise and energy of the nation, which had still further developed its instinct, or anticipations and plans, of future greatness, required to use the vast resources of the Gulf region, and to extend settlements to the Pacific Slope in order to develop the mineral resources of that region and prepare to build up its commerce with Eastern Asia. The northern parts of Mexico were useless to her, since she had neither population to occupy them, nor strength to subdue the Indians who roamed over them in scattered bands. There is a justice and propriety which has the force of Natural Law in allowing the active and vigorous to take possession of the natural resources that others can not or will not develop. The earth was made for mankind as a whole, and what cannot benefit one race, another, that is able to employ it for its own and the general good, has some show of right in entering upon. That, at least, must be the justification of our ancestors in intruding themselves upon the lands and hunting grounds of the aboriginal inhabitants of America, and our only excuse for making war with the Indians, forcing them to part with their lands, confining them to reservations, and denying to King Philip, Powhattan, and Tecumseh the admiration and esteem we give to the patriotic defenders of our native land and natural rights.

8. It is to be regretted that the vast and valuable territory acquired from Mexico should be the spoil of conquest rather than the fruit of peaceful negotiation; but the eagerness of the speculator, the unreasonable pride and selfishness of the Mexican, and the peculiar requirements of our internal conflict over slavery put to silence, for a time, the voice of moderation and equity, and we annexed near 1,000,000 square miles of territory by force. The payment of $18,500,000, when we might have taken it without, was an indication that our ordinary sense of justice was not altogether quenched.

9. We may reasonably consider that this was exceptional, and that the confusion of judgment and the disorder consequent on the life and death struggle of the institution of slavery, which were in a few years to produce the most terrible civil war known to history, led us into the comparatively moderate aggression and violence that marked this annexation to our territorial area. Our traditional policy is to acquire peaceably, and with a satisfactory remuneration, such territory as the national progress and development demand. It is contrary to the spirit of our institutions to oblige the majority of the inhabitants of any region not within our boundaries to form a part of the Republic.

10. Two annexations have been made since the Mexican war. Arizona was obtained by treaty and purchase from Mexico, in 1854, and Alaska by treaty and purchase from Russia, in 1867. The first is valuable for its mineral treasures. It was useless to Mexico, though we gave $10,000,000 for it. It will ultimately be worth to us hundreds of millions, and its ruins of an ancient people will be replaced by a thriving population of intelligent freemen. Alaska is specially valuable in relation to our future commerce with Asia, and for its fisheries and fur trade. Its internal resources are, as yet, scarcely known.

11. The superior stability of American institutions and the love of law and order of the American people may make annexation desirable and profitable to the more volatile and unsteady Southern States of America, but it is probable that no labored efforts to induce annexation will be tolerated by the mass of the people. We may fairly judge that we have reached our natural boundaries; that the advancement of neighboring governments in order and intelligence will suffice to give protection to the comparatively small numbers who may find a better field for their energies without than within the Union; and that if any future annexations are made it will be by the purchase of uninhabited regions that may be more valuable to us than to their owners; or that, if any inhabited regions are incorporated into the Union, it will be at the instance and desire of its own inhabitants rather than of our people. We are the special champions of popular and all other rights, and shall never be likely to forget ourselves again so far as to repeat the Mexican war, however pressing our desires.

CHAPTER LXXI.
CENSUS STATISTICS.

Population of the United States and Territories from 1790 to 1870.

Transcriber’s Note: Some of the figures in this table are unreadable and are represented by X. Several copies of the book were checked and all have the same printing error. Later editions use different figures in that column and can’t be relied on to fill in the missing data.

States.Where Settled.179018001810182018301840185018601870Slaves
in 1790		Slaves
in 1860
AlabamaMobile——————127901309527590756771623964201996988——435132
ArkansasArkansas Post——————142553038897574209897435450483179——111104
CaliforniaMonterey————————————92597379994560285————
ConnecticutWindsor2381412512022620422751022976753099783707924601475374182759——
DelawareCape Henlopen5909664273726747274976748780859153211221512501588871798
FloridaSt. Augustine————————347305447787445140425187756——61753
GeorgiaSavannah825481621012524333409835168236913929061851057286120060929264462232
IllinoisKaskaskia————122825510215744547618385147017119512539638————
IndianaVincennes——48752452014717834303168586698841613504281673046————
IowaDubuque——————————431121922146749131191802————
KansasFort Leavenworth——————————————107206362872————
KentuckyBoonesboro730772209554065115641356879177798289824051155684132100111830225490
LouisianaIberville————76556152923215739352411517762708002XXXX731——333010
MaineYork9654015171922870598269399455501793583169628279XXXX463————
MarylandSt. Marys319728341584380546407350447040470019583034687049XXXX80610303687188
MassachusettsPlymouth37871842324547204052315961040873769999451412310661XXXX351————
MichiganDetroit————47628765316392122673976547491131184296————
MinnesotaFort Snelling————————————6077172173435511————
MississippiNatchez——88504035275448136621375651606526791305834170——436696
MissouriSt. Genevieve————208456657714045538370268204411820121715000——114965
Nebraska————————————————28841123000————
Nevada————————————————685742491————
New HampshireDover141899183762214360244022269328284574317976326073318300158——
New JerseyBergen18413921194924555527742632082337330648955567203590579411423——
New YorkAlbany34012058675695904913721111918608242892130973943880735436441121324——
North CarolinaRoanoke River3937514781035555006388297379877534198690399926221069614100572331081
OhioMarietta——453652307605812959379031519467198032923395112662214————
OregonAstoria————————————132945246590922————
PennsylvaniaDelaware Co.4343736023618100911047507134823317240332311786290611535159933787——
Rhode IslandProvidence6911069122770318301597199108830147545174620217356952——
South CarolinaPort Royal249073245591415115402741581185594398668507703708728000107194402541
TennesseeFort Loudon357911056022617274227616819048292101002717110980112579833417275784
TexasMatagorda————————————212592604215797500——180682
VermontBrattleboro85416154465217713235749280652291948314120315098330552————
VirginiaJamestown748308880200974622106512912114051239797142166112466901224830}293427{472516
West Virginia————————————————34962844561618371
WisconsinPr. du Chien——————————309453053917758811055167————
Territories.
Arizona——————————————————9,658————
Colorado————————————————36,53839,706————
Dakota————————————————2,57614,181————
Idaho——————————————————14,998————
Montana——————————————————20,594————
New Mexico——————————————61,54783,00991,852————
Utah——————————————11,38040,69986,786————
Washington————————————————11,16823,901————
Wyoming——————————————————9,118————
Dist. of Columbia————14,09324,02333,03939,83443,71251,68775,080131,706————
Total population in17903,929,827
”18005,305,937
”18107,239,814
”18209,638,131
”183012,866,020
”184017,069,453
”185023,191,876
”186031,747,514
”187038,538,180
To which add Indians and
others in Indian territory,
not included in Census		304,192
Grand total in 187038,842,372

Note.—Returns of the colored population of the United States received at the Census Office show a total in all the States and Territories of 4,857,000, being an increase of 9.35-100 per cent. since 1860. The State of Georgia has the largest colored population; Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, South Carolina, North Carolina and Louisiana follow next in order.

As shown in the last census (1870), the seven leading States rank, according to population, as follows: (1) New York; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) Ohio; (4) Illinois; (5) Missouri; (6) Indiana; (7) Massachusetts. Thus four out of the seven most populous States are “new States;” that is, they were not included in the original “thirteen.” In 1789, the four States at the head of the list were: (1) Virginia; (2) Pennsylvania; (3) North Carolina; (4) Massachusetts. At present, Virginia (if the State had not been divided) would have ranked in the seventh place, or next after Indiana. In absolute increase of inhabitants, Pennsylvania heads the list of the old States in the last decade: and the total population of said State is about equal to that of the thirteen States of Connecticut, Arkansas, West Virginia, Minnesota, Kansas, Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Florida, Delaware, Nebraska, Oregon and Nevada. The aggregate population of the six New England States of Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont and Rhode Island falls considerably short of that of Pennsylvania. The States west of the Mississippi, including the Pacific States, have about one-sixth of the whole population of the United States.

The ratio of increase in population from 1790 to 1800 was 35.02 per cent.; from 1800 to 1810, 36.45 per cent.; from 1810 to 1820, 33.13 per cent.; from 1820 to 1830, 33.49 per cent.; from 1830 to 1840, 32.67 per cent.; from 1840 to 1850, 38.57 per cent.; from 1850 to 1860, 37.75 per cent.; from 1860 to 1870, 22.34 per cent. Supposing the increase during this decade (since 1870) to be 30 per cent. there would be in 1875 nearly 45,000,000 inhabitants. We have reason to suppose it to be at least 35 per cent. This, in 1880, would give 52,437,192.

PART THIRD.
THE PEOPLE AND THE GOVERNMENT.

1. All government is professedly for the good of the people; but in point of fact, nearly every government that has ever been instituted has been in the interest of an individual, a family, or a class. American statesmen, in forming our government, admitted the superior rights of no man or class of men. It was carefully organized to exclude all claims or pretenses of that kind, with a single exception, at first, which afterward disappeared in the tempest of a civil war. The executive, the various members of the government, and the law makers depend on the people for their elevation. At first they possessed only the dignity, privileges, and rights of the people at large, and, their term of office expired, they return to the same level, honored, indeed, if they have been faithful servants; if not, carrying to their dishonored graves the reproaches and contempt of their fellow-citizens, but retaining, in neither case, a vestige of the power and exaltation over others that clothed them when in office, the contrary of which so often makes an unworthy man respectable in a different form of government.

2. That the masses of the people would be able to exercise a true sovereignty without abusing it was always doubted until the trial was made in this country. A very respectable class of statesmen in the early days of the Republic, sympathized in this doubt, and it even crept into the Constitution in the form of electors who were to choose the President; intimating a distrust of the wisdom and sound discretion of the voters in the choice of the Chief Magistrate. The liberty allowed to the Legislatures of the States to determine the manner in which electors should be chosen, while it recognized State authority on one side, on the other implied a hesitation to trust so important a matter directly to the people; and for a long time they were only indirectly consulted as to the choice of a President.

3. It was not, however, caused by a desire to keep power from them, but rather to avoid the unhappy effect of popular heat and rashness, so often observed in popular governments before attempted. This distrustful party first took control of the government, retained it during three presidential terms, and for many years afterwards formed an influential minority whose criticisms were of importance in establishing a traditional policy for the government. This party—the Federalists, headed by Washington and Hamilton—sought to found a strong and stable government that should be able to fully protect the country from foreign interference and domestic discord. Their control over the administration was somewhat abruptly closed by acts considered arbitrary, interfering with full freedom of speech and of the press—the “Sedition Laws” as they were called. Jefferson and the Republican party demanded the largest popular freedom, and had the conduct of the government for twenty-four years, impressing on its habits and policy the respect for the opinions of the people at large that has ever since characterized it. The people gradually gained control of presidential elections and practically set the electors aside, making and enforcing their own choice in general elections.

4. The exercise of popular sovereignty has gradually been enlarged, no qualification but that of age and nativity being now generally required, and the government may fairly be considered to represent the views of a majority of the people, and not only of the native, but also of the foreign born; since the great mass of the latter are, by naturalization, absorbed into the mass of citizens. They come to make a permanent home with us, from a preference, as it is fair to assume, for republican institutions; and it is considered right that they should have a voice in the conduct of them. Nor have the American people seen cause to regret their liberality in this respect. Citizens of foreign birth have usually proved as thoughtful and wise as the rest of the population, and as worthy of citizenship. They bring to us wealth in their labor if not in their purses, and soon become thoroughly American in their habits and sympathies. The government and the people cordially welcome them, and find themselves the stronger and richer by so doing.

5. It must not be forgotten that the strongest fears of popular influence on the government, the stability of our institutions, and the maintenance of the good order necessary to the security of property and the general prosperity, were entertained at the first; that the prophecies of the foreseers of evil have been almost uniformly false during its whole course; and that the relation between the people and the general government has constantly grown closer, to the great advantage of both. The first war into which the country was plunged after the Revolution—that of 1812—was comparatively a failure, in its earlier part, for want of this mutual confidence. Later the people and the government have been more closely allied, and the government has been strong while the people have seen their cherished ends gained.

There has been continual advance in liberality of administration, in efficiency of organization, and in the completeness of social order. We have no reason to suppose that a tendency, continued through a hundred years and favored by so many circumstances that are common to all nations in our generation to a degree never before known, will be changed. Rather we may confidently expect that with increased intelligence, experience, and prosperity that tendency will be strengthened.

CHAPTER I.
SUFFRAGE AND CITIZENSHIP.

1. The right pertaining to citizenship, to vote for such officers as are elected by the people, is called suffrage. When that right is acquired with respect to one class of officers it always extends to the whole, from petty town or city officials, to high officers of the State and United States government—all, in short, who obtain office directly from the people.

2. The Constitution defines who shall be regarded as citizens of the United States, and all such are declared by it to be also citizens of the State in which they reside. It declares “all persons, born, or naturalized in the United States, and subject to its jurisdiction” to be citizens. Indian tribes are mostly regarded as foreign nations, and have such rights as treaties give them, but are not taxed and do not vote; therefore they are not regarded as citizens.

3. Yet suffrage does not belong to all citizens. The special regulation of the voting prerogative was not assumed by the Constitution, nor delegated to Congress, and it is generally conceded that it belongs to the State governments. The regulations in the States are not uniform, but in no State do women or minors vote. This cuts off a large part of the citizens, nearly three-fourths belonging to these classes. Minors are supposed, however, to be represented, as to their interests, by their guardians, and females by husbands or brothers. Some of the States make minor restrictions as to length of residence in the State, and require a certain amount of property to constitute a voter, and in some naturalization is not required—so that the range of the right of suffrage varies within small limits, in different States. Whatever rule is adopted by the States has been accepted as the basis of suffrage for that State by the general government, when members of Congress and President and Vice-President are voted for.

4. It seems to be a loose point in the regulations, otherwise so admirable, since it may work a considerable inequality under given circumstances; and, in some cases, might change the policy of the government. It is a question worthy of consideration whether there should not be an amendment to the Constitution establishing uniformity of suffrage in all the States. This point has caused much discussion in the State governments and various changes have been, from time to time, made in many of them. These have been, usually, in the direction of liberality—tending to enlarge the scope of suffrage. The property qualification, quite common in earlier times, is now rare. The fifteenth amendment, recently adopted, has largely increased the number of voters.

5. The experience of the Republic, thus far, has been in favor of the doctrine that it is safe to trust the people with their own interests, and that the responsibilities of self-government, when they are laid on them under the favorable circumstances that exist among us, tend to improvement instead of disorganization. Whether this will always be the case it may not be safe to assume, and a prudent regard to possibilities should not be neglected; but we should not forget that those who founded American liberty ran great risks of anarchy in the eyes of their contemporaries. We ought to be able safely to continue a policy of suffrage which they introduced with results so fortunate.

6. Education needs to be encouraged, and this has always received much attention. It is probable that but for the very liberal provision made in this respect, the fate of our government would have been very different. Many foreigners who had no early education, have been naturalized, and the colored people born in the country have been made citizens. If the remainder of the people had not been intelligent, it would no doubt have been extremely dangerous. It has led to some serious local interruptions of order and prosperity, but they have been, so far, temporary; and the general effect has been to awaken ambition for education; the children of new-made citizens have enjoyed the same facilities as others to acquire intelligence necessary to a citizen; and the right of suffrage, when extended to the ignorant and degraded has seemed to produce the general effect of destroying a dangerous class by raising them gradually to intelligence and self-respect and respect for the laws, by making them the political equals of those who are socially and intellectually far above them.

7. As we grow in numbers all influences like this take a wider range, and acquire more power, and sometimes produce different results, when they become extensive, from what was the case when more limited, from the difference of influence in modifying causes; and there has always been fear of trouble from the extension of suffrage to too many ignorant persons. It is well to be cautious; but we ought to venture as far as possible for the sake of improving and elevating all classes of our people.

8. It is also a question worthy of attention if women who own property that is taxed ought not to possess the right of suffrage. The war that made us a Nation was begun because we refused to be taxed unless we could be represented, and have a vote in the body laying the taxes. The principle appears to be precisely the same; and what we fought for then should not be denied now.

CHAPTER II.
OUR CITIZENS OF FOREIGN BIRTH.

Whatever fault we may sometimes find with the conduct of our government; however much self-seeking to the neglect of the public good there may be among officials; however many weaknesses, errors, and violations of law may call for our severest reprobation, and, in moments of depression, lead us to look gloomily and doubtfully toward the future; yet it is not to be denied that the Home of real Freedom is with us. Mismanagement is but temporary, or limited, and easily admits of remedy, with time and care; our advantages are permanent and extensive. In eighty years the population has become nearly twelve times as numerous as at the beginning of that period, and this rapid growth in numbers has been made up largely from the disposition of foreigners to make a permanent home among us. Those who are oppressed, who suffer restraint in their interests or belief, or wish for a wider career for themselves or their families—who want a free field for business enterprise, for mental and moral development, or full play for their abilities to influence their fellow men, come to us. Here they find fair opportunity for what may be lacking elsewhere. They come here by millions; the poor, by industry, become rich; the oppressed leave persecutions and galling burdens behind them; and genius finds full play for its aspirations in whatever direction its energies may be turned.

At the time of the last Census there were 5,566,546 persons in the Union, and forming part of our population, of foreign birth. A large part of these have become citizens by Naturalization. The remainder, or their descendants, if they remain here, will become citizens by that process, or by lapse of time.

After they have become familiar with our institution, ideas, and habits, they are incorporated with the body of our citizens and are a part of the Nation. The naturalized citizen may become, in time, a State officer, or member of Congress, if he can make himself acceptable to his fellow citizens; or he may possibly live to see his son President of the United States.

Congress alone has power, under the Constitution, to enact naturalization laws. Suffrage, or the right of voting, is left to the regulation of the States, within certain limits; but every citizen, made such by law of the General Government, is also a citizen of the State in which he resides, and will acquire, within such times as State regulations shall determine, the right to vote.

State laws regarding suffrage vary. Some States even admit aliens who are not citizens of the United States to the right of suffrage and to other privileges; and most require any citizen to reside a prescribed length of time in the State before he can vote. A uniform regulation in all the States would be desirable.

HOW TO BECOME A CITIZEN.

Any alien, having arrived in the United States after the age of eighteen years, may be admitted to the rights of citizenship, after a declaration, upon his part, or oath or affirmation, before the Supreme, Superior, District, or Circuit Court of, or any court of record having common law jurisdiction in, any of the United States, or of the territories thereto belonging, or before a Circuit or District Court of the United States, or the Clerk or Prothonotary of any of the aforesaid courts, two years at least before his admission, that it is his bona fide intention to become a citizen of the United States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty whatever, and particularly by name, the prince, potentate, State, or sovereignty, whereof such alien may at any time have been a citizen or subject; if such alien has borne any hereditary title, or been of any of the orders of nobility in the kingdom or State from which he came, he must, moreover, expressly renounce his title or order of nobility, in the court in which his application is made, which renunciation is to be recorded in such county; and the court admitting such alien must also be satisfied that he has continuously resided in the United States for five years, at least, immediately preceding his naturalization, and also within the State or Territory wherein such court is at the time held, at least one year immediately previous to such naturalization; and that during such five years he has been of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the same; the oath of at least two citizens of the United States is requisite to prove the fact of such residence; and, at the time of his application to be admitted to citizenship, he must make, upon oath or affirmation, the same declaration of renunciation and abjuration of allegiance to any foreign power, and also make oath or affirmation to support the Constitution of the United States; all of which proceedings are to be recorded by the Clerk or Prothonotary of the proper court.

If any alien, having legally filed his declaration of intention to become a citizen and taken the necessary oath or affirmation, die before he is actually naturalized, his widow and children are entitled to all the rights and privileges of citizens, upon taking the required oaths or affirmations.

Any alien arriving in the United States under the age of eighteen years, and continuously residing therein until the time of his application for citizenship, may, after reaching the age of twenty-one years, and having been a resident within the United States for five years, including the three years of his minority, be admitted a citizen, without making the formal declaration of intention required in other cases; but at the time of his admission he must make such declaration, and further satisfy the court, upon oath or affirmation, that, for the three years immediately preceding, it had been his bona fide intention to become such citizen, and in all other respects must comply with the naturalization laws of the United States.

Severe penalties for counterfeiting any evidence of citizenship, or disposing of a certificate of naturalization to any person other than the one for whom it was issued, are imposed by act of Congress.

CHAPTER III.
ELECTIONS.

1. A pure democracy is a government in which all the people who have the proper qualifications for voting personally take part—or have the right to do so—in the discussion of public measures, and enactment of the laws. This is not practicable unless the State consist of a small number of persons; and a representative democracy is substituted, in which the masses of the people exercise the voting and ruling prerogative by appointing a small number of substitutes to act in their place and represent them. This appointment of representatives is for the most part the only direct way in which the people of this country are able to take part in the government. Though the theory is that the people alone are sovereign, this is the only way in which sovereignty can exert itself. Even if present in a legislative assembly, they cannot discuss or vote unless they are Representatives, duly elected.

2. Elections, then, are of the highest importance. If a citizen would exert his sovereign authority, as one of the depositaries of power, he must take part in them. Representatives elected to make laws are expected to express the will of the majority of the people whom they represent. They are pledged, expressly or tacitly, to do so. If they disobey the will of their constituents, there is no immediate redress. They can be displaced only at the close of the term for which they were elected. There is some inconvenience and danger attending this method; though the fear of the displeasure of their constituents is usually sufficient to secure faithfulness. Where the people are numerous, (there are now more than 135,000 persons to each representative,) it becomes a matter of much interest to know what is their will. It is ascertained by the elections. The people vote for a candidate, or nominee, known to hold certain political principles. As men do not often see or think alike there is generally more than one principle, or system of views, regarding public measures, involved in every election, and therefore more than one candidate. The result of the vote shows the will of the majority. The same question generally occupies the attention of the whole country, and the elections to Congress determine the policy of the government, so far as legislation is concerned.

3. The same remarks apply to the election of the President and the members of the State governments. The choice of men for the State legislatures determines the policy and political principles of the State government, and as the majority in State legislatures appoint the Senators, the character of Congress and its measures are influenced by State elections. The choice of the President is not, in theory, made directly, since Electors are chosen, who afterwards vote for the President; but it is understood that they will vote for a certain man; and it has been so invariably their custom to do so, that the result is considered as settled by the direct vote of the people. Should the Electors do otherwise the people would be very much surprised and displeased, and those Electors would have little prospect of appointment to office again. Very few men in office are willing to seriously offend their constituents, so that practically, the people vote directly for the President and Vice-President they prefer.

4. Of all our elections none is considered of so much importance as the Presidential. These come every four years, because the Constitution provides that the term for which a President is chosen, shall be four years. Our elections, both for the general and State governments, are by ballot, instead of viva voce, (the living voice,) as in some countries.

The ballot is a small piece of paper, with the name of the candidate or candidates printed or written upon it, and then folded in such a manner as to hide them, so that no one but the voter can tell what names are on his ballot. A vote by viva voce, is when the voter, in the presence of the inspectors of the election, audibly and clearly calls out the name of the candidate for whom he votes, and thus proclaims in the hearing of all present how he votes. But the ballot enables the voter to vote secretly if he chooses to do so.

CHAPTER IV.
RATIO OF REPRESENTATION.

1. The ratio of representation simply means the ratio between the whole population of the United States, and the whole number of their Representatives in Congress; and this of course includes the ratio between the people of any individual State, and the Representatives it is entitled to; both being estimated upon the same basis, and determined by the same rule.

2. The distinctive characteristic of our government is, that it is a popular government. Its power is vested in the people. They elect their rulers, who are the servants of the people, and these rulers are expected to carry out the people’s wishes. Upon such a system, it is a matter of the first importance, to distribute this power equally among all the people, and after having fixed upon the ratio between the whole population and the whole number of Representatives; or, in other words, after having determined how many members shall compose the lower House of Congress, the next step is to apportion these members among all the States in the ratio of their population. If one State has twice the number of inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to twice the number of Representatives in Congress. If one has ten times the inhabitants that another has, it will be entitled to ten times the number of Representatives, and so on; with this one exception, which is, that by a provision in the Constitution, every State, without regard to its population, is entitled to one Representative in the lower House.

3. The adjustment of this matter is all provided for in the Constitution, that is, in its general features; but it devolves upon Congress in every tenth year to re-adjust and re-apportion the Representatives among the several States, according to the population of each State as shown by the last census, which is taken every tenth year; and when the apportionment is once made, it remains the same for the next ten years, when the census is taken again, and a new apportionment is made.

4. Up to the present time (1874,) this has been done nine times. It was done the first time by the convention which formed the Constitution. That apportionment is found in the Constitution, and is as follows:

To New Hampshire,3
Massachusetts,8
Pennsylvania,8
Delaware,1
Rhode Island,1
Connecticut,5
New York,6
New Jersey,4
Maryland,6
Virginia,10
North Carolina,5
South Carolina,5
Georgia,3

By this it will be seen that the first Congress consisted of but 65 members.

The Constitution also provided that Representatives should not exceed one to every 30,000 people. The next year after the government went into operation, (1790,) the first census was taken, and as soon as the result was known, a new apportionment was made. This was done in 1792, and was made upon the ratio of one Representative to every 33,000 of representative[4] population.

[4] The Representative population includes all free persons, white or black; to which (according to the provisions of the Constitution), three-fifths of all the slaves were to be added. But this proviso, now that slavery is abolished, has become a nullity.

5. In 1800, the second census was taken; and when Congress made the apportionment, which was done in 1803, it did not change the ratio, but left it at one Representative to every 33,000 of the representative population.

In 1810, the third census was taken, and in 1811 the ratio was fixed at one Representative for every 35,000 of the population.

In 1820, the fourth census was taken, and in 1822 Congress fixed the ratio at one Representative for every 47,000 of the population.

In 1830, the fifth census was taken, and in 1832 the ratio was fixed at one Representative to every 47,000 of the population.

In 1840, the sixth census was taken, and in 1842 Congress again declared that the ratio should be one Representative to every 70,000 of the population.

6. In 1850, the seventh census was taken, and in conformity with the law passed this year, the number of members was for the first time limited; the limit being 233; and the Secretary of the Interior was ordered to take the census returns, and divide the whole representative population by the number 233, and to make the quotient the ratio between the Representatives and the people.

7. We have never seen the result of the Secretary’s estimate, but, taking the population of 1850 and dividing it by 233, would produce a quotient of nearly 94,000; and this we take as the ratio, after the time when it was done, 1852; that is, one Representative to every 94,000 of the population.

8. The eighth census was taken in 1860, and on it an apportionment was based, which allowed one Representative for every 127,000 of the population.

In 1850 Congress adopted the principle of permanently fixing the number of members of Congress, to save the trouble of doing it as heretofore, every ten years. An act was passed limiting it to 233; but notwithstanding this limitation, it was provided that if any new State came in, it should have its member, which would add to the number. But this increase was to continue no longer than until the next apportionment, when the number was to fall back again to the old figure.

In 1862 the law was modified to make the whole number of members consist of 241 after the 3d of March, 1863. In 1870 the ninth census was taken, and in 1872 Congress decided that after March 3d, 1873, the Representatives should comprise 292 members, being one Representative for every 135,239 of the population and apportioned them among the several States as follows:

Alabama,8
Arkansas,4
California,4
Connecticut,4
Delaware,1
Florida,2
Georgia,9
Mississippi,6
Missouri,13
Nebraska,1
Nevada,1
New Hampshire,3
New Jersey,7
New York,33
North Carolina,8
Ohio,20
Illinois,19
Indiana,13
Iowa,9
Kansas,3
Kentucky,10
Louisiana,6
Maine,5
Maryland,6
Massachusetts,11
Michigan,9
Minnesota,3
Oregon,1
Pennsylvania,27
Rhode Island,2
South Carolina,5
Tennessee,10
Texas,6
Vermont,3
Virginia,9
West Virginia,3
Wisconsin,8

9. But it must be borne in mind that Congress has the power to alter all this, and to enact that Congress shall consist of any other number of members, although it is not probable that this will be done soon.

10. The foregoing statements will show the general plan upon which the House of Representatives is constituted, and how the several States are constantly changing the number of their Representatives, and their relative power and influence in Congress. This can be readily understood by remembering the fact that new States come into the Union every few years, and that the population increases much more rapidly in the Western States than in the Eastern, and that, consequently, the West is rapidly gaining power in Congress, while the Atlantic States are losing it.

11. In the apportionment no regard is had to the Territories or to their population. In this adjustment, the States and their population only are regarded, and the number of members is all given to the States. Every Representative from a Territory is an addition to that number, but it must be remembered that a Territorial member has no right to vote on any question, but has only the right to debate; and for this reason he is not, in the fullest sense, a member, and is not counted in adjusting the number of which the House is made to consist.

CHAPTER V.
OATHS AND BONDS.

1. An oath is an appeal to God, by him who makes it, that what he has said, or what he shall say, is the truth. It is the most solemn form under which one can assert or pronounce anything. To utter a falsehood while under oath is perjury, a crime of the darkest hue. One which God has declared he will punish, and one which is made infamous, and punishable by fine and imprisonment by the laws of the land.

2. The Constitution (Art. 6, Sec. 3) requires that Senators and Representatives, and members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support the Constitution. Then in the second article, section eight, the form of the oath required of the President before he enters upon his duties, is given in these words:

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

3. This is all the Constitution says about oaths; but it is enough to show that no man (unless he commit perjury,) can accept office, either under the United States or any State government, unless he in good faith will support the Constitution.

But in the laws enacted by Congress, we find that not only official oaths are required; but in a great variety of other cases, men who transact business with the government are required to verify their accounts and statements with an oath. This is particularly the case with those who do business with the custom house; such as merchants, shipowners, and masters of vessels. Many oaths must be put in the form of affidavits; that is, the oath must be written and signed by the deponent, that the statements made may be preserved.

4. The form of official oaths varies according to the nature of the duties to be performed by the deponent. The oath must be taken before the officer enters upon his duties. Should he neglect or refuse to do this, his acts will be illegal, and he would make himself liable to punishment.

After the late civil war broke out, Congress for the purpose of preventing those who had voluntarily taken part in the rebellion, from holding thereafter any office under the government, passed an act requiring every one before he could accept any office, either in the civil, military, or naval departments, to take an oath in the following form:

5. “I, A. B., do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States, since I have been a citizen thereof; that I have voluntarily given no aid, countenance, counsel or encouragement to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto; that I have neither sought, nor accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatever, under any authority or pretended authority in hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power or Constitution, within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto. And I do further swear (or affirm) that to the best of my knowledge and ability, I will support and defend the Constitution of the United States, against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same; that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservation or purpose of evasion, and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the office on which I am about to enter. So help me God.”

So strong and comprehensive an oath as this was never before required from any officer of the government. It answers the requirements of the Constitution, and substantially comprehends all contained in any other forms heretofore used. It is at once an oath of allegiance, an oath of support of the Constitution, and an oath to discharge faithfully the duties of the office taken. This goes by the name of the Test oath, and frequently “The Iron-clad Oath.”

6. The object of the test oath was, during the Civil War, to prevent the entrance into any office of a person who might be secretly unfriendly to the government, and use his position to the advantage of its enemies. So comprehensive and minute an oath would allow no chance of mental evasion to a conscientious person, and would lay the offender under the liability of severe punishment. It is evidently proper to bind all officers of the general and State governments under the strongest and most solemn obligation to a faithful and honest discharge of their duties.

7. Whoever receives an office in the United States, which is connected with the revenue in any way, so that public money passes through his hands, is required to give a bond as security for such money. These bonds give the government a claim on their property if the money is not accounted for according to the directions of the law. They are signed by one or more persons who must show that they have the means to pay the amount for which they become security. The amount of security required depends on the sums of money that are to pass through the hands of the official, or which is likely at any time to accumulate in his possession. The government takes all the care it can that there shall be no risk of loss of the public property, and the bond is designed to afford adequate security for all that any officer may have charge of.

8. By this means two important ends are gained. No person can get an office who has no friends and no reputation for uprightness sufficient to induce those that know him to risk their own property on his honesty and faithfulness. It was designed to be a sure means for the government of finding out who were to be trusted. If he has not property himself, so that he can secure his bondsmen to their satisfaction, he must have so high a character for integrity that they are willing to risk their money in his hands, or he cannot obtain an office. Security for public funds, and a high degree of personal worth are both expected to be gained by this requirement.

On the whole, this works very well indeed, in both respects, but there seems no security, that is quite infallible, against roguery, unless it be in the extreme care of the people, and their constant watchfulness over all the affairs of the country and all the men who represent them. It is difficult to make a house so strong that a thief cannot get into it by force or stratagem, and rogues who wish to steal from the public funds may band together and help one another to get into office and then divide what spoil they can secure; or unforeseen events may bring more money than was properly secured into an officer’s hands, or those whose duty it is to see that he disburses the funds at the right times may be careless or dishonest.

9. The only sure way is to take care that none but men of proved integrity get into office, and to take all pains to cultivate honesty in the community at large. The money lost by the government is probably much less in proportion than in the private business of the country. Great watchfulness is really exercised, and when such a case occurs it is immediately known through the whole country. Not many men are willing to run so much risk of punishment and public reprobation. Too much care, however, cannot be taken to prevent corruption in public life. It destroys the purity and soundness of character on which our institutions are founded. A republic cannot exist without a high standard of virtue.

10. Every official is required to take an oath, or make a solemn affirmation to discharge the duties of his office faithfully. Though we cannot expect to be quite secure against the trickery and insincerity of false and corrupt men, yet we have reason, on the whole, to congratulate ourselves on the general security of public property, and the watchfulness of the people over their servants in places of trust.

CHAPTER VI.
GOVERNMENT PRISONS.

1. The United States government has always endeavored to continue, as it commenced, to rule with vigor, and to preserve a wholesome respect for its own authority and the rights of all its citizens, while it has, beyond all other governments, probably, that have ever existed sought to avoid arbitrariness and severity; keeping in mind the principle lying at the foundation of its institutions that it exists, not for itself, but for the good of the people. It has assumed that the people generally would not require coercion to submit to its regulations, and has not, therefore, made that ample provision for punishment and intimidation that is usual among governments.

In confirmation of this we call attention to the fact that the general government does not own, and has never built, prisons for the confinement of offenders against its laws. Imprisonment, as the mildest form of punishment, has, indeed, very often been inflicted, more often than any other form of punishment. How does this occur when they own no prisons? The answer is that they use the prisons of the States wherever they will allow it. This arrangement between the general and State governments has been made in nearly if not all the States; the United States paying for the support of their prisoners.

2. But in case any State should refuse to make such an agreement, the United States marshal of any district where a prisoner is to be confined, is authorized to procure some building where the prisoners may be safely confined in the district where they have been tried and convicted, or where they have been arrested and are held for trial.

This is a far more economical plan than it would be for the United States to build prisons all over the country, and then to employ keepers of them. It exemplifies the friendly relations existing between the States and the general government.

CHAPTER VII.
PROCLAMATIONS.

1. A Proclamation is an official notice published by one high in authority, for the purpose of giving reliable and authoritative information to the people that something has been done, or will soon be done, which is important for them to know, that they may act, or refrain from acting according to the information contained in the proclamation. These proclamations are made known to the country through the most extensive channels of information that can be used for conveying intelligence to everybody in the Republic. In our day, and in our country, the newspapers are the best means that can be used for this purpose. But in ancient times, and before the art of printing was known, swift riders or runners were dispatched to every part of the kingdom or country over which the proclamation was to be made known. These messengers carried it with them, and proclaimed it in the ears of all the people.

2. These documents are official acts brought before the people in due form and solemnity. Sometimes they are only recommendations; at others they have all the force of organic law, or the acts of Congress.

It has, for some years, been the custom of the Executive to designate some day toward the close of the year as a day of thanksgiving, recommending the day to be observed in a religious manner. Important changes in the commercial affairs between us and some foreign country are made known by the same method.

3. A memorable proclamation was made by President Lincoln, in 1862, by which he made known to the country, and especially to the Southern States, that if they continued their war against the United States for one hundred days after its issuance, he would then, in virtue of his authority as commander-in-chief of the army and navy, liberate the slaves in all the seceded States. At the expiration of the time, which was on the first of January, 1863, he issued another proclamation, in and by which he did emancipate all the slaves in every State which had warred against the United States government.

The blockading of our ports at the commencement of the civil war, and the imposition of an embargo upon our shipping, previous to the last war with England, were both subjects which brought out proclamations from the President who then filled the Executive chair.

4. The above examples show the character of the cases which cause proclamations to be issued. In some instances they have the authority of law; in others they are merely recommendations; and in others only communicate important intelligence in regard to our public affairs at home or abroad.

CHAPTER VIII.
COMMISSIONERS.

1. As it is one purpose of this work to give a clear and complete account of the mode of conducting the affairs of the general government, we have thought it best to call attention to the class of officers named at the head of this chapter; and especially since persons acting under this title are assigned to a variety of duties, sometimes permanent and sometimes temporary. In the first place, they act as heads of bureaus in the various departments. These commissioners are permanent officials of the government, established and provided for by law; such are the commissioners of the land office, patent office, pension office, &c.

2. Another class of commissioners can hardly be considered officers, but rather temporary or special agents. In the multifarious duties devolving upon Congress, the President, and all the departments, it not unfrequently happens that it is impracticable for them to do certain things necessary to be done. The business to be transacted may be at a great distance from the capital, even in a foreign country. In these cases commissioners are appointed to do such business. They have been appointed to negotiate a peace, to make treaties of various kinds between us and other powers, and to negotiate with the Indians for the purchase of their lands. The United States courts appoint them to take bail, or to take testimony to be used on trials, and do various other things necessary in trials and proceedings before them.

3. Congress frequently appoints commissioners to obtain information, or to investigate some matter on which they expect to legislate. In all cases they must report their proceedings, either to Congress, to the President, or to the head of the department under whose instruction they act. Permanent commissioners report once a year, or oftener if required, that Congress may know the condition of affairs in their respective bureaus. Special commissioners, after they have performed the work assigned, make their report; after which their duties cease, and their commission comes to an end.

4. The lowest grade of diplomatic agents are called commissioners. We are thus represented at the present time in the Republics of Hayti and Liberia.

5. By recent acts of Congress, the powers of commissioners in some cases have been enlarged. They now examine persons charged with crimes against the laws of the United States; hold them to bail, discharge them, or commit them to prison; and do other magisterial acts, preliminary to the trial of the accused. When acting in such cases, they are clothed with some of the powers of a court.

CHAPTER IX.
OFFICIAL REGISTER.

1. Congress, in 1816, passed an act authorizing and requiring the Secretary of State, once in two years, to print and publish a book called “the official register,” in which he was ordered to register the name of every officer and agent of the government, in the civil, military and naval departments, including cadets and midshipmen, together with the compensation received by each; the names of the State and county where born; and the name of the place where employed, whether at home or abroad.

To the list of persons employed in the Navy Department, the Secretary of the Navy is required to subjoin the names, force and condition of all the ships and vessels belonging to the United States, and when and where built.

This work has been published and distributed, as the law directs, ever since the passage of the act, and is sometimes denominated “the blue book.” It is a very convenient and useful publication, as it shows in compact form the whole official force of the government in each department, together with the cost of maintaining it.

As it contains only names and dates and facts relating to persons, comparatively few would take the pains to read it, and but a small number is published. It can be found in the Congressional library at Washington, where twenty-five copies of each edition are deposited.

CHAPTER X.
THE STARS AND STRIPES.

A nation’s Flag represents its sovereignty. It is adopted by its supreme authority as a symbol or sign of itself, and wherever it waves the fact of the substantial control of that authority, at that point, is thereby asserted. If there is a struggle between two powers for control, the presence of the flag proves that the authority it represents still maintains itself, and its subjugation is declared by lowering its flag and by the substitution of another in its place.

The flag is, therefore, an expression to the eye of the condition of things; and attracts the sympathies and antipathies, the joys and sorrows, the hopes and fears of those interested in the sovereignty it represents. It is the rallying point of sentiment and of energy. The affection and reverence bestowed on our country will light up into a patriotic flame at sight of its flag. It is associated with all the heroic deeds and achievements that adorn our national history, and with the loss of all those we honored and loved who followed and fought for it, and gave their lives in its defense. Our “Star Spangled Banner” has been a thousand times baptized in blood dearer to us than our own, and the sight of it recalls all these sacrifices so cheerfully made to establish or to preserve our institutions. The flag of the United States may well call forth more enthusiastic affection, pride, and hope than any other in the world; for it symbolizes not only home, country, and associations dear to Americans, but the justice, liberty, and right of self government that are dear to all mankind. Humanity at large has a deep interest in it.

Its history is this: Soon after the Declaration of Independence the Continental Congress appointed a committee to confer with Gen. Washington and “design a suitable flag for the nation.” After the painful and depressing defeat on Long Island, the retreat through the Jerseys and across the Delaware, when everything seemed lost for the new government, Washington suddenly struck the vigorous blows at Trenton and Princeton that confounded the enemy and drove him back to Staten Island. Congress and the country were cheered with a hope and a resolution that never afterwards failed them; for in the next campaign occurred the capture of Burgoyne, followed by the treaty with France; and the close of the war in our favor was henceforth only a question of time.

In the month of May or early June, 1777, following the staggering blow Washington had given the British army in Jersey, the committee referred to above, and Washington, completed the design for a flag. This was accomplished and the first flag made at the house of a Mrs. Ross, in Arch St., Philadelphia. The house is still standing—No. 239. She had a shop where she followed the “upholder” trade, as it was then called—the same as our upholstering. One day the Commander-in-chief, Hon. Geo. Ross, a relative of hers, and certain members of Congress, called on her, with a design for a flag—thirteen red and white stripes, alternate with thirteen six pointed stars—and requested her to make the flag. She consented but suggested that the stars would be more symmetrical and more pleasing to the eye if made with five points, and folded a sheet of paper and produced the pattern by a single cut. This was approved and she finished a flag the next day. Mrs. Ross was given the position of manufacturer of flags for the government, which descended to her children.

This was the flag that led our armies to victory during the remainder of the war, waved over the crestfallen soldiers of Burgoyne and Cornwallis, and at the mast head of John Paul Jones on the English coast. In 1794 this flag was changed, though its chief features were retained. Congress then ordered that the flag should consist of fifteen stripes, alternate red and white, and fifteen stars, white on a blue field. There were then fifteen States. The stars and stripes were equal, and a stripe and a star were added with the advent of each new State. This was changed in 1818, as the States increased and the flag threatened to become too large, by reducing the stripes to thirteen, representing the original Union, and the stars were made equal to the number of States. No change has since been made except to add a star whenever the union increased by the admission of a State.

“The Star Spangled Banner,” a stirring patriotic song which is to Americans what the “Marseillaise” is to the French, was composed by the author during the cannonade of Fort McHenry, near Baltimore, by the British fleet co-operating with an army which was to attack it, simultaneously with the fall of the fort, by land, Sept. 13th, 1814. The poet had gone on board the fleet under a flag of truce before the attack began, to negotiate about some prisoners, and was obliged to remain until the next day, the cannonade continuing during the night. If the fort surrendered Baltimore would be taken; and the fate of Washington, pillaged and burned a few days before, filled the people with the anxiety which is expressed by the poet, to know if the flag still waved in the morning “over the Land of the Free and the Home of the Brave.” The joy of all America may be conceived when Admiral Cockrane drew off his fleet and took the British army on board, while the “Stars and Stripes” continued to float gaily on the breeze over Fort McHenry.

CHAPTER XI.
THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. The use of seals to give authority to documents, and to establish their genuineness, comes down to us from a remote antiquity. It is much easier to counterfeit a signature alone, than the impression of a seal, and when both occur on a document it is considered fairly safe to be relied on as a sign of authority.

They are usually emblematic of some event, or sentiment attaching to the history or prevailing tendency and feeling of a country. They are used on documents or papers issued by the government. Some of the Departments have a special seal for their own use, in cases where the signature of the President is not required. If it is not affixed to the proper papers they fail to become legal and have no authority.

2. The usual mode of affixing the seal formerly was by placing melted wax on the paper and pressing the seal on it giving a fac simile or perfect representation of it. As this required time and business increased with the growth of the country, Congress passed an act making it lawful to affix the seal by making the impression directly on paper.

The custody of the Great Seal is with the Secretary of State, whose duty it is to affix it to all civil commissions issued to officers of the United States appointed by the President and Senate, or by the President alone. But it is forbidden to be affixed before the President has signed it. The seal alone without the signature has no value. It is used to show the genuineness of the President’s signature.

3. The Secretary of State and all the other secretaries of the great departments, each have a seal of office which is affixed to commissions, and to other instruments emanating from their respective offices.

Several of the most important bureaus are required by law to have seals of office; for example, the Land Office and the Patent Office. When the United States gives a patent (title) to land, it must be sealed by the Land Office seal. A patent right must be issued under the seal of the Patent Office.

4. One of the most common and important uses of seals arises from the necessity people are often under to have copies of records, maps, and various other papers, the originals of which are in some of the departments at Washington, to be used as evidence in courts, where trials and other legal proceedings are pending. In order to provide for this necessity, Congress has enacted that copies of such records, maps and papers belonging to any of the government offices, under the signature of the head of such office, or of its chief clerk, with the seal affixed, shall be as competent evidence in all cases as their originals would be.

HISTORY OF THE GREAT SEAL.

1. Soon after the formal establishment of the Republic by the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson were appointed a committee to prepare a seal. They employed an artist and furnished various devices; Jefferson combining them all at the request of the others. The paper still exists in the office of the Secretary of State at Washington. They reported Aug. 10th, 1776, but for some unknown reason, probably neglect, it was not acted on.

In 1779 another committee was appointed, to make a device. They reported May 10th, 1780. It was not acceptable, and was recommitted, being again reported a year afterwards, but not adopted. In 1782 a third committee was appointed, but could not satisfy Congress in their report. It was then referred to the Secretary of Congress, Charles Thomson, who procured various devices that were unsatisfactory.

After vainly striving to perfect a seal which should meet the approval of Congress, Thomson finally received from John Adams, then in London, an exceedingly simple and appropriate device, suggested by Sir John Prestwitch, a baronet of the West of England, who was a warm friend of America, and an accomplished antiquarian. It consisted of an escutcheon bearing thirteen perpendicular stripes, white and red, with the chief blue, and spangled with thirteen stars; and, to give it greater consequence, he proposed to place it on the breast of an American eagle, displayed, without supporters, as emblematic of self-reliance. It met with general approbation, in and out of Congress, and was adopted in June, 1782; so it is manifest, although the fact is not extensively known, that we are indebted for our national arms to a titled aristocrat of the country with which we were then at war. Eschewing all heraldic technicalities, it may be thus described in plain English: Thirteen perpendicular pieces, white and red; a blue field; the escutcheon on the breast of the American eagle displayed, holding in his right talon an olive-branch, and in his left a bundle of thirteen arrows, and in his beak a scroll, inscribed with the motto E Pluribus Unum. For the crest, over the head of the eagle, which appears above the escutcheon, a golden glory breaking through a cloud, and surrounding thirteen stars, forming a constellation of white stars on a blue field.

Reverse.—A pyramid unfinished. In the zenith, an eye in a triangle, surrounded with a glory. Over the eye, the words Annuit Cœptis—“God has favored the undertaking.” On the base of the pyramid, are the numeral Roman letters MDCCLXXVI; and underneath the motto, Novus Ordo Seculorum—“A New Series of Ages”—denoting that a new order of things had commenced in the Western hemisphere. Thus, after many fruitless efforts, for nearly six years, a very simple seal was adopted, and yet remains the arms of the United States.

CHAPTER XII.
THE ORIGIN OF LAW.

1. The origin of law varies with the character or class of the government under which it is made. Where all authority is concentrated in the hands of one man his will becomes law whenever expressed, or when expressed in some regular and formal way. More generally laws are originated, in our days, in civilized countries where there is a monarchial government, by the ruler in conjunction with representatives of the people or some classes of them. In point of fact, rulers are always obliged to regard the habits, traditions, and feelings of the people more or less, or they may be obliged by a revolution, or the intrigues of the ambitious founded on their discontent, to retire to private life. The real prominence of the people in their governments is constantly becoming greater in all civilized lands, and it seems highly probable that, before many generations have passed, all governments not founded on an acknowledgment of the Sovereignty of the People will be incapable of maintaining themselves.

2. In the United States of America the source of all authority, and the origin of all law, is in the people alone. The fact that laws are made by Representatives does not alter the principle at all. They are simply the substitutes or agents of the people. Where there are many people any other than a Representative Democracy is impossible. These are chosen from among their equals, and when their term of office has expired return to the common level. If they are ambitious of more than one term of office they must take special care not to offend the majority that first elected them.

3. The first signal exercise of the law making power by the people was in the adoption of the Constitution as the Fundamental Law. This established the character of the government, prescribed the duties and limits of the legislative and executive branches, and organized a third branch to watch over the action of the other two and keep it in harmony with the Constitution. This Instrument then became the source or foundation of all special law. It is a comprehensive statement of the will of the people, but it may be changed or enlarged in a prescribed way. It is binding on all legislators and executives. Whatever may be enacted or done by them not in accord with it is null and void; the Supreme Court being bound so to announce when the fact shall be proved before it. The Constitution is the Law of the Land. Any laws enacted by Congress, or by State Legislatures, not contrary to it, are valid and binding; but any attempt to set aside any of its provisions, or disregard its true intent, would be usurpation and a violation of the rights of the people. The term State Sovereignty can, consequently, be true only in a limited and secondary sense, this being a higher Sovereignty still.

4. The larger part of the general laws by which we are governed are made by Congress, that body having been instituted to that special end. It is composed of a popular House, or one chosen directly by the people, and one more select, chosen by the State Legislatures to represent their States as a whole. If the Legislature represents the will of the people of the State accurately, as it always does unless some change in popular opinion takes place suddenly after it has been elected, the Senators as well as Representatives will embody the views of the people in their respective States. So we see that the people are Sovereign and law really originates with them. Laws, indeed, may be made by their agents that do not suit them; but, if they cannot induce them to repeal such laws by petition, remonstrance, or otherwise, at once, by waiting a little until the terms of such members expire they can replace them by others pledged to carry out their views. Thus the general policy of the government is determined by the people at the general elections. They give the law to the law makers, and appoint the executives who will administer them in the spirit they approve. The whole matter is within their control as a point of power, and still more so from the natural deference the Representatives of the people feel toward the wishes of those on whose favor they depend. The deep indignation or contempt of their fellow men will seldom be incurred, even if they have no ambition for further electoral honors.

5. The treaties made by the President, which require to be ratified by the Senate to become binding, and the approval of the House of Representatives if money is required to carry them into effect—since only that branch can dispose of the property of the country, or originate laws for raising money—have also the force of general laws. The whole country is bound to act in conformity with their provisions. We have, then, three kinds of law, or laws from three different sources that are alike binding on the whole country: the Constitution, which is unchangeable except by vote of the Legislatures or conventions of three-fourths of the States; the laws of Congress, which may be made and repealed at their pleasure; and treaty law, which involves the consent of a foreign State, but requires the assent of the President and one or both bodies of Congress, and which may be abrogated or modified at the united pleasure of all the parties concerned in making it.

6. There is a fourth species of law more general still and more or less of which is often involved in treaties with foreign governments. This is the Law of Nations, or the principles acknowledged by all civilized nations as binding on them in their intercourse with each other. The only binding force it possesses is in the general practice of mankind, and the authority of public opinion. This is commonly effective, since all law depends really on the approval of the people for its efficacy, or at least on their silent submission if they disapprove.

7. In every State in the Union the people elect a Legislative body which makes such local laws as the people wish to be governed by, and as their special circumstances require; but they are not permitted to legislate on general questions, to make any law contrary to the Constitution, or to the laws of Congress, nor are its laws binding on any but the citizens of the State in which they are made, or such others as may be residing there. Each State has a Constitution which determines the special organization of its government, and limits and defines the powers of its different branches; but it is required to be in harmony with the Constitution of the United States. The Constitution, Legislature and officers of a State are determined by vote of its people.

8. After this examination we reach this conclusion: That there is no institution in the United States that has not been virtually established by the people, its fundamental law was adopted by them of their own free will and may be changed when they see fit; and that if all the laws, of whatever kind, that are binding on them, are not such as they prefer, they are, at least, originally responsible for them, and have in their hands the means of changing them within a reasonably short period. In fact their demand or the zeal of their Representatives for their interests usually originates whatever laws are made. The constant general prosperity of the country since the establishment of the present government, the increase of intelligence and self respect among the people, and the beneficial influence exerted by the United States on the world tend to confirm and settle its principles and laws on a permanent foundation.

CHAPTER XIII.
THE LAW OF NATIONS.

1. The laws of any nation are the rules by which it is governed, a violation of which renders the offender liable to the infliction of certain penalties. These laws, in many nations, are carefully and systematically arranged in the beginning, as in the United States; in others, as in England, they are gradually produced, the course taken in dealing with the first of a class of similar cases furnishing a precedent that is equal in force to a general law.

2. From very early times the different nations who had intercourse with each other began to follow certain rules, which commonly originated in the mode last mentioned above; and many of them became generally recognized as the proper guide in international intercourse. These customs came, at length, to be called the Law of Nations. Writers of eminence carefully investigated them, and studied the principles on which they were founded. These writers are held to be authorities as to this law, and the principles they have laid down are generally acknowledged, by civilized nations in modern times, as the standard of International Law.

3. There is no possibility, in the present state of the world, of organizing a tribunal with authority to impose penalties for violations of this law by individual nations; though it is to be hoped that may some time be the case. The only representative of such a tribunal is the general opinion of the civilized world; and nations must, themselves, act as supreme judges and executors of the law as it applies (or as they choose to hold it as applying) to their disputes. When they cannot come to an agreement with their adversaries, they commonly Declare War, and endeavor to right themselves by force.

4. This is not, by any means, an equitable or satisfactory way of avenging wrongs. The aggressor may be the strongest; and the offense, in that case, will be greatly increased. It causes the penalty, in any case, to fall very heavily on many innocent heads, and produces lamentable and wide-spread desolation. Yet it is sometimes better than tame submission; and the right to make war when grievous wrong has been suffered, or indignity offered to the national honor, is recognized by the Law of Nations; and certain rules are applied by it as a guide in honorable warfare. There is nothing but self-respect, and respect for the opinions of the civilized world, to keep belligerent nations within the limits of these rules. They are, however, continually becoming better defined, and Public Opinion has more and more weight in each succeeding generation.

5. Some of the more important features of International Law (or the Law of Nations) are, that every nation has the right to regulate her own internal affairs without interference from others, unless some of these regulations may seriously affect the interests of a foreign power; that national boundaries are to be respected; that bodies of water lying within a national territory, and the seacoast for three miles from the shore, are under its exclusive jurisdiction; and that a nation may take measures to protect its own citizens who may be traveling or doing business in other countries, unless they violate its laws; and then it may first examine the case before the accused is given up for trial and punishment to a foreign court. There are many other rules. These will serve as examples.

6. One class of these laws requires special mention, because they are often more carefully defined than most other international customs. These are Neutrality Laws. Those now in force in the United States were enacted in 1818. They are only a formal recognition by our highest legislative authority—Congress—of the Law of Nations as generally accepted by other governments. The leading regulations are, that our citizens shall not interfere, but at their own risk and peril, in contests between other nations; that no armament shall be fitted out in our territory for the purpose of making war on any power with which we are at peace; and making it unlawful for an American vessel to carry “Contraband of War” (or war material) to either of two warring nations. It forbids granting to one nation rights not allowed to the other with which it is at war. Neutrality Laws are designed to avoid causes of unfriendly feeling, and to prevent the improper interference of our citizens in the quarrels of other nations.

7. Our government believed itself wronged in the course of the recent Civil War by England. It claimed that the English government had not been at proper pains to preserve a neutral attitude; and complaint being made, the two governments agreed to appoint a Commission to examine and arbitrate the case—the decision, whatever it might be, to be accepted by both parties. This was done, at Geneva, in Switzerland; and probably prevented a war between the two countries. It is to be hoped that all national disputes may hereafter be settled in this reasonable and Christian way.

8. Treaties are international laws binding on the two or more parties making the contract; and our Foreign Representatives (as ambassadors, ministers resident, etc.) deal with International Law as arranged by treaties and the Laws of Nations.

CHAPTER XIV.
RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION.

1. Religion has always exerted so much influence on men that it has been customary for governments to assume more or less control over it; and, as the leaders of religious systems have commonly been glad to get the support of governments, there has usually existed what is called a “Union of Church and State,” the government endorsing the views of some special religious system, and giving more or less support to its officials; sometimes, even refusing to tolerate any other; or, if tolerated, reserving its special recognition and favors, and whatever material support it chose to give to religious establishments to that termed National, alone; that church returning the favor by using its great influence with the people to support the measures of the government.

It is very distasteful to many men who differ from the views of the favored system to be required to support it, and to be frowned upon by the government if they do not feel inclined to connect themselves with it.

2. The Founders of our government were wise enough to leave the people to arrange religious questions according to their pleasure. They were not unbelievers in religion, but thought, as most of our citizens now think, that entire liberty should be left to all to act in religious matters as they felt able and inclined. All religious systems are equally tolerated—no government support is given specially to any. Some people do not approve of religious oaths (an affirmation in the name of God, or calling God to witness that what is said is true,) and from such persons a solemn affirmation or statement, answers the purposes of the law.

Although neither the Constitution, nor Congress in its laws, prescribe a religious profession of any kind, and the Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws respecting the establishment of a State religion, or interfering with the free exercise of it, and declares that “no religious test shall ever be required, as a qualification to any office or public trust, under the United States,” neither do they discourage religion. Respect is shown, in many ways, to religion. Congress usually appoints a chaplain, now of one denomination, and now of another; it allows chaplains in the army and navy, and provides them a salary; and, of late years, the President recommends a day of National thanksgiving to God once a year, for the blessings we enjoy, and sometimes proclaims a day of fasting and prayer. It shows all due respect to the religious beliefs among the people, but leaves all free to practice any form of it, or to reject them all.

3. Entire religious liberty is a rarity in the world, and is much more favorable to the purity and weighty influence of religious teachings than a State religion. Many of the colonies that afterwards became States, were founded by persons who fled from religious persecution in the countries of the Old World, and multitudes have emigrated here to secure freedom in the enjoyment of their religious views and practices, or even entire freedom to reject all religion if they could not believe in any, though that is seldom the case.

Our example has been much approved and is having much influence on other nations.

TOLERATION OF OPINIONS,

4. Is characteristic of the American Government. Liberty of the Press, or freedom to state any views a man may entertain, is as complete as liberty in religious matters. Very severe things are sometimes written and published of the government, and sometimes things that would do much harm if they were generally believed, and no notice is taken of it, unless some one sees fit to contradict it or prove it to be incorrect.

If a man injures another’s character by writing things that are false, he can be tried, and, if convicted, punished by the courts. Vile and indecent writings are prohibited; but otherwise there is entire freedom. Falsehood and error are left to be destroyed in a natural way by the truth.

This is a great gain to the truth since error has often been protected, in other countries, by government authority, on the conviction that it was the truth, to the great prejudice of truth itself.

5. Although, during the Civil War, there was some restraint put upon the freedom of publishing things that might be hurtful to the government, the instances were not very numerous, and, at the close of the war the spirit of toleration was shown in a way very creditable to our people, and very praiseworthy in our government, which left the way open to a speedier reunion of sentiment and sympathy in the sections that had fought each other so bravely.

The brave and resolute can afford to be just to each other, and to allow entire freedom of opinion to all. In this respect we have fairly earned the right to call ourselves a nation of freemen.

CHAPTER XV.
CHAPLAINS.

1. Regard to the religious habits of a large number of the people has led Congress to appoint, or permit the appointment, of chaplains to supply such religious instruction and services in the army and navy as might be felt desirable by those concerned.

Though chaplains are not properly officers of the government, they are employees of it, for they are appointed by its authority, and paid from its treasury. Those in the army receive the same pay and emoluments as a major of infantry; or this was the compensation allowed by act of Congress in 1812. But by an act of 1862, it was fixed at $100 per month, and two rations per day, for those in the army or hospitals. By the act of 1812, one chaplain was allowed to every brigade; but by an act of 1861 (during the civil war,) one for every regiment was allowed.

Navy chaplains, in 1835, received $1,200 per year. But in 1860 this was raised to a lieutenant’s pay; and this in 1862 was $1,800 per annum.

Chaplains in Congress receive $750 per annum.

2. The United States also employ a chaplain in the military academy at West Point.

From the foregoing it will be seen that in time of war, with one chaplain for every regiment, and one for every ship of war, and others in hospitals and military posts, quite a large number of clergymen are employed by the government.

This provision for the religious instruction of those who cannot, from their peculiar position, attend the preaching of the Gospel, or other religious services, is certainly an indication that our government respects religion, and looks after the spiritual as well as the temporal interests of its army and navy.

3. In the appointment of chaplains, the government pursues a liberal course. No particular preference is given to any denomination, but they are appointed from almost every religious sect, and allowed to conduct religious services after the forms of the church to which they respectively belong.

Every body knows what the duties of a chaplain are. So we need not explain them here, and will only add that a faithful chaplain in the army in time of war has much to do besides preaching and holding regular services. The wounded, the sick, and the dying, should be the particular objects of his attention. He should not only minister religious instruction and consolation to them, but look after their physical comforts. Many of these clergymen, during the late most unfortunate civil war, distinguished themselves by their exertions to promote the bodily comforts of those unfortunate men, as well as to give them religious instruction, not refusing to nurse the sick and wounded wherever they could relieve their pains or mitigate their sufferings.

CHAPTER XVI.
COMPROMISES.

1. In a large and prosperous country there are very likely to arise antagonisms of interest and sentiment which will require the strong pressure of some common and more imperative interest to overawe and reconcile by a process of mutual concession, called Compromise.

The States of the two sections—North and South—were unlike in several general respects; but it was in nothing so marked as in regard to Slavery. This system was introduced in Virginia in the same year that the Plymouth colony was founded in Massachusetts, and spread to all the colonies, in time; but never was much practiced north of Maryland. In all the Southern colonies it took deep root from the first. It formed the subject of the most difficult

COMPROMISE OF THE CONSTITUTION.

2. This compromise consisted of concessions made by each section. The North conceded the return of fugitives from their Southern masters, when escaped to the north, and an enumeration of three-fifths of the slave population in computing the representation in Congress. This was a great sacrifice for that section to make, for its people were, at heart, deeply hostile to Slavery. Both their interests and sentiments made it important to exclude it from the new States where they were likely to settle in considerable numbers. But a close and strong union of the States was a vital point with them. Commerce, trade, and manufactures, to which they were largely given, required resources and vigor in the central government, to maintain the public credit at home, and secure respect and safety abroad. The South conceded the final close of the Slave Trade at a given time (1808). Outside of the Constitution it, at the same time, conceded the “Ordinance of 1787,” by which Slavery was excluded from the territory north of the Ohio river. Thus the North and South divided the country between them.

3. This was, however, a very troublesome subject, and affected so many legislative questions as to be constantly coming up for debate. The sentiments of the Northern people grew more hostile to the institution, and the South stood on guard with growing apprehension and anger, as this state of feeling developed in the North; and, at the same time, it became evident that the more rapid growth of the northern population gave them an increasing preponderance in Congressional representation. They jealously watched over the rights of the State governments from their fear of Congressional or executive interference, and industriously sought means to extend their area and increase the number of Slave States. They were always much assisted by a large party in the north of those who cherished the Union and were fearful of its dissolution. They were ever pouring oil on the troubled waters, and mediating between the two extremes.

THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE.

4. The arrangement of the Slavery question so termed was made in 1820, and took effect as to the State of Missouri in 1821. In the five years that followed the close of the last war with England there was great activity in settlement of the unoccupied territory, and the country gave indications of the power of rapid development that has so strongly characterized it since. The South foresaw the loss of its balance of power if too many of the new States were organized as free. Missouri had included a clause in her Constitution, presented for the approval of Congress, prohibiting slavery. This clause the South demanded should be stricken out. It produced great excitement and hot discussion throughout the country, and seemed to threaten the stability of the Union. Both sections were resolute in maintaining their principle, but both appreciated the necessity of strength in the government and harmony between the sections, and each made a sacrifice for the sake of these. Missouri was required to admit slavery, and the condition was annexed that no more Slave States should be formed north of its southern line. This was a concession trying to both sides. The North became a party to the extension of Slavery, and the South gave definite limits to her power of expansion. Each, however, gained something: the South a State above the limits before virtually fixed, and the North a definite and final limit to the extension of a hated institution. This was quite generally satisfactory, and for many years set that question at rest.

5. “Mason and Dixon’s Line” was the term applied to the boundary between the Free and Slave States. This name originated in colonial times. The royal grants to colonial proprietors or companies were often very carelessly made, and those to Lord Baltimore, the founder of Maryland, and William Penn, the proprietor of Pennsylvania, were specially indefinite, giving rise to adverse claims that nearly produced war along the border. Commissioners were at length appointed, who employed Mason and Dixon, eminent English astronomers and surveyors, to establish the boundary, which they did satisfactorily. The importance of the question settled, and the reputation of the surveyors for scientific accuracy, attached their name to the boundary permanently. It acquired political significance afterwards, as the boundary between Maryland, the most northern of the slave States, and Pennsylvania, the most southern of the original free States. When new States were formed, with the Ohio river as a boundary from its point of departure out of Pennsylvania, that name was extended in its application to the whole dividing line between the free and slave States—south or north of Mason and Dixon’s Line meaning, in slave or free territory.

6. After some years the southern statesmen began again to feel apprehensive of a loss of their equality of power in the general government, so rapidly did the northern territories fill up. They began to look for more territory, and favored the settlement, independence, and annexation of Texas. Though long resisted, they succeeded in the election of 1844, with this annexation and a probable war with Mexico as test questions, and added not only Texas but New Mexico and California to the territory wherein slavery, by the Missouri Compromise, would be admissible.

7. Their satisfaction was not very durable. The discovery of gold in California filled it with inhabitants so soon, and these so largely from the free States, that in two years from its definite acquisition it petitioned for admission into the Union with a clause in its Constitution prohibiting Slavery. This was very exasperating to the South, and after a long and violent contest could be carried by the North only by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law—a re-enactment of a part of the Compromise of the Constitution with provisions so vigorous and effective, could they have been enforced, as to be, in the highest degree, offensive to a considerable part of the northern people. Utah was given a Territorial government as a concession to the South, and the Slave Trade was abolished in the District of Columbia as her corresponding concession to the North. These were the four compromise measures of 1850, the result of a discussion lasting nearly a year, engendering great bitterness on both sides, and failing to satisfy either.

8. The attempt to enforce the Fugitive Slave Law proved ineffectual, in the end; the rooted aversion of the Northern people to Slavery, kept in abeyance before by less offensive compromises, being fully aroused. This produced in the Southern people a bitter indignation as showing a disposition to rebel against a constitutional provision in their favor. They procured, in 1854, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the famous “Kansas and Nebraska Bill,” and sought to introduce Slavery into Kansas. A civil war in that Territory followed, which resulted in the triumph of the Northern party. The extinction of Slavery was now apparently but a question of time, the hostility to it in the North becoming so out-spoken and averse to Compromises acceptable to the South, that they began to look forward to separation, which they endeavored to accomplish from 1860-5. A civil war, such as only Americans could wage, was carried on during these years. The resolution, bravery, and military talents of either side were never excelled; but the resources of the North seemed inexhaustible. Her numbers, activity, and the inventive genius of her skilled artisans gave her an immense superiority. This war is a cause at once of pride and grief to every true American. In the contest Slavery, the cause of it, disappeared, the Constitution was amended, and the necessity of Compromises on this question forever ceased.

CHAPTER XVII.
TREASON.

1. This is an offense aiming at the existence of the government; and in all other governments it has ever been customary to punish it with extreme severity. Many things are considered to be of the nature of treason, and, as such, severely punished in most countries. The Constitution defines treason to be “levying war against the United States, or adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort;” so that the highest or capital crime alone may be pursued with its penalties. This is another evidence of the extreme moderation of the founders of the government, which we have had occasion to notice so often in our examination.

2. An act of Congress passed April 30th, 1790, defines it in the same sense and orders that the convicted offender shall be hung.

By another act passed 17th July, 1862, it was made discretionary with the court trying the case to put the offender to death, or to imprison him for not less than five years, and to fine him for a sum not less than ten thousand dollars. The penalty for this crime, even in its mildest form, is very severe; thus showing how atrocious this offense is considered.

3. None but a person owing allegiance to the United States can commit treason against them. The same acts which would be treason in a citizen would not be treason if perpetrated by a foreigner.

“Misprision of treason” is the concealment of it by a person who knows it has been committed. This also is a grave offense, and is punishable by a seven years’ imprisonment, and a fine not exceeding one thousand dollars.

4. Any person tried for treason, must be indicted by a grand jury, and tried by a petit jury in the Circuit Court of the United States within three years after the crime has been committed; otherwise it is barred by limitation—or, in other words, outlawed.

CHAPTER XVIII.
POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES.

1. Geography proper describes the general character of a country, as its rivers, bays, gulfs, plains, mountains and natural divisions. Leaving this to other works we confine ourselves to those divisions made by the government for convenience in administering its affairs.

Formerly there was a separation into North and South, by “Mason and Dixon’s Line,” between which there existed a marked difference of governmental, social, and industrial policy. The States south of that line might hold slaves, while in those north of it that institution was illegal. That difference was abolished by the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, as a result of the Civil War. The next largest—and these exist now—are those made by the

CIRCUIT COURTS.

2. These often comprise several States and are changed, by act of Congress, when the convenience of the Associate Judges of the Supreme Court, who preside over them requires it. The next largest political divisions are

THE STATES.

3. These exercise sovereign powers in all matters where control has not been expressly delegated by the Constitution to the National Congress. The other political boundaries are ever liable to change, to meet the requirements of changing circumstances. These are definitely fixed, any change being very rare and unlikely after they are duly organized and admitted into the Union as States. Each of the original thirteen colonies became States, with the boundaries they had as colonies at the time of the Revolutionary War. The others received such boundaries as suited the convenience and wishes of the people when they were admitted. Their object is to prevent the centralization of too much power in the general government, and to render legislation on local affairs and interests more convenient, and more satisfactory to the people of each State. The State having the least number of inhabitants numbers between 40,000 and 50,000; the one having the largest number contains between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000. The number of the States determines the number of Senators in Congress, two being allotted to each; so that a State may be considered as a Senatorial District.

DISTRICT COURTS

4. Produce another class of political divisions. These attend to legal differences involving the laws of the general government, but of a secondary class. They are more numerous than the Circuit Courts. In some States there is but one, and some have several, according to size and population.

COLLECTION DISTRICTS.

5. Another class of districts has been formed, for the purpose of collecting the duties on imported goods. These are called “collection districts.” They extend along, and embrace the whole sea coast and the shores of navigable lakes and rivers. In a few instances they are located inland, at points where goods may be brought into the United States by land. Each collection district has a port of entry, and very often several ports of delivery; also a collector of customs, and generally a custom house.

6. Another class of collection districts was formed during the late civil war. They grew out of the war, and were established for the collection of the tax termed the “internal revenue,” which had to be levied to pay the war expenses. These districts differ entirely, both in their objects and in the territory embraced within them, from those established for the purpose of collecting duties on imports, and correspond as far as practicable with the Congressional districts in each State.

LAND DISTRICTS.

7. Land districts may also be noticed among these divisions. In every State and Territory where there are public lands for sale, after they are surveyed and mapped, they are divided into districts—two, three or four, in each State and Territory—as convenience and economy may dictate. In each district a land office is established for the sale of the lands in said district.

LIGHT HOUSE DISTRICTS.

8. Again, the whole of our sea coasts, both on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, together with the shores of the navigable lakes and rivers, are divided into twelve light house districts (or their number must not exceed that,) for the purpose of building, repairing, illuminating and superintending the light houses on all the coasts and shores wherever located. These are the principal divisions we have to notice. It is important to have a knowledge of them, for with such knowledge we can better understand how government affairs are conducted.

CHAPTER XIX.
CHRONOLOGY OF THE U. S. FROM 1783 TO 1812.

1783.

Washington’s army had lain in camp at Newburg, N. Y., since the surrender of Cornwallis. The Preliminary treaty of peace was signed Jan. 20th, at Paris; but it was not officially announced in the camp at Newburg, until April 19th; just eight years from the Battle of Lexington that commenced it!

July—Congress prepared to disband the army, and Washington to resign his commission as Commander-in-Chief.

” 21—The great difficulty Congress had to contend with was raising money to pay the troops. Congress had no authority, under the Confederation, to lay taxes or impose duties. It exhausted its own credit in the issue of paper money which soon became of little value. It made some foreign loans, and persuaded the States, which alone could lay taxes, to raise a small sum. But this did not suffice to pay the army at last. There was much suffering and discontent.

On this day a body of soldiers, in large part new recruits, who had comparatively little to complain of, without muskets, but wearing side arms, beset the doors of Congress in Philadelphia, for three hours. No violence was offered. Congress adjourned to Princeton, N. J.

Sept. 3—The final and definite Treaty of Peace between England, France, and the United States, in which the independence of the latter was acknowledged, its boundaries defined, and various matters of interest arranged to the profit of the United States, was signed at Paris.

Nov. 2—A proclamation is issued by Congress for disbanding the army.

” 25—The British troops evacuate New York, and it is occupied by American troops under Gen. Knox.

Dec. 4—Long Island and Staten Island abandoned by the British. Washington takes leave of his officers, at New York.

” 25—He resigns his commission to Congress, in a public audience, given him at Annapolis, Md., where Congress was then sitting, and goes home to Mt. Vernon.

Cæsar Rodney, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.

1784.

The want of public credit was very much felt. There was no authority sufficient to raise money to meet the interest, even, on the debt; and this produced great distress.

Nov. 1—The Continental Congress meets at Trenton, N. J. Richard Henry Lee, of Va., is chosen President.

Oct. 4—A treaty with the Six Nations, who had sided with the British during the war, was made at Ft. Schuyler (formerly Ft. Stanwix—now Utica, N. Y.).

Commerce begins to revive. Reciprocity treaties were made, and trade with eastern Asia commenced this year by a voyage to China, from New York.

1785.

Jan.—Congress adjourns to New York, where it continued to hold its sessions for some years.

Mar. 10—Thomas Jefferson appointed to fill the place of Franklin, as Minister to France; Franklin wishes to return home. He had been there nine years.

July—Commercial treaties negotiated with Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, and Tuscany.

The treaty with Prussia stipulated that, in case of war between that country and the United States, there should be no privateering.

” 13—Stephen Hopkins, of R. I., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

” 28—Wm. Whipple, of N. H., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

” ”—Treaties made with the Cherokees, Choctaws, and Chickasaws.

1786.

Financial troubles were now approaching a crisis. In 1784-5 the importations from England had amounted to $30,000,000. The exportations to only $9,000,000. Paper money was depreciated so much as to be of little value. Debt oppressed government and people; want of vigorous authority was everywhere felt; and many disorders in Tennessee, Kentucky and elsewhere, begin to threaten the internal peace of the country.

June 19—Gen. Nathaniel Greene, an able commander in the Revolutionary armies, died. He manouvered against Cornwallis in North and South Carolina with great ability.

Dec. 5—Shay’s Rebellion broke out in Mass. That State wished to raise money to aid Congress in paying the interest on the federal debt. The people felt unable to pay it. They mobbed the courts but were dispersed by troops under Gen. Lincoln. Three were killed and one wounded, in an attack the insurgents made on an arsenal. There was little other fighting. Fourteen persons were tried and condemned to death but afterwards pardoned.

1787.

These and other events convinced the people that an important change in the government was necessary. It became clear that a vigorous central authority, alone, could answer the purpose. The States were nearly independent of each other; but this produced conflicts and want of harmony, which nearly ruined them all.

A congress of deputies to consider commercial questions, called by Va. had, in Sept., 1786, recommended a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation.

Feb. 2—The Continental Congress assembled, electing Gen. St. Clair, President.

” 12—Congress approves the call for a Constitutional Convention.

May 25—The convention assembled in Philadelphia, and elected Gen. Geo. Washington, President.

July 11—The Continental Congress organize the Northwest Territory—north of the Ohio river. Preparations were immediately made for settling it.

Sept. 28—The Constitution, as signed by the members of the convention, laid before Congress, which sends it to the State Legislatures for approval.

Arthur Middleton of S. C., and Thomas Stone of Md., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died, Jan. 1st and Oct. 5th, respectively.

Dec. 7—Delaware ratifies the Constitution.

” 12—Pennsylvania accepts the Constitution.

1788.

July 4—The anniversary of Independence is kept with great display, in Philadelphia, in special honor of the adoption of the new Constitution.

By the close of July nine more States had ratified the Constitution, and it went into operation.

Sept. 13—Congress selects the first Wednesday of Jan. (1789) for the appointment of Presidential electors; the first Wednesday in February for their appointment of President and Vice-President; and March 4th (the first Wednesday that month) for the new government to go into operation.

1789.

Jan. 4—Thomas Nelson, of Va., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Feb. 13—Ethan Allen, of Revolutionary fame, died.

April 30—Washington inaugurated as first President.

May 12—A Tariff Bill for raising a revenue reported in Congress. This became a law, and went into effect Aug. 1st, 1789.

” 20—The Department of Foreign Affairs (afterwards called State Department,) organized.

The Treasury Department is next established, followed by the War Department, to which the Navy was joined for the present.

The Judiciary was then constituted. Salaries, and the rules for parliamentary procedure were determined. The Postmaster general had long been an officer of the government, and required less change than most of the others. This made a very busy session. Congress also passed a resolution to add ten amendments to the Constitution—which were submitted to the States and afterward ratified. Congress adjourned the last of September.

The democratic tone of the government, and the spirit applied to the interpretation of the Constitution by the first Congress, has generally prevailed ever since. That tone and spirit were truly republican.

Nov. 8—The President made a tour through New England.

” 13—North Carolina ratified the Constitution.

Many Indian treaties were made this year.

1790.

Jan. 8—Congress reassembled. This session was scarcely inferior in interest and importance to the first from the variety of new questions required to be settled, and the more perfect development given to former ones.

Feb. 8—Provision was made for payment of the foreign debt.

Mar. 1—An act ordering a census to be taken was passed.

” 24—A naturalization law was originated.

Apr. 15—A patent law was constructed.

” 30—Treason was defined and the penalty determined on.

May 29—The Constitution ratified by Rhode Island; making up the whole number of thirteen States.

” 31—“An act to encourage learning” secured copyrights to authors.

July 16—Three very exciting debates that had occupied much of the time of Congress, had a bearing on the location of the National Capital, which was this day permanently settled. The President was authorized to determine the site on the Potomac, and have the buildings erected so as to be ready for occupation in 1800. Agreeably to this act Maryland and Virginia ceded the District of Columbia to the United States.

Gen. Putnam, a brave Revolutionary soldier, Benjamin Franklin, of Pa., Wm. Hooper, of N. C., and Francis Hopkinson, of N. J., all except Putnam signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.

The Territory South of the Ohio was organized this year. The financial system of the country was established, the slavery question debated and settled in accordance with the compromise of the Constitution, and the State debts transferred to the United States.

Aug. 12—Congress adjourned to meet next in Philadelphia and thereafter until 1800.

” 13—A treaty with the Creek Indians solemnly ratified by Washington.

Dec. 6—The Third Session of Congress commenced. The President congratulates Congress on the improvement of the finances, and the prosperity of the country.

1791.

Feb.—The United States Bank established. It was to have a capital of $10,000,000—its charter to run twenty years.

” 4—Kentucky voted admission into the Union in the next year (Jan. 1st, 1792).

” 18—Vermont having (Jan. 20th) ratified the Constitution and asked admission into the Union, it is granted this day. The immediate prosperity that followed the adoption of the Constitution of 1787, the strength, vigor, and moderation seen to be combined in its arrangement of the government, led most of the States to remodel their State Constitutions on it, in a short time.

July—The subscription to the stock of the National Bank is all taken in a few hours after the books are opened.

Aug.—Great Britain first sends a minister to the United States Government.

Sep. 17—An expedition of 2,000 troops, under Gen. St. Clair, starts from Ft. Washington against the Indians in the Northwest Territory.

Nov. 4—Gen. St. Clair is surprised and defeated by the Indians. There were 600 killed—the whole loss amounted to upward of 900. Several other smaller expeditions had been sent against the Indians in the course of the year. One, Gen. Harmer’s, had been defeated. Internal taxes on spirits were first commenced this year. Benj. Harrison, of Va., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year. A voyage around the world, by way of Oregon, China, and the Cape of Good Hope, had opened wide fields to commerce. The first census was now completed. The Second Congress, assembled at Philadelphia, Oct. 24, was occupied in arranging the new ratio of Representatives. It was a very difficult matter to settle from the sectional struggles that entered into the question.

1792.

Feb. 16—A bounty for fishing vessels provided.

” 20—The Post Office Department reorganized.

Apr. 2—The establishment and regulations of the U. S. Mint are embodied in a law.

” 14—Act apportioning Representatives passed. This gave the next House of Representatives in Congress 105 members.

May 8—Laws organizing the Militia are passed.

Dec. 8—Henry Laurens, first President of the Continental Congress, died. The second presidential election this year resulted in the re-election of Washington and Adams. Washington received all the electoral votes—the anti-federalists opposing only Mr. Adams, whose electoral vote was 77, the candidate of the opposition receiving 50. Much seditious opposition was made in North Carolina and Pennsylvania to the excise law,—the tax on spirits. The President issued a proclamation against them, Sept. 29th.

1793.

Jan. 24—The proclamation of the French Republic is greeted in Boston with a celebration in its honor. The close and friendly relations of the United States with France, arising from their aid to us in the Revolutionary War, led the French minister, Genet, to a course of conduct inconsistent with the existence of our friendly relations with England. The U. S. Government decided to proclaim neutrality—the people sympathized strongly with France. Washington and his cabinet pursued a strict neutral course, in which the people finally acquiesced, and Genet’s recall was solicited and obtained.

Feb. 12—A Fugitive Slave law passed.

July 23—Roger Sherman, signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Oct. 8—John Hancock, of Mass., the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, died. This year laid the foundation of the policy of neutrality or non-interference with the European wars, that became the settled policy of the United States.

The year was also distinguished by the violence of party feeling.

Dec. 2—Congress assembles at Philadelphia.

” 31—Jefferson resigns his seat in the Cabinet. He was Secretary of State.

1794.

Mar. 11—An act is passed for building four ships of war, which laid the foundation of our present navy.

Some hostile English “Orders in Council” led to arrangements for fortifying the harbors of the country.

” 22—The Slave trade is regulated by law, no American vessel being allowed to supply slaves to another nation. The importation of slaves into this country had been allowed until the year 1808, by Art. 1st, Sec. 9th, of the Constitution.

” 26—As a retaliation on the British “Orders in Council” for seizing all goods going to France in American vessels, an embargo was laid on all shipping which was continued 60 days. This stopped all commerce for the present.

June 5—A law relating to neutrality passed in Congress.

” 19—Richard Henry Lee, of Va., died; Abraham Clark, of N. J., and John Witherspoon, of N. J., later, all signers of the Declaration of Independence, died.

July 16—An insurrection breaks out against the excise law in western Pennsylvania, by an armed attack on the officers of the law. An army of 15,000 men was raised and marched into that region, the appearance of which immediately restored order.

Aug. 20—Gen. Wayne inflicts a thorough chastisement on the Indians of Ohio, on the Maumee river.

Nov. 4—Congress again assembles.

” 28—Baron Steuben, a German, who had done us great service as an officer in the Revolutionary war, died, aged 61.

1795.

This year a commercial treaty was negotiated with England, which was the cause of violent demonstrations of the two parties. Only the firmness and moderation of Washington and his supporters saved the country from war with that power.

Jan. 23—Gen. Sullivan died. He had been an able Maj. Gen. in the Revolutionary war.

” 29—A more stringent naturalization law passes.

May 19—Josiah Bartlett, of N. H., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Aug. 3—A Treaty with the Northwestern Indians concluded, which closed the Indian war.

Sept 5—A treaty is concluded with Algiers, which closed a war with those pirates, whose attacks had been so disastrous to our commerce.

Oct 20—A treaty of boundaries, and which opened the Mississippi to navigation, is concluded with Spain.

Dec. 7—The fourth Congress meets.

1796.

March 24—The U. S. House of Representatives require the President to send them the papers relating to the British treaty. The President declines, denying that they form part of the treaty making power.

April 30—The exciting struggle on the British treaty is closed, by a provision made by the House of Representatives for carrying it into effect.

June 1—An act is passed admitting Tennessee into the Union.

” 29—A new treaty is made with the Creek Indians, and the Southern, as well as the Northern Indians, are pacified.

Sept. 19—Washington’s Farewell address is issued, to let the people know that he would not accept office again. A presidential election was held this autumn, in which John Adams was elected President. Serious difficulties began to rise with France, which took great offense at the treaty with Great Britain.

1797.

Feb. 3—Mr. Pinckney, American Minister to France, was refused a reception, by the French government, and obliged this day to leave the country. Much violence was done about this time, to American commerce, by the French.

Mar. 4—John Adams is inaugurated President of the United States.

” 25—A special session of Congress is called to consider the threatening posture of our relations with France.

June 14—Congress imposed a fine of $10,000 and ten years imprisonment on any American who should engage in privateering, in any way, against a nation with whom we were at peace.

July 3—The President transmits to Congress information of Spanish troubles on the southern and western frontier. These were afterwards discovered to have aimed at detaching the Mississippi and Ohio valleys from the United States, and erecting them into an independent power, in close alliance with Spain.

Two new envoys are sent to France. These envoys spent many months in Paris, treated with insolence and neglect.

In this year Francis L. Lee, of Va., Carter Braxton, of Va., and Oliver Wolcott, of Conn., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died.

1798.

The French government continues to labor to draw the United States into a war with them against England. Two of the three Commissioners are required to leave France.

April 3—The Mississippi Territory organized.

” 14—The navy is taken from the control of the Secretary of War, and a Navy Department with a Secretary, organized.

June 12—All commercial intercourse with France suspended. In anticipation of war the naturalization law is amended; an “Alien Act” passed; and the navy and army largely strengthened.

” 21—The President announces the failure of the Commissioners sent to France, to make peace.

July 8—A limited naval warfare with France is authorized, and several U. S. vessels of war go to sea.

” 16—An additional naval armament provided for.

” 17—Washington accepts the appointment of Commander-in-Chief of the Army, which is being raised in expectation of war.

” —About this time some 365 armed vessels had been commissioned by the U. S. government, besides the regular navy, to make war on the armed vessels of France. This armament was, however chiefly used for defense.

Lewis Morris, of N. Y., James Wilson, of Pa., and Geo. Read, of Del., signers of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.

1799.

At the commencement of this year Congress provided for the raising of am army of 40,000 men.

Feb. 18—By invitation of the French government, the President nominates another embassy to France.

Feb. 7—The French frigate l’Insurgente captured in the West Indies by the U. S. frigate Constellation.

April—The Legislature of New York abolishes Slavery in that State.

Dec. 14—Gen. Washington’s death, in the 68th year of his age.

Wm. Paca, of Md., a signer of the Declaration of Independence, died this year.

A change in the government of France, and the vigorous action of the U. S. government in arming for war, induced the French to retreat from their unfriendly position and offer to arrange the difference. The refusal of our government to entangle themselves with European politics became a settled principle, of great value to us; though it was strongly opposed by the Anti-Federalists.

1800.

Jan. 23—Edward Rutledge, of S. C., signer of Dec. of Ind. died.

Feb. 1—The U. S. frigate Constellation beats without capturing the French frigate La Vengeance.

April 4—General bankruptcy law passed by Congress.

May 7—The Territory of Indiana organized by act of Congress.

” 10—An act authorizing the election of a Territorial Assembly in the Territory of Mississippi, organized some years before, was passed.

July—The government is moved to the new capital at Washington.

Oct. 1—The envoys to France arrange a convention, or temporary treaty, which prevents the formal outbreak of war, though it had long continued to be waged on the sea. More than 50 vessels had been captured from the French this year. The gratitude of Americans to France for her aid, formerly, made a large part of the people very unwilling to declare war; but her arrogant demands and war on our commerce had the good effect to separate the country from all close alliances in Europe.

Nov.—The fourth presidential election resulted in the defeat of the Federalist party, by the election of Thomas Jefferson as President. Its opponent, the anti-federalist, or Republican party, feared a strong central government; yet when they came into power they adopted the same policy. Any other policy would have ruined the country.

1801.

Feb. 16—The Convention with France, to remain in force eight years, ratified.

Mar. 3—The Sixth Congress terminates, and with it the administration of President Adams.

” 4—Jefferson inaugurated President. The trial of the Constitution was now past. It was permanently settled in the respect of the people, and had made the country respected by other nations. The “Sedition Laws” passed in July, 1798, became inoperative at this time, by the provision accompanying them. They had been framed for the suppression of dangerous political intrigues in time of war. Party spirit was exceedingly bitter at this time, and these laws produced much excitement, but contributed to the safety of the government.

June 10—The Basha of Tripoli declares war on the United States.

” 14—Benedict Arnold died in London.

Aug. 6—The U. S. vessel of war Experiment, captures a Tripolitan vessel in the Mediterranean sea.

Dec. 7—The Seventh Congress assembles. The reaction, at this time, in public sentiment, produced by the French Revolution, the excesses of which resulted in a military despotism under Napoleon Bonaparte, infused a spirit of moderation and caution into the politics of the United States under the new party now in power, that was highly beneficial. Extreme views were checked, and no serious change was made in the general policy of the country.

1802.

Jan. 4—The reapportionment of Representatives in Congress by the census of 1800, was made. No change in the number of inhabitants to one Representative (one to every 33,000) was introduced. The foundation of a Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., was laid at this time.

April 14—The Naturalization Laws, made very stringent in the last administration to correspond with a state of war, were liberalized.

April 30—An act authorizing the formation of a State Constitution in Ohio, preparatory to its admission into the Union, is passed.

May 3—Washington, D. C., incorporated as a city.

Oct. 16—Commerce on the Mississippi by American citizens, suspended by the Spanish authorities at New Orleans.

It became evident that the possession of the Mississippi River and territory near it was of the highest importance to the welfare of the West, and measures looking toward the acquisition of it began to be taken.

A large reduction was made this year in the public debt, and the policy of economy in public expenditure became a leading feature of the administration.

1803.

March 3—The anxiety of the people in regard to the navigation of the Mississippi leads Congress to invest the President with extraordinary authority to negotiate, or use force, in his discretion. He was authorized to call on the States to furnish 80,000 men, if need be.

April 30—A treaty is concluded with Napoleon Bonaparte for the purchase of the whole of the Louisiana Territory for $15,000,000.

Aug. 13—By a treaty with the Kaskaskia Indians a large part of Illinois is opened to settlement.

Oct. 31—The U. S. frigate Philadelphia ran on a sunken rock in the harbor of Tripoli, and was captured. The American fleet had captured or destroyed several Tripolitan vessels of war during the summer.

Dec. 20—The President takes possession of Louisiana.

1804.

Feb. 2—Geo. Walton, of Geo., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

” 15—New Jersey passes a law freeing all the slaves born in the State after the next 4th of July.

” 16—Lieut. Decatur, of the U. S. Navy, ran into the harbor of Tripoli in the night and burned the Philadelphia—captured by the Tripolitans, some time before. This done he withdrew in safety, in the sloop he had employed for the bold enterprise.

July 11—Alexander Hamilton, an eminent statesman, was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr, Vice-President of the United States. He was 48 years old and his death was considered as a public calamity.

Aug. 3—Com. Preble attacks Tripoli, sinks two vessels, captures three more, and bombards the city.

The city was blockaded during the remainder of the year and through the winter.

Nov. 18—Gen. Philip Schuyler died at Albany, N. Y.

Jefferson was re-elected President in this month.

1805.

Great commercial prosperity marked this period. France and England were at war and most of the carrying trade fell to American vessels. The peaceful acquisition of Louisiana, and the prosperity of the west in consequence, contributed much to the development of the country. The grand era of progress in the United States began to dawn, though overcast by threatening difficulties with Spain and England.

March—Chief Justice Chase having been impeached by the House of Representatives, was acquitted by the Senate.

” 4—Jefferson’s second inauguration as President.

June 3—A treaty of peace made with Tripoli.

A Territorial Legislature is authorized in the Territory of Orleans, and the Territory of Louisiana organized.

June 11—The Territory of Michigan is organized. It was very thinly settled, but separated by so great a distance from the inhabited parts of Indiana Territory as to require a separate government.

July 4—Large cessions of land are obtained, by treaty and purchase, from the Indians. Most of their lands in Ohio, Indiana, and along the Ohio River were acquired in an equitable manner. Large cessions are obtained this year from the Creeks and Cherokees, who received a fair equivalent.

Sept. 12—Wm. Moultrie, a distinguished Revolutionary soldier, died.

Measures are set on foot to purchase Florida from the Spaniards. There seemed no alternative but such a purchase or a war. Difficulties with England began to increase. Several American vessels with valuable cargoes are seized by the British.

1806.

Jan. 16—Two million dollars are voted that the President may commence negotiations with Spain for Florida. The British continue to violate our flag by impressing seamen on our vessels.

March 26—A retaliatory law was enacted by Congress forbidding the importation of certain English goods, to take effect in November in order to give time for negotiation. Provision was also made for increasing the army and navy.

The summer of this year was disturbed, in the west, by rumors of a design to separate the Louisiana Territory and Western States from the Union, by the establishment of an independent government.

Apr. 10—Gen. Horatio Gates, an officer of the Revolution, died.

Dec.—The session of Congress commencing the first of this month was largely occupied with a law forbidding the slave trade after 1808. There was much violent debate but the law was enacted early in the next year.

Robt. Morris, of Pa., on the 8th of May; Geo. Wythe, of Va., on the 8th of June; James Smith, of Pa., on the 11th of July, signers of the Declaration of Independence; and Gen. Henry Knox, an officer of the Revolution, on the 25th of Oct., died. Gen. Knox was Secretary of War during Washington’s administration.

1807.

Feb. 10—An act for commencing the Coast Survey, and appropriating $50,000 for that purpose, is passed.

The English had defeated and almost annihilated the French and Spanish navies, and became very tyrannical toward neutral nations, which begins to injure our commerce. Bonaparte retaliates in the same spirit which doubles the difficulty.

Mar. 18—A treaty made by American ambassadors with England was rejected by our government because the British refused to allow that British born citizens could become American citizens by naturalization. These the English government claimed the right of impressing from our vessels, which we denied.

June 22—A British ship of war, the Leopard, fires into the American frigate Chesapeake while unprepared to resist, and took several men from her. Three Americans were killed, and eighteen wounded. It greatly exasperated the Americans.

July 2—The President ordered all English ships of war to leave American waters.

Aug. 25—Com. Preble, of the U.S. navy, died.

Sept. 15—Aaron Burr tried for treason, (he was the leader of the conspiracy believed to have endeavored to detach the Mississippi Valley from the Union,) was acquitted for want of evidence, though generally believed guilty.

Nov. 26—Oliver Ellsworth, U. S. Chief Justice, died.

Dec. 17—Bonaparte’s “Milan Decree” subjects American commercial vessels to seizure.

” 22—This and like British “Orders in Council” caused Congress to lay an embargo, forbidding any vessels to sail from our ports.

1808.

Jan. 1—The act of Congress, passed in the previous session, to carry out the provision of the Constitution to abolish the slave trade at this time, goes into effect to-day.

Apr. 17—Bonaparte orders the seizure and confiscation of all American vessels in France, or that should afterwards arrive there.

Nov. 7—The tenth Congress assembles again. Much discussion is had over the embargo, but it is finally determined to make it still more stringent and place the country in a state of defense.

” —A presidential election this month results in the choice of James Madison for the next term. He was a republican, or democrat, in politics.

1809.

Jan. 9—An act is passed “more effectually to enforce the embargo.”

Feb. 3—Illinois organized under a Territorial Government.

” 27—The embargo is partially repealed.

Mar. 3—The Tenth Congress closes, at the same time as the Administration of Jefferson. Madison was inaugurated the next day. He served two terms. A war with Great Britain was commenced in his first, and ended in his second term.

” 9—Thos. Haywood, of S. C., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Apr. 19—An arrangement of the difficulties with England concluded with the British Minister, Erskine, and, in the expectation of permanent peace, the Embargo and Non-intercourse acts cease by proclamation of the President.

May 22—An extra session of the eleventh Congress meets.

July 20—News arrives of the rejection by the English government of the Erskine treaty.

Aug. 9—The President forbids, by proclamation, all intercourse with Great Britain and France.

Nov. 8—A new English minister having been sent, his arrogant tone causes the U. S. government to decline further intercourse with him.

1810.

Mar. 23—Bonaparte orders the sale and confiscation of 132 American vessels (detained in France by previous decree) and their cargoes, and the same confiscation is ordered of all American vessels afterward entering French ports. The 132 vessels and their cargoes were worth $8,000,000.

Aug. 5—The French government announces the revocation of their confiscation act, to take effect Nov. 1. A deadly struggle had been, for many years, going on between Napoleon Bonaparte and England. This hostility of France to American commerce was in retaliation, of the British “Orders in Council” against neutral commerce trading with France. England had nearly destroyed the French navy and considered herself mistress of the seas. She wished to reduce American commerce to the condition of colonial times, which, with impressment of seamen, was the cause of the present struggle. Our commerce was constantly growing, our people spirited, and resolved to have their rights and Flag respected.

1811.

Feb. 26—An act passed establishing naval hospitals.

May 16—The American frigate President, and the British sloop of war Little Belt, fire into each other. The Little Belt is disabled. This was a retaliation of the firing of the British ship Leopard on the American Chesapeake, four years before, and also of the capture of an American merchantman bound to France, off New York, by a British vessel about this time. Several instances of impressment, by the British, from American vessels, had lately occurred, and there was a feeling of great exasperation toward England. The English government had not yet made any atonement for the attack on the Chesapeake.

June 1—Gen. Eaton, prominent in the war with Tripoli, died.

” 19—Samuel Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died.

Aug. 2—Wm. Williams, of Conn., died. The two last were signers of the Declaration of Independence.

The relief of American commerce from outrages by the French proved delusive, and many grievous wrongs are suffered this year.

Nov. 7—Two twin brothers of the Shawanese tribe of Indians (Tecumseh and the Prophet) had been for some years engaged in forming a conspiracy among a large number of Indian tribes on the Northwestern frontier to exterminate the whites. Gen. Harrison’s army is attacked by the Indians this day, at Tippecanoe. They are defeated by Gen. Harrison.

Dec. 2—The ratio of Representation is revised on the census of 1800, and fixed at 35,000.

1812.

Jan.—Various acts are passed for putting the army and navy in a condition for war.

Apr. 4—An embargo is laid on American shipping, by act of Congress.

” 8—Louisiana admitted into the Union as a State.

” 20—Geo. Clinton, Vice-President of the United States, died.

June 4—The Territory of Missouri organized.

” 23—The British government repeal the obnoxious “Orders in Council,” but refuse to give up the right of search and impressment on American vessels. The American government refuses to be satisfied with this; besides, it had already declared war, June 18th.

CHAPTER XX.
THE WAR OF 1812.

We have stated in connection with the appropriate events, the causes of this war which had accumulated during the last five years at a rapid rate. The seizure and captures of American vessels by Great Britain amounted to 917; by France to 558. Upwards of 6,000 cases of impressments were recorded in the American Department of State; and in all these our Flag had been violated. It was estimated that about as many more had been made, of which no official information had been received. The Americans were averse to war and had long borne these injuries in the hope that a settlement might be reached by negotiation; but they insisted on the inviolability of our Flag, and the right of naturalization. On the commencement of hostilities 2,500 of these impressed sailors, claiming to be American citizens, refused to fight against America, and were imprisoned by the English government, where most of them were kept to the close of the war.

Aug. 24—The English government, however, had the magnanimity, when news arrived of the Declaration of War by the United States, to allow all American vessels then in their ports six weeks to dispose of their lading and to depart undisturbed.

The great success of the war on the American side was on the sea, where it was much more seriously detrimental and mortifying to the English than victories on the land would have been. The land forces were generally inefficiently conducted, though the close of the war was signalized by the victory of Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, which was extremely gratifying to American pride.

July 12—Gen. Hull, with 1,800 troops, invades Canada.

Aug. 8—After various mishaps, Hull retreats to Detroit.

” 9—Col. Miller defeats Tecumseh and a body of British troops at Maguaga.

” 15—Ft. Dearborn (now Chicago) was abandoned by its small garrison, by the orders of Hull. During their retreat they were attacked, and most of them massacred by the Indians.

” 16—Gen. Hull surrendered Detroit and all the military forces and stores in the territory to the British. He was afterward sentenced to death by a court-martial, but pardoned by the president, though degraded from all military command.

” 19—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Capt. Hull, does great honor to the American arms by the capture of the English frigate Guerriere. This vessel had challenged the American vessels in a contemptuous way. She had 79 killed and wounded, the Constitution only 13. There were 10 impressed American seamen on the Guerriere.

Sept. 7—The U. S. frigate Essex captures the Alert in 8 minutes.

Oct. 13—In another invasion of Canada by Gen. Van Rensselaer, though much gallantry was displayed, an unexpected British reinforcement obliged the surrender of 700 men after 160 had been killed and wounded.

” 18—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Frolic, which was the strongest vessel. The Frolic had 100 killed and wounded, the Wasp but 10. Both were captured by a British 74 pounder the same day.

” 25—Capt. Decatur, of the frigate United States, captures the Macedonian, a British frigate. British loss 104, American only 7.

Nov. 22—The U. S. brig Vixen is captured by the English frigate Southampton. Both were afterward shipwrecked.

A presidential election in this month secured the re-election of Madison.

Dec. 29—The U. S. frigate Constitution, Commodore Bainbridge, captures the British frigate Java, off the coast of Brazil. American loss 44, British 151. These naval victories with so little loss produced much exultation in America, and much surprise and mortification in England. The Americans were able seamen, and had long burned to avenge the insults and contempt of the English navy. Americans are capable of extraordinary vigor when thoroughly aroused. The operations on land had been much interfered with by the strenuous and almost treasonable opposition of the anti-war party, and this continued to be an embarrassment during nearly its whole course. The general disfavor with which this violent opposition was regarded, however, and the sympathy felt for the President, so embarrassed, procured his re-election.

1813.

Military operations this year were, in part, more creditable and encouraging. The regular force amounted to about 55,000 men; an act had been passed authorizing the construction of four 74 gun ships, and six forty-fours; and for an increase of the navy on the lakes.

Jan. 22—A disastrous enterprise at Frenchtown (now Monroe, Mich.) results in the loss of nearly 900 American troops under Winchester. The wounded were left by Gen. Proctor, the British commander, to be massacred by the Indians.

” 23—Geo. Clymer, of Pa., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

” 26—An act of Congress authorizes the President to borrow $16,000,000.

” 27—He is authorized to issue Treasury notes to the amount of $5,000,000.

Feb. 24—The Hornet captures the British brig Peacock, on the coast of South America.

The Delaware and Chesapeake bays are blockaded by the British about this time.

Mar. 4—Madison is inaugurated for his second term.

” 8—The emperor of Russia having offered his services as mediator between the United States and England, the President appoints commissioners to treat for peace.

Apr. 10—The British attack Lewiston, Del., but are repulsed after having bombarded it several days.

” 27—Americans under Gen. Pike, capture York, Upper Canada, with a large quantity of stores. Gen. Pike is killed.

May 1—The British Gen. Proctor besieges Gen. Harrison in Fort Meigs.

” 5—Gen. Clay coming to his assistance Proctor retreats. Col. Dudley, making a sortie from Ft. Meigs, is drawn into an ambuscade and loses 650 men. He is himself mortally wounded.

The British Admiral Cockburn barbarously ravages the shores of Chesapeake bay.

” 27—Ft. George, at Niagara, surrenders to the Americans, and Sir Geo. Prevost is repulsed from Sacketts Harbor, N. Y., by Gen. Brown.

June 1—The U. S. frigate Chesapeake captured by the British frigate Shannon. American loss 133; British loss about half as many. Capt. Lawrence of the Chesapeake is mortally wounded.

” 6—Gens. Chandler and Winder surprised in the night by the enemy they were going to attack. The two generals are taken prisoners, but their troops repulse the enemy and retire.

” 23—Col. Boerstler, in command of an American force of 600 men, is surrounded by a superior force at Beaver Dams and compelled to surrender.

” 25—Admiral Cockburn, failing in his attack on the American forces at Craney Island, Va., lands at Hampton and commits many outrages.

July 31—American Com. Chauncy lands at York, U. C., captures and destroys stores, and the British do the same at Plattsburg, on lake Champlain.

Aug. 2—Gen. Proctor with 1,000 British and Indians attacks Col. Croghan with 160 men, at Ft. Stephenson, Lower Sandusky, O., and is repulsed with a loss of 150.

About this time the American frigate Essex, Capt. Porter, cruising in the Pacific ocean, captured 12 armed British whalers.

” 13—The American sloop-of-war Argus, cruising in the English Channel, captured 21 British merchantmen, but was herself captured by the Pelican after a severe engagement.

” 30—Tecumseh had stirred up the Creek Indians to war, and they attacked Ft. Mims, which they set on fire and captured, massacring all but 20 out of 400 men, women and children.

Sept. 3—The American brig Enterprise captures the Boxer on the coast of Maine.

” 10—Perry’s victory on Lake Erie. He captures the whole fleet (6 vessels) of the enemy. His laconic dispatch to Gen. Harrison was, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”

Oct. 5—Battle of the Thames (Upper Canada). Gen. Harrison, commanding the Americans, defeated the British and Indians, under Gen. Proctor and Tecumseh. The latter was slain. The British lost about 600 in killed, wounded and prisoners; the Americans 17 killed and 30 wounded.

” ”—Commodore Chauncy captures 5 British vessels on Lake Ontario.

Nov. 2—Gen. Coffee attacks the Creek Indians at Tallushatches, Ala. 200 warriors are killed.

” 9—Gen. Jackson defeats the Indians at Talladega, Ala., killing 290 of them. Two other battles with the Indians occurred this month, and one in Dec. in which they were defeated with great slaughter, and little loss to the Americans. Yet so spirited and resolute were they as to require to be almost exterminated before they would make peace.

” 11—1,200 Americans, under Gen. Boyd, engage 2,000 British, under Lt. Col. Morrison, and are repulsed with a loss of 339. British loss 180.

Dec. 10—Ft. George, at Niagara, evacuated and the town of Newark burned by the Americans.

” 19—Ft. Niagara is taken by the British and Indians who massacre the garrison. Youngstown, Lewistown, the Tuscarora Indian village, and Manchester, all in N. Y., are burned, in retaliation of the destruction of Newark.

” 30—The British burn Black Rock, Buffalo, three vessels of Perry’s fleet, and large quantities of provisions. Gen. Proctor justifies it as a proper retaliation. The burning of Newark was barbarous, but was avenged tenfold. Naturalized Irishmen, taken by the British in our armies this year, were sent to England to be tried for treason. An equal number of English officers were imprisoned by the American government and notice given to the governor of Canada that they should receive the same treatment and fate as our Irish soldiers. This had its effect, and the latter remained simply prisoners of war. This claim, and corresponding action on the part of the English government, which was one of the principal causes of the war, was, from this time, practically relinquished. In December an embargo was laid by Congress on American goods and provisions, to prevent their being employed to supply the British blockading force and armies. It produced great discontent in New England, where a large part of the people were dependent on commerce, and were thrown into great distress. There was much factious, and even seditious, opposition to the government.

1814.

The army operations had been unsuccessful in Canada during the last of the campaign, owing, it was thought, to the inefficiency of the commanders, and perhaps partly to the want of experience of their subalterns. Changes, that were proved much for the better, were made, and the campaign of this year, in this quarter, showed a more honorable record. Since the commencement of the war till this year, the English government had been carrying on an immense European war, which was closed by the abdication of Bonaparte and his banishment to the island of Elba. They prepared for a more vigorous effort in America, by sending considerable armies of the veterans of Wellington, who had conquered in Europe. They had received, the impression that the opposition to the war and the republican party, would coöperate with them, and that they might re-establish their dominion over their former colonies.

But they did not comprehend American character. Party politics have always been conducted in a bitter and hostile spirit, but that hostility has not been directed against their institutions. Extreme attachment to these, and jealous care to preserve all rights guaranteed by the Constitution, has always led the opposition to a close and sharp criticism of all measures of the party in power differing from their own interpretation of Constitutional rights. When these institutions are really in danger all parties unite in a defense, the obstinacy and vigor of which carries everything before it. It stops at no obstacles, hesitates before no sacrifices, and counts no odds. This became apparent to the British during the summer, dispelled forever their dream of conquest, and led to a peace at the close of the campaign. The British sent 14,000 troops to Canada this spring, which was supported, in July and August, by a large reinforcement. A strong naval force, with a large body of troops, was sent to invade the heart of the country and capture Washington. After failing in maintaining their ground here, they were directed against the gulf coast and the Mississippi river, ending in their decisive defeat by Gen. Jackson, at New Orleans, Jan. 8th, 1815, nine days before the treaty of peace, signed at Ghent, in Belgium, Dec. 24, was known in America.

Mar. 24—A loan of $25,000,000 authorized by Congress.

” 27—Gen. Jackson’s defeat of the Indians at Great Horseshoe Bend, Ala. This battle accomplished the subjection of the Creek Indians. Jackson had fought them on the 21st, 24th and 27th of Jan., when they came near defeating him, but notwithstanding their fierce and obstinate bravery, he conquered each time, and finally, nearly exterminated them.

” 28—The brilliant career of the U. S. frigate Essex, in the Pacific ocean, is terminated by its capture, at Valparaiso, Chili, by the British frigate Phebe and another sloop of war.

” 30—Gen. Wilkinson is repulsed in an advance into Canada, at La Colle, and is afterwards tried by court martial. Gen. Brown is given the command of the Niagara frontier, and Gen. Izard of northern N. Y.

April 21—The U. S. sloop of war Frolic captured by the British frigate Orpheus.

” 27—The U. S. sloop of war Peacock captures the British brig-of-war Epervier with $118,000 specie on board.

May 7—A British force captures and destroys the American fort at Oswego, N. Y., and carries off several guns.

” 29—The Americans capture a British force at Sandy Creek, N. Y.

June 9—The U. S. sloop of war Rattlesnake captured by a British 50 gun ship.

” 12—The U. S. sloop Syren captured by a British 74.

” 28—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop of war Reindeer, in the British Channel.

July 3—Gen. Brown captures Ft. Erie, near Niagara, U. C.

” 5—Battle of Chippewa, Canada. Gens. Brown, Scott, and Ripley, with about 3,000 men, were opposed by the British Gen. Riall with an equal number of the veterans of Waterloo. Gen. Scott attacked them with such prudence and valor as to conquer a largely superior force before Gen. Ripley could come up to his aid. It was a splendid test of American mettle. Loss of the British 514, of Scott 328. The British fall back to Ft. George.

” 11—The British make a descent on the coast of Maine.

” 25—Gen. Scott engages a British force of seven times his number, and holds his ground for some hours when Gen. Ripley comes to his aid, and they drive the British from the field; but having only 1,600 men left, while the British have 5,000, they retire next day. The British lost 878, the Americans 860.

Aug. 4—Americans besieged in Ft. Erie.

” 8—First meeting of the U. S. and English commissioners to treat for peace, who arranged the terms at the close of this year. The English were very high in their demands till the failure of their much vaunted veteran troops.

” 9—The British make an unsuccessful attack on Stonington, Conn. A treaty is made with the Creek Indians.

” 15—The British repulsed from Ft. Erie with the loss of 962 men. The Americans lost 84.

” 20—A British force landed from the fleet in the Chesapeake, marches on Washington.

” 24—The battle of Bladensburg, near Washington. The Americans, much inferior in numbers, were defeated. The British, under Gen. Ross, entered Washington the same day. They destroyed much private property, as well as public stores, buildings and documents.

Not deeming it prudent to remain, the British retreated from Washington to their vessels, leaving the people greatly exasperated at conduct unworthy of the army of a civilized nation.

” 27—Alexandria, Va., delivers up the public stores and shipping there and much merchandise as a ransom from plunder and burning.

Sept. 1—The U. S. sloop of war Wasp captures the British sloop Avon. After taking three other prizes in European waters, she disappeared and was never again heard of—supposed to have foundered at sea. The British Gen. Prevost advances toward Plattsburg, N. Y., with 12,000 veteran troops.

” 11—The battle of Plattsburg. Com. McDonough, American, with 4 vessels, 10 gun boats and 850 men, captures the British Com. Downie’s fleet of 4 vessels, 12 gun boats and 1,000 men. A simultaneous attack by Prevost on Plattsburg miscarried by the failure of the fleet and panic of the soldiers. They return, in disorder, to Canada.

” 12—The British who had captured Washington, appear near Baltimore and land a force which repulses the Baltimore militia, and, next day advances toward the city; but the attack seems so formidable to them that they retreat in the night to their vessels and depart. The British admiral could not reduce Ft. M’Henry so as to co-operate in an attack on the city by water. The patriotic song, “The Star Spangled Banner,” was written during this bombardment of Fort M’Henry. Gen. Ross, the British commander, was killed soon after the landing of the troops.

About this time various attacks are made at different places on the coast of New England, and the British pretend, by proclamation, to take possession of all of Maine east of the Penobscot river and annex it to New Brunswick.

” 17—A sortie is made from Ft. Erie and the works of the enemy surprised and taken with a loss to him of 1,000 men in killed, wounded and prisoners.

Thus, in the midst of ravages and alarms on the coast, the destruction of our commerce, the stagnation of business, the financial difficulties of the government that almost amounted to bankruptcy, and the complaints of the peace party, (which produced much alarm by the calling of a convention of the New England States, in December of this year, at Hartford, Conn.,) the honor of the United States was preserved. The formidable armies in Canada had been baffled and defeated, the capture of Washington followed immediately by the withdrawal of the invaders, and a strong point made which had its effect in substantially gaining the cause that had brought on the war, for the Americans, in the treaty negotiations in progress. The British now turned their attention to the Mississippi river and the coast of the gulf of Mexico.

Nov. 7—Gen. Jackson takes Pensacola from the British, who were laboring to raise the Indians to war again.

Dec. 15—A British fleet captures the flotilla on Lake Borgne, La.

” 22—12,000 British troops land below New Orleans, and repulse the Americans.

” 24—The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, but is not known in America until Feb. following.

1815.

Jan. 8—Gen. Jackson, with only 6,000 men, had intrenched himself in front of the British, who now made an assault on his position. They were repulsed with great slaughter, losing their general, Packingham, and near 2,000 men. Jackson lost but 7 killed and 6 wounded. The British retreated to their vessels.

” 15—The U. S. frigate President captured by four English vessels.

Feb. 18—Ft. Bowyer, near Pensacola, Fla., invested by the British fleet. It surrenders on the 21st.

” 17—The treaty of peace which arrived at New York on the 11th by the British sloop of war Favorite, ratified by the American government and Peace proclaimed.

” 24—Congress authorizes the loan of $18,400,000, and the issue of treasury notes to the amount of $25,000,000.

” 28—The naval war was continued some time longer. The U. S. frigate Constitution captures two British vessels of war, the frigate Cyane and the sloop Levant, off the island of Madeira. In March the U. S. frigate Hornet captured the British brig Penguin, on the coast of Brazil.

The British government, elated by their triumph over Bonaparte, their large army accustomed to conquer in Europe, and the fleets set free from the blockade of the Continent, thought to make an easy conquest of America. But all their attempts were defeated. Had peace been made a little later the Americans might have obtained much better terms.

This war had been waged under many difficulties by the American administration. The country and its institutions, were new, and there was no such reserved fund of wealth and credit, as is always found in an old and well organized state. They depended largely on commerce, which was almost destroyed by the great naval force of Great Britain, and the embargo policy. Our navy was gallant and successful; but the government lacked the means, and the unanimous support of the people, requisite to increase it to the necessary strength. The administration did not act with the vigor and efficiency calculated to bring all sections and classes to its support, and the people had not yet the experience and knowledge of the value and strength of their own institutions needful to inspire confidence, so that they were critical and difficult to please, and this spirit impaired the efficiency of nearly all government measures. What they undertook could be only imperfectly done. The old soldiers of the Revolution were dead or unfit by age for good service, and time was necessary to train others and ascertain who had the necessary military capacity for conducting operations with success. Yet, under all these great difficulties, the United States came out of the war with the respect of the world, such as it had never before enjoyed. It became formidable to Europe as a great and vigorous power with which it was not safe to trifle.

This was still more clear when the government declared war on the Dey of Algiers, one of the pirate princes of the North of Africa, which, for hundreds of years, had made war on the commerce of all nations almost with impunity. Having violated their treaty with us, the President sent out an adequate naval force

June 17-19—which captured two Algerine vessels of war, and threatened Algiers. The Dey, intimidated, immediately made peace, giving liberty to all prisoners without ransom, and full satisfaction for the injuries done to our commerce. No European nation had before so humbled these pirates, and it at once raised the credit of our government, and gained us respect and esteem.

June 30—The last hostile act at sea took place in the Straits of Sunda, in the East Indies, where the U. S. brig of war Peacock captured the Nautilus, a British sloop of war. Thus the three American vessels at sea when the war closed, each came home crowned with laurels. The British vessels captured during the war numbered 1,750—the American 1,683. The spirit and energy of the Americans, under all their embarrassments, gave an unmistakable indication of the future greatness and power of the United States.

1816.

The last two years’ experience had taught the government and the people many important lessons by which they hastened to profit. The coast was fortified, the navy increased, manufactures and commerce encouraged, and the best measures that the wisdom of the times could suggest, employed to restore the finances. The violently factious opposition of parties was much moderated by the confidence gained to our government and institutions, and the evident folly of excessive fears. The Second U.S. Bank was chartered for 20 years, with a capital of $35,000,000.

Nov. 5—Governeur Morris, an eminent and excellent American statesman died.

Dec. 11—Indiana admitted into the Union as a State. James Monroe was, this autumn, elected President.

CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1817 TO 1846.

Monroe’s Administration.

A new era for America commenced with this administration, or rather, reached its period of uninterrupted development; for the whole past history of the country had been a preparation for it, but especially so the late war and its results. The failure of the French revolution, and, finally, the failure of Napoleon Bonaparte and the re-establishment of the old monarchy in France, as a result of the excesses, first of the French republic, and then of the military interference of Bonaparte with the existing state of things in Europe, had an important influence in modifying the politics of the republican party in the United States; so that they came partially in Jefferson’s administration, and completely by the close of Madison’s, to follow the wise and vigorous policy pursued by Washington and the federal party; while the general government and the institutions of the country became deeply imbued with the regard to popular rights, and attention to the interests and will of the people that formed the leading idea of Jefferson and the original democrat, or, as it was then called, the republican party. Thus the two points of supreme importance, vigor in the general government, and security to the people, were happily mingled and wrought into the spirit and form of our institutions.

The leading events of Monroe’s two administrations were the attention given to internal improvements—among which may be mentioned the Erie canal in New York, and the encouragements to manufactures—the acquisition of Florida from Spain, and a definite settlement of the slavery question (for the next thirty years only, as it proved,) by the Missouri compromise. The people now began to feel and act together, as a single nation, and material progress was rapid.

1817.

Mar. 3—The observance of the neutrality laws strictly enjoined on citizens of the United States by Congress.

” 4—James Monroe, the fifth President, inaugurated. With his administration commences “the era of good feeling,” as it was called. The bitterness of party controversy ceased.

June 24—Thos. McKean, of Del., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Dec.—Mississippi admitted into the Union, and Alabama erected into a territory.

” —A war broke out with the Seminole Indians, on the borders of Florida. It came near involving us in a war with Spain. Internal taxes are abolished by Congress.

1818.

Mar. 18—A law enacted giving pensions to indigent officers and soldiers.

April 4—The Flag of the U. S. rearranged; the stripes to represent the thirteen original States, the stars the present number of States.

” 18—Illinois is authorized to form a state constitution.

May 24—Gen. Jackson took Pensacola, Fla., from the Spaniards on account of the support given by them to the Indians.

Oct. 20—A treaty of commerce and for settling boundaries is made with England.

1819.

Feb. 23—A treaty for the session of Florida ratified by Congress, but not by the king of Spain until Oct. 20th, 1820.

Mar. 2—Arkansas organized into a territory.

Dec. 14—Alabama admitted into the Union.

In this year commenced the discussion on the balance between the north and the south in relation to slavery. Missouri and Maine both desire admission as States. The discussion resulted in a settlement of the whole question Feb. 27th, 1821, by the application of the “Missouri Compromise” to the admission of that State.

1820.

Feb. 15—Wm. Ellery, of R. I., signer of the Declaration of Independence, died.

Mar. 15—Maine admitted into the Union.

Aug. 23—Com. Perry, the hero of Lake Erie, died in the West Indies.

The 4th census was taken in this year.

1821.

Mar. 4—James Monroe inaugurated on his second term.

” 22—Com. Decatur died at Washington.

Aug. 22—Gen. Jackson takes possession of Florida as its Governor. The U. S. government paid $5,000,000 for Florida. The Spanish officers were reluctant and dilatory in giving up their places, and Gen. Jackson had occasion for his remarkably decisive action in dealing with them. The governor, Don Cavalla, refusing to give up certain papers according to the treaty, he sent him to prison until all the papers were produced, and banished six other Spanish officers who interfered with him.

1822.

June—A commercial treaty is negotiated with France. Capt. Allen, of the U. S. schooner Alligator, engages a band of pirates in the West Indies, captures one of their schooners, and recaptures five American vessels. Capt. Allen is killed.

The ports of the West India islands are opened to American commerce by the English government.

Com. Truxton, a meritorious naval officer—Gen. Stark, the hero of Bennington, Vt.,—and Wm. Lowndes, a statesman of S. C., died this year.

A new arrangement of the ratio of Representation gives one member of Congress to 40,000 inhabitants.

1823.

Com. Porter makes a successful expedition against the West Indian pirates.

This year our government acknowledged the independence of the South American Republics, and ministers were appointed to Mexico, Columbia, Buenos Ayres, and Chili.

A treaty for the mutual suppression of the slave trade was made by Great Britain and the United States.

1824.

April—American and Russian commissioners settle the boundaries between the two countries.

Aug. 15—Lafayette arrives from France. He was everywhere received as the guest of the people with the utmost affection and reverence. He spent a year visiting all parts of the Union.

A presidential election this autumn does not result in a choice, and the House of Representatives made selection of John Quincy Adams, from the candidates, according to a provision of the Constitution, anticipating such a case. A protective tariff was made this year to encourage cotton manufactures.

Administration of John Quincy Adams.

1825.

Mar. 4—J. Q. Adams inaugurated sixth President.

” ”—An act of Congress establishes a navy yard at Pensacola, Fla.

June 11—Dan. D. Tompkins, Vice-President with Monroe, died.

Nov. 10—Com. McDonough, the hero of Lake Champlain, died.

1826.

July 4—John Adams and Thos. Jefferson, whose lives were identified with the foundation and development of our institutions, simultaneously died on this day.

Sept. 11—Wm. Morgan, an anti-mason, mysteriously disappears, and is never again heard of.

1827.

An Anti-Mason party is formed, opposing secret societies. Much “political capital” is made of it.

Jan.—The first considerable railroad was begun, and completed in May. It was nine miles long, a beginning of the wonderful transformation that was to be produced by this agent.

1828.

Feb. 11—De Witt Clinton, governor of N. Y. and originator of the Erie canal, died.

The tariff was amended and enlarged this year. This tariff was violently opposed in the South and produced the “Nullification Ordinances” of S. C., some time later.

In the fall of this year Gen. Andrew Jackson was elected President.

1829.

Feb. 29—The Virginia Legislature passes a resolution denying the right of Congress to pass a protective tariff law.

Mar. 4—Andrew Jackson inaugurated as President.

Dan. Webster makes his great speech against nullification.

Jackson’s Administration.

1829.

May 19—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with Brazil.

” ”—John Jay, ex-President of the Continental Congress, Chief Justice of the U. S., Governor of N. Y., etc., died. In purity of patriotism, moderation, and soundness of judgment, he came nearer to Washington than any of his contemporaries. He was above the reach of the violent party spirit that prevailed after Washington’s retirement from public life.

1830.

May 7—A treaty made with Turkey gives U. S. commerce the freedom of the Black sea. The vigorous dealing of our government with the Barbary States secured the respect and friendship of Turkey.

The important movement and interests of this year were connected with the progress of railroads (the first American built locomotive was made this year,) and the rapid rise of that great interest, and with the agitation produced by the nullification proceedings of South Carolina. That State claimed the right to pronounce upon, and disregard the enactments of Congress. This was subversive of the Constitution. It drew the “Key Stone” from the arch, and the whole structure of the Union would have fallen. No decisive action was reached till the year 1832.

May 29—The office of Solicitor of the Treasury created.

1831.

Jan. 10—The King of the Netherlands, being accepted as arbitrator of the northern boundary between the United States and the British Possessions, by the two governments, decides the question in our favor.

July 4—James Monroe, ex-President of the U. S., died, aged 73.

Oct. 1—A free trade convention meets at Philadelphia.

” 26—A tariff convention meets at New York. There were over 500 delegates. It was the absorbing political topic of the time.

1832.

April 1—The Black Hawk war breaks out by the attack of the Winnebagoes, Sacs, and Foxes from the west bank of the Mississippi on the settlers in Illinois, under the Indian chief, Black Hawk.

” 2—The Creek Indians sell all their lands east of the Mississippi river to the U. S.

May 5—A commercial and boundary treaty concluded with Mexico.

” 27—A new ratio of representation based on the 5th census gives one member of Congress to 47,700 inhabitants.

June 1—Gen. Sumter, a South Carolina hero of the Revolution, died.

” 9—The cholera breaks out at Quebec, Lower Canada. It swept over the country, following the lakes and rivers and routes of travel, with fearful violence.

July—The cholera breaks up Gen. Scott’s army, on the way to meet Black Hawk while in vessels on the lakes.

” 9—Congress creates the office of Commissioner of Indian affairs.

” 10—Naval hospitals established at Charlestown, Mass., Brooklyn, N. Y., and Pensacola, Fla.

” ”—The President vetoes the bill rechartering the U. S. Bank.

Aug. 27—Gen. Atkinson defeats the Indians and takes Black Hawk prisoner.

Nov. 14—Chas. Carroll, of Carrollton, Md., last surviving signer of Dec. of Ind., dies.

” 19—An anti-tariff convention in S. C. issues the famous “Nullification Ordinance.”

” 24—The Unionists of S. C. meet and protest against this ordinance.

Dec. 10—President Jackson issues a proclamation against the nullifiers. He followed word with deed, garrisoning the forts, and sending vessels of war into the harbor of Charleston. His well known vigor left the nullifiers no hope of success, and they finally submitted.

” 18—A commercial treaty concluded with Russia.

” 20—Gov. Hayne, of S. C., defies the President in a counter proclamation.

” 28—J. C. Calhoun, of S. C., the Vice-President, resigns his office. President Jackson is reëlected this fall. His anti-nullification measures made him very popular.

1833.

Feb. 12—Henry Clay introduces a bill on the tariff compromising the points at issue between the manufacturing States and the South.

Mar. 3—It becomes a law, and gives general satisfaction.

” 4—President Jackson reinaugurated on his second term.

May 20—The death of La Fayette, in France.

June 1—Oliver Wolcott, Sec. of the Treasury under Washington, dies.

July 27—Com. Bainbridge, a famous naval commander, dies.

Sept. 30—President Jackson removes his Sec. of Treas. W. J. Duane, for refusing to carry out his policy in regard to the U. S. Bank. The presence of the Indians in Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, produces so much conflict and so frequent a necessity for chastising them that they are in danger of total extermination. Gen. Jackson persuades Congress and the Indians to arrange for their removal to lands west of the Mississippi. Some of the Indians quietly remove this year. Many resist, but all are finally persuaded to this course by Gen. Scott and others, except the Seminoles of Fla.

1834.

Mar. 28—Congress formally censures the President for his course in regard to the U. S. Bank.

Oct. 28—A conditional treaty made with the Seminoles at Payne’s Landing, May 9, 1832, for their removal to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi, was afterwards confirmed by the chiefs but rejected by the people. Gen. Thompson was sent, at this time, by President Jackson to insist on their carrying out the treaty.

Dec. 28—A council of the Indians, called by Gen. Thompson, seemingly accept the terms of the President.

1835.

Mar. 3—Congress establishes branch mints in La., N. C., and Ga.

May 14—A treaty with the Cherokees purchases all their lands east of the Mississippi for $5,262,251, and ample lands in exchange in the Indian Territory.

June 3—Osceola, a Seminole chief, imprisoned by Gen. Thompson.

July 6—Chief Justice Marshall dies, aged 80.

Dec. 16—A destructive fire in New York. $17,000,000 worth of property consumed.

” 28—The Seminoles killed their chief, Mathla, who had been prominent in making the obnoxious treaty, and suddenly attack a U. S. force under Maj. Dade. But one man out of 110 escaped. He was wounded and afterwards died. The same day Gen. Thompson and others were surprised and massacred.

” 31—Gen. Clinch is attacked by the Indians at Withlacoochee. He repulses them and retires.

1836.

Early in this year the Indians laid waste the whole country, burning the buildings and killing all who had not taken refuge in the forts.

Jan. 20—A treaty of friendship and commerce concluded with the republic of Venezuela, South America.

Feb.—The U. S. Bank was chartered by the Legislature of Pa.

” 11—Gen. Gaines lands an army at Tampa Bay. He is surrounded by the Indians on his march toward Fort King. He repulsed them, but his army is nearly starved. While the army is held here the tribe remove their families and effects into the impenetrable swamps of the interior.

Mar. 2—The Texans proclaim their independence.

Apr. 26—Wisconsin receives a territorial government.

” 21—Battle of San Jacinto. Santa Anna taken prisoner.

June 15—Michigan erected into a State, conditionally.

” ”—Arkansas admitted into the Union.

” 23—A surplus revenue having accumulated it is loaned to the States.

” 28—James Madison, the ex-President, dies, aged 86.

July 4—Office of Commissioner of Patents created.

Sept. 15—Aaron Burr, an able but dishonest and disloyal statesman, formerly Vice-President, dies, aged 81.

The Creek Indians commenced hostilities in May of this year, in their usual fierce and barbarous manner. Gen. Scott and the State authorities of Geo. subdue them early in the summer.

In the presidential election this fall Martin Van Buren was elected.

Dec. 15—The General Post Office and Patent Office, with many records and articles of value, are destroyed by fire.

1837.

Jan. 16—The U. S. Senate repealed and expunged its resolution of March 24th, 1834, censuring President Jackson, as having exceeded his Constitutional powers when he ordered the public funds to be withdrawn from the U. S. Bank.

Mar. 4—Van Buren inaugurated President.

Speculation having been carried to an extreme length for some time, and somewhat arrested by the “specie circular” requiring payments for public lands to be made in coin, a revulsion, producing great distress, and suspension of payments by the banks, occurred this spring.

May 3—The merchants of New York present a memorial to the President urging him to remit the regulations of the “specie circular.” The President declines, but calls an extra session of Congress.

Aug. 4—Texas proposes annexation to the U. S. The President declines to entertain the proposition.

” 13—The banks resume specie payments.

Sept. 4—Congress assembled in extra session. A portion of the surplus revenue, which, by law of June 23d, 1836, was to be loaned to the States, is reclaimed to meet the current expenses of the government.

” 29—A treaty made with the Sioux Indians for the purchase of their lands, 5,000,000 acres, for $1,000,000.

Oct. 1—The Winnebagoes sell their lands for $1,500,000.

” 12—Congress authorizes the issue of $10,000,000 in Treasury notes.

” 21—Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 70 of his warriors, visits the camp of Gen. Jessup. They are detained, and Osceola was imprisoned in Ft. Moultrie, S. C., where, in a few months, he died.

Dec. 25—The battle of Okee-cho-bee fought with the Seminoles in the swamps of Florida, by Col. Zachary Taylor. The Indians are defeated.

The Magnetic Telegraph was patented in this year.

1838.

Jan. 5—The President issues a proclamation enjoining neutrality on American citizens, during the “Patriot war,” or insurrection in Canada.

June 12—Iowa receives a Territorial government.

Aug. 19—An Arctic exploring expedition, with six vessels, sails from Hampton Roads, Va.

The Cherokee Indians completed their emigration to the Indian Territory this year.

1839.

Gen. Macomb makes a treaty early in this year with the Seminoles, which they very imperfectly kept.

A difficulty with England in regard to our northeast boundary narrowly avoids war, but is, at length, peaceably adjusted.

Dec. 2—Congress assembles.

” 4—A Whig Convention prepares for the contest of the coming year by the nomination of Wm. H. Harrison for the Presidency. Great discontent was felt with the financial policy of Van Buren’s administration, and lively interest taken in the coming election, which made the campaign the most stirring and the noisiest ever experienced in this country.

1840.

May 5—The Democrats renominate Van Buren for the Presidency.

This year was chiefly memorable for the “Log Cabin and Hard Cider” election gatherings, and the extreme interest of the people in the elections, on financial grounds.

June 30—Congress passes the sub-treasury bill recommended by President Van Buren, in 1837, but then rejected.

Nov.—W. H. Harrison elected President, and John Tyler Vice-President.

1841.

Jan. 14—Imprisonment for debts due the U. S. abolished.

Mar. 4—Harrison inaugurated ninth President.

” 11—The steamer President sails from New York but is never again heard of. She had 109 passengers.

” 17—The President calls an extra session of Congress to consider financial questions.

Apr. 4—President Harrison died and John Tyler became acting President.

May 31—Congress convenes.

June 25—Gen. Macomb died.

July 6—The proceeds of the public lands ordered to be distributed to the States.

” 21—Congress orders a loan of $12,000,000.

Aug. 9—The Sub Treasury act repealed.

” 16—President Tyler vetoes the National Bank bill.

” 18—A general bankrupt law passed.

Sept. 9—A Second Banking Bill vetoed. This was the fourteenth time the veto power had been used; by Washington twice, Madison four times, Monroe once, Jackson five times.

Oct. 11—Failure of U. S. Bank under the Pennsylvania charter.

1842.

June 25—The new Ratio of Representation, based on the census of 1840, gives one Member of Congress for every 70,600 inhabitants.

July 23—Bunker Hill Monument finished and dedicated. The corner stone was laid by Lafayette 17 years before.

Aug. 20—The Ashburton treaty with England, settling the N. E. Boundary, ratified by the U. S. Senate.

” 28—The U. S. fiscal year ordered to commence with July 1st.

Oct. 2—The U. S. sloop of war Concord wrecked on the African coast.

” 14—The Ashburton-Webster treaty ratified in England.

1843.

Mar. 3—Congress appropriates $30,000 for building Morse’s electric telegraph from Washington to Baltimore. It was the beginning of that magnificent enterprise.

Com. Porter, minister to Turkey, dies in Constantinople.

Apr. 18—Commences “Dorr’s rebellion” in Rhode Island.

Aug. 26—The U. S. frigate Missouri burned, at Gibraltar, Spain.

1844.

Feb. 28—A large cannon on board the war steamer Princeton, bursts while the President and others are visiting the vessel, killing Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer, secretaries of war and navy, and others.

May 6—The “Know-nothing” or American excitement produces a serious riot in Philadelphia.

July 7—Jo. Smith, the originator of the Mormons, killed at Carthage, Ill.

Nov.—The Democratic party elected James K. Polk for President. The chief question entering into the election was on the annexation of Texas. It had been sought for some years but had been declined as certain to bring on a war with Mexico, which, as a sister republic, and much weaker than ourselves, had been considered to be an unworthy act. The Whigs, with Henry Clay as their candidate for President, opposed it. It was carried, in great part as a pro-slavery measure, although the bitter and barbarous conduct of the Mexicans toward Texans and American citizens had something to do with it.

1845.

Jan. 16—A treaty made with China, ratified by the U. S. Senate.

” 23—An act of Congress orders presidential elections to be held in all the States on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.

Feb. 28—Congress annexes Texas to the Union, by a joint resolution of both Houses.

Mar. 3—Florida admitted into the Union.

” 4—Mr. Polk inaugurated the tenth President.

June 18—Andrew Jackson died.

The Congress of Texas accepted the conditions of the U. S. and it became a State in the American Union.

July 30—Gen. Taylor ordered to the frontier of Texas.

Sept. 10—Judge Joseph Story, of the U. S. Supreme Court, died, aged 66.

Dec. 15—A misunderstanding had long existed between the U. S. and England as to the northern boundary of Oregon. Much excitement is now produced by a speech and resolution of Mr. Cass, which seemed the prelude to war with Great Britain.

1846.

June 18—A treaty was negotiated by Mr. Packenham and Mr. Buchanan settling the northwest boundary satisfactorily.

CHAPTER XXII.
THE MEXICAN WAR.

Texas was a nearly uninhabited part of Mexico, lying between Louisiana and the Rio Grande river. It was a fertile region, with a fine climate. The Spanish possessors of Mexico, in the bigoted and bitter spirit that was traditional with the Spaniards toward protestants, and deeply hostile in feeling from the rather high-handed and vigorous proceedings of Gen. Jackson before and after the cession of Florida, did not encourage the settlement of Texas; preferring to be separated by a wilderness from the United States. In 1821 the Mexicans finally threw off the Spanish yoke and established an independent government.

About this time the Americans, and especially those of the South, foreseeing the probable spread of the northern part of the Republic to the Pacific, began to look with covetous eyes on the fine Savannas of Texas, as an excellent field for land speculations, and also for extending the Southern area, so as to keep its balance in the number of slave States equal to the free States of the North, as they had been provided for by the Missouri Compromise. It was believed to be the plan of Mr. Calhoun, an able and far-seeing statesman, thoroughly in earnest in the maintenance of slavery, and the political equality of the slave with the free States. A settlement was made by people from the United States. In a few years they grew to be numerous, and came in conflict with the rigid Spanish Catholic laws, still maintained by the Mexicans. The United States government made advances toward purchasing Texas, but the Mexicans were resolute in their purpose to hold it, and bring its people under the dominion of strict Mexican law. The Americans resisted this with the settled determination of ultimate separation from Mexico, and probable annexation to the United States.

The Mexicans undertook to reduce them to submission. The Texans, supported by bold and fearless adventurers from the Southern States, resisted. The war commenced Oct. 2d, 1835, by a battle at Gonzalez, followed by various others. March 2d, 1836, the Texans formally declared Independence, which they maintained by force of arms. March 3d, 1837, the United States government recognized the Independence of Texas. England did the same in 1842. Propositions of annexation had been made to Presidents Jackson, Van Buren, and Tyler, successively, by the Texas government, but as often rejected by them as tending necessarily to a war with Mexico; that power having distinctly and repeatedly declared that she should regard such a step as a declaration of war.

The Democratic party regaining the ascendency in the election of 1844, made this annexation the issue of the presidential campaign. A majority of the people were in favor of it.

The Southern view, however, was not alone in its influence on this decision. Indignities and injuries had been inflicted by the Mexicans on American citizens in that country; its haughty, exclusive, and unfriendly spirit awakened strong indignation; and the Pacific coast of California, with the mining regions of the northern interior of Mexico, both nearly uninhabited, were objects of desire to the American people. Thus a wish to extend the bounds of the Republic, and to chastise an insolent neighbor, combined with the ardent wishes of the pro-slavery interest, to lead the nation to determine on a war, somewhat ungenerously, with a neighbor notoriously too weak and disorganized for effectual resistance to the whole strength of the United States. The whole plan, as afterward carried out, was arranged in the cabinet at Washington almost before hostilities had actually commenced.

1846.

Mar. 28—Gen. Taylor takes position with a small army at the mouth of the Rio Grande opposite Matamoras. This the Mexican government regard as a declaration of war, for which they had prepared and were waiting.

Apr. 24—Hostilities commence by an attack on Capt. Thornton. He loses 16 men out of 63, and surrenders.

May 8—The battle of Palo Alto. Gen. Taylor with 2,300 men defeats 6,000 Mexicans. Mexican loss 100 killed, 300 wounded; American 4 killed, 40 wounded.

” 9—The battle of Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans are totally defeated with a loss of about 600; the Americans lose about 160. Gen. La Vega, (Mexican,) taken prisoner. The Mexicans fled in total rout across the Rio Grande. The object of the war, so far as Texas was concerned, was gained; but the Mexicans were still spirited, and California, Utah, and New Mexico were not gained. An invasion and march on the city of Mexico were the next steps.

” 12—Congress ordered the raising of 50,000 men, and voted $10,000,000 to carry on the war.

July 6—Monterey, on the California coast is taken by the American navy under Com. Sloat.

” 9—Congress re-cedes the Virginia portion of the District of Columbia to that State.

” 30—The tariff on imported goods is reduced.

Aug. 3—President Polk vetoes the River and Harbor Bill.

” 8—He vetoes the French Spoliation Bill.

” 18—Gen. Kearney takes possession of Santa Fe, New Mexico, and declared the U. S. authority established over the people.

” 22—California is at this time entirely in the possession of U. S. forces.

Sept. 5—Gen. Taylor, with 6,000 men, commences his march on Monterey.

” 21—Gen. Worth, with 650 men, fights the Mexicans near Monterey.

” 22—The “Bishops Palace,” strongly fortified, is stormed and taken.

The previous attacks were directed on the rear of Monterey. An advance is now made in front with success.

” 23—The defenses are assaulted in front and rear. The city surrenders. Gen. Ampudia, the Mexican commander, had about 10,000 men and very strong fortifications. A truce of some weeks was agreed upon. Gen. Santa Anna having recently come into power, it was thought peace would be made. This proved delusive.

Oct. 25—Tobasco bombarded by the U. S. fleet, and the Mexican vessels in the port taken or destroyed.

Nov. 14—Tampico surrenders to Com. Connor.

Dec. 25—Battle of Bracito. Col. Doniphan, with 500 men, defeats a Mexican force of 1,200. Mexican loss 200, American but 7 wounded, none killed.

1847.

Jan. 8—The Mexican Congress votes $15,000,000 to carry on the war, to be raised on the property of the church.

Feb. 23—The larger part of Gen. Taylor’s army was withdrawn from him to support Gen. Scott in his march from Vera Cruz on the city of Mexico. Gen. Taylor, with only 4,500 men, is attacked by Santa Anna with 20,000 men. Santa Anna is completely defeated with a loss in killed and wounded of 2,000. American loss 264 killed, 450 wounded, 26 missing.

Mar. 1—Gen. Kearney proclaims California annexed to the United States.

” 3—A bill admitting Wisconsin into the Union passed.

” 9—Gen. Scott landed 12,000 men at Vera Cruz.

” 18—The cannonade of Vera Cruz commences.

” 26—Vera Cruz capitulates to Gen. Scott.

Apr. 18—The battle of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna is defeated. He had 12,000 men. Gen. Scott 8,500. The Mexicans lost 1,100 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 prisoners. Gen. Scott lost in killed and wounded, 430. The Mexicans were vigorously pursued April 19, and the city of Jalapa taken possession of.

” 22—Gen. Worth takes possession of the town and castle of Perote.

May 15—Puebla is entered. It is the second city in Mexico. Offers of peace were now made by the Americans but rejected by the Mexicans.

Aug. 11—The army advances to the neighborhood of the city of Mexico.

” 19—The battle of Contreras. Americans successful in cutting the enemy’s communications. The Americans march in the night to attack a fortified camp which is carried at sunrise. American force 4,500, Mexican 7,000. Mexican loss in killed, wounded and prisoners, about 4,000; American, 66.

” 20—Cherubusco, a fortified hill, stormed and taken by Gen. Worth with 9,000 men. An armistice is now agreed on, and peace offered, but the Mexicans still hold to their first terms, and refuse to give up territory.

Sept. 8—The Mexicans determine to yield only to absolute force, and the American army again advances. Battles of Molinos del Rey, and Casa Mata. The Mexicans are largely superior in numbers and fight with determined valor, but are overcome. American loss 800.

” 13—Battle of Chapultepec. This fortress was the last exterior defense to the City of Mexico. It was once the site of the “Palace of the Montezumas.” The Mexican force within and outside the fortress 20,000. The American force 7,180. Mexican loss in killed, wounded, prisoners and deserted, about 14,000; American, 900. A part of the army gained a foothold in the City of Mexico.

” 14—Gen. Scott enters Mexico in triumph.

Oct. 9—Battle of Huamantla. Santa Anna again defeated.

” 18—Again at Attixco, with heavy loss. Santa Anna is now deserted by his troops, and resigns his office.

Nov. 11—The Mexican Congress assembles, and appoints commissioners to treat for peace.

1848.

Feb. 2—A treaty of peace signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo (a town four miles from Mexico).

” 23—John Quincy Adams expires at Washington.

May 20—The treaty having been ratified by the President and Senate of the U. S., March 10, it was followed by that of the Mexican government on this day.

” 23—Peace was proclaimed in the American camp.

The war was now over. The Mexicans relinquished all claim to Texas, and ceded Upper California and New Mexico to the United States. In return the United States gave them $18,500,000 of which $3,500,000 was due by a former treaty to citizens of this country and paid them by our government.

It will not be easy for an American to wholly condemn an act that gave us California and the fertile valleys and vast mining territory of the Pacific slope as well as New Mexico, or the chastisement which the Mexicans had merited for their barbarity; though he may blame the eagerness for the acquisition of territory and the support of slavery that led us to invade another country and humble her pride. The ability of Americans as soldiers would appear by this war to be unrivalled, and, in that view arouses our pride. The moral sense of the world must ever be shocked by war, though there seem many cases in which it is far the least of two evils. Our government was fairly generous so far as it dared be in dealing with the vanquished, as soon as its demands for territory were satisfied. It is also evident that this territory will be better developed and governed than would have been the case under Mexican rule.

Aug. 14—Oregon receives a Territorial government.

Nov.—Gen. Taylor was elected President this month and Millard Fillmore Vice President.

1849.

Jan. 26—Postal treaty with England concluded.

Mar. 3—Minnesota receives a Territorial government.

” 4—Gen. Taylor inaugurated President.

May 7—Gen. Worth, a very gallant officer of the Mexican war, died.

Sept.—A State Constitution is formed by the people of California, which excludes slavery.

Dec. 31—The House of Representatives ballots 63 times for a speaker, and now elects Howell Cobb, of Geo.

Gold was discovered in California, in Feb. 1848, and through 1849 emigrants—gold seekers—were arriving there by tens of thousands. By the end of this year it was a populous region. The mass of American immigrants were from the northern States, and disapproved of slavery, while the special end of the Mexican war was to procure more territory for that institution. At this time a violent contest was waged in Congress over that admission. It was not ended until late in the following year.

1850.

Jan.—Gen. Twiggs obtains the consent of the Seminoles of Florida to emigrate to the Indian Territory.

Feb. 13—President Taylor sends the constitution of California to Congress. There were many threats of secession in case California was admitted free.

Mar. 7—Mr. Webster’s great speech for the Union.

May 8—The “Omnibus Bill” reported by Henry Clay.

” 18—A private expedition from the south under command of Lopez invades Cuba. They are driven off with a loss of 30 killed and executed as pirates, on the 19th. The remainder returned to Key West on the 22d of the same month.

July 9—Death of President Taylor. Fillmore becomes acting President.

Sept. 9-20—A committee of thirteen, of which Henry Clay was chairman, had been appointed Apr. 19th, and they had prepared four measures forming a compromise between the North and South as to slavery, which were debated and passed into laws, receiving the concurrence of the President: First, the South conceded to the North the admission of California as a free State, and the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; Second, the North conceded to the South a stringent Fugitive Slave Law, and the organization of Territorial Governments in New Mexico and Utah without mention of slavery, but in the understanding that they were finally to form slave States. The real gain was to the North, as anti-slavery was advanced two steps, while the Fugitive Law could not be generally enforced in the North from the invincible aversion of the people to it, and the Southern people were not sufficiently migratory in their habits to introduce slavery into distant regions not naturally adapted to that institution. Still the question was laid aside for the present.

Nov. 19—Richard M. Johnson, a former Vice-President of the U. S., died.

Dec. 16—A treaty of Amity and Commerce ratified with Switzerland.

1851.

Mar. 3—A cheap postage law passed by Congress.

John C. Calhoun, the most eminent of Southern Statesmen, died.

1852.

June 28—Henry Clay, orator and Statesman, died.

July 3—A branch mint established at San Francisco, Cal.

Oct. 24—Daniel Webster died. These three were the ablest and most esteemed statesmen of their day.

Nov.—The seventeenth presidential election occurred. Franklin Pierce was elected. He was the Democratic nominee. Gen. Scott, Whig, was defeated.

1853.

Mar. 4—Pierce inaugurated President.

Aug. 11—Proclamation of President Pierce against the invasion of Cuba by armed Americans.

1854.

Mar. 23—An important treaty of commerce negotiated with the empire of Japan by Com. Perry, which opened a new era in the progress of that country, and of United States commerce and influence in Asia.

May 30—The failure of the compromise measures of 1850 to realize the hopes of the South from the rapid development of anti-slavery views in the North caused the subject to be again agitated, and the Missouri Compromise, which stopped the formation of slave States north of its south boundary line, was repealed; the question of the admission of slavery into Kansas and Nebraska, both being north of that line, being referred by the famous “Kansas-Nebraska Bill” to the “squatters,” or first settlers. This was called “squatter sovereignty.” This measure gave satisfaction to the South, but was strongly reprobated by many of the Northern people. Both sides prepared to renew the contest there, and civil war raged in Kansas for near three years. Each side sought to secure its end which terminated in favor of the North. The South could not compete with it in numbers nor drive the extra numbers away. This was the last hope of the South for preserving equilibrium in the general government.

The Democratic party in the North, anxious to soothe and conciliate the South, and not holding so advanced opinions against slavery, was still strong enough to maintain itself in power in the administration; but the Republican party, formed about this time by the dissolution of the Whig party, constantly grew in numbers and influence, and, by the end of the next administration its numbers were so large and the ultimate result so certain that the South resolved on secession rather than give up their favorite institution.

1855.

Feb. 24—The Court of Claims, an important relief to Congress and to claimants against the government, was established in Washington, by Congress.

1856.

Mar. 4—A Free State Legislature assembles in Kansas. It adopted a constitution and prepared to apply for admission into the Union.

Nov.—The eighteenth presidential election took place. James Buchanan was elected against J. C. Fremont and Millard Fillmore. Buchanan was the Democratic candidate; Fremont, Republican, and Fillmore, American, or “know nothing” candidate.

1857.

Feb. 2—Nathaniel Banks of Mass., a Republican, is elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. It had required two months and 133 ballotings to settle this point; indicating the nearly equal balance of parties, and the final success of the Republican element in the popular branch of Congress.

Mar. 4—Buchanan inaugurated President.

The next three years (after the decision of the Kansas troubles) were marked by the unnatural quiet that forebodes the storm. Anti-slavery feeling was maturing in the North, and discontent and secession tendencies in the South.

1858.

May 11—Minnesota admitted into the Union as a State.

1859.

Feb. 14—Oregon admitted into the Union as a State. The admission of these two without any corresponding ones in the South indicated the strength of Northern sentiment, and that the South had given up the struggle in that way. John Brown’s raid on Harper’s Ferry, in this year, as showing the tone of Northern feeling, still further estranged the South from the Union.

CHAPTER XXIII.
THE CIVIL WAR

Was the inevitable result of an antagonism of interests, sentiments, and social structure in the two great sections of the Union—the North and the South. The foundation of these tendencies was laid before the formation of the Union, in early colonial times. The conflict commenced as soon as a close union was attempted, and the Constitution was adopted only through the personal influence of Washington and other statesmen of that time, and from the general conviction that it was essential to the protection of the new nation from England and other European powers. Some provisions of the Constitution involved a compromise between the North and the South; and a constant series of compromises was required to be arranged from time to time, down to this period.

The institution of slavery it was believed by many of the revolutionary fathers, would expire of itself at no distant time; but the value of the cotton cultivated at the South, and the intimate relations that slavery bore to the social life, made it profitable and agreeable to that section, and they held to it with great tenacity. Meanwhile the compromises of the Constitution grew more and more disagreeable to the North. The requirement of that instrument—that persons held to service in the South, and becoming fugitives in the North, should be returned by them—was objected to on humane and religious grounds, and they found slavery an industrial embarrassment. The enterprise and vigor of the northern population gave their section a more rapid growth, and its political power became continually greater.

But three ways of peacefully avoiding the conflict were open: the North must fully carry out the spirit of concession that gave birth to the Union, the South must consent, sooner or later, to abolish its peculiar institutions, or they must agree to separate. Interest, habit, and the aristocratic pride of the South forbade the second; while, in the North, interest, religious sentiment, and the workingman’s pride as decidedly forbade the first. The natural relation of the two sections, especially by the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, so essential to the commercial interests of the Western States: the improbability of maintaining amicable intercourse, with slavery in the South, and fugitives from it to produce constant irritation; the apparent probability that, if the right of dissolution were conceded, the West, and the Pacific States would follow this example; and the conviction that the true interests of the whole country, internal and external, required an indissoluble Union, inspired the majority of the northern people to resist disunion at every cost. On the other hand, the South claimed the right to depart in peace. Thus, war was inevitable; nor can it be correctly affirmed that any party, or any generation, or either section of the Union, was properly responsible for so lamentable a result. Each section, generation, and party follows the line of its own interest, ideas, and habits. It is a law of humanity, and each sees therein its duty and pleasure. While interests do not clash very seriously, while ideas are not sharply and clearly defined, and while habits are yet unsettled, compromises may be readily effected. Humanity, taken together, in the most advanced society heretofore known to men, is not yet capable of views so high, liberal, and far-seeing as to free it from the possibility of such conflicts. It will, however, reach that height, in the course of time.

We could not reasonably have expected either the North or the South to have acted differently from what they did. While so gigantic a war was an immense evil; to allow the right of peaceable secession would have been ruin to the enterprise and thrift of the industrious laborer, and keen-eyed business man of the North. It would have been the greatest calamity of the age. War was less to be feared.

The Southerner, generous, warm blooded, accustomed to rule and make his own will the law of others in his home, courageous and fiery, could not give way. Besides secession would be less damaging to him. He would own the outlets to much of Northern commerce, he had a bond of union of the Southern States in the common institution of slavery, and a monopoly of the world’s cotton that must soon secure profitable alliances in Europe. Secession was commenced peaceably, and the Southern government fairly consolidated before the trumpet sounded to battle. The Democratic party, then in possession of the administration of the general government, had long been in close relations with the South. It was impossible for it to realize the momentous character of the crisis, or to help sympathizing more or less with the views and feelings of the South; it was near the close of its period of rule; and it left the active management of the herculean difficulties of the situation to the incoming administration of the Republican party. The whole country was quiet, failing, perhaps, as well as the Democrats, to realize the significance of the events taking place. It was a period of breathless waiting for what would come next. The signal was given by the South. Fort Sumpter in South Carolina, a national fort, was bombarded April 12th, 1861. It was an electric shock. The North answered the summons by a note of defiance, and mustered for war.

The South was better prepared, more alert, more accustomed to arms, and secured, at first, many advantages. She also had the advantage of being on the defensive when the contest became close. But, as the months ran into years, the courage and iron resolution of the North did not falter. She had the advantage of numbers, of the general government, of wealth, and of naval force. Step by step she conquered, holding all she gained, grew skillful and wise by defeat, and, April 8th, 1865, the main army of the Confederates surrendered, and the war was over; the gallant South succumbed to the plucky North. It was a predestined conclusion. The free States were necessarily the strongest, and their strength was supported and inspired by religious sentiment and enthusiasm. The Union, so important to the world and to civil liberty, was preserved, but at fearful cost.

Probably 500,000 lives were sacrificed altogether, on both sides; and eight or nine billions of dollars. The desolation of the South, which had been mainly the theater of these mighty conflicts; the extreme change in pecuniary circumstances and social life there; the affliction, to freemen, of the subjection, however mild and temperate, necessary under the circumstances to be imposed, for the time, by the federal government; the great loss of valuable life to both sides; the immense debt of the government, with the unavoidable demoralization of certain parts of society, everywhere, by the license of war, and many other evils form the dark side of the picture.

Yet, nothing could outweigh the value of the Union especially when freed from the discordant element that now disappeared. It must be long before all wounds can be healed. When that time shall come both North and South will be recompensed for all they have suffered.

1860.

Nov. 6—Four parties contested this election: the Republicans voted for Abraham Lincoln—the Democrats for Stephen A. Douglas and J. C. Breckenridge. The old Whigs or Peace party, ignoring the dangerous political strife, voted for John Bell. Lincoln was elected. A simple majority of electoral votes would have been 157. He received 180.

” 7—News of Lincoln’s election received in South Carolina with cheers for a Southern Confederacy.

” 9—An attempt made to seize the arms in Ft. Moultrie.

” 10—South Carolina Legislature propose to raise 10,000 men.

Election of convention to consider secession ordered.

Jas. Chester, U. S. Senator from South Carolina, resigned.

” 11—Senator Hammond, of South Carolina, resigned.

” 15—Governor Letcher, of Virginia, calls an extra session of the Legislature.

” 18—Georgia Legislature appropriate $1,000,000 to arm the State.

Major Anderson sent to Ft. Moultrie to relieve Col. Gardiner.

” 19—Gov. Moore calls an extra session of Louisiana Legislature.

Dec. 1—Florida Legislature order the election of a convention.

Great secession meeting in Memphis, Tennessee.

” 3—Congress assembles. President Buchanan denies the right of a State to secede, and asserts the propriety of coercion.

” 5—Election of secession delegates to South Carolina Convention.

” 10—Howell Cobb, U. S. Sec. of Treasury, resigned; P. F. Thomas, of Maryland, appointed in his place. Senator Clay, of Ala., resigned. Louisiana Legislature orders the election of a Convention, and appropriates $500,000 to arm the State.

” 13—Extra session of the Cabinet held to consider if Ft. Moultrie shall be reinforced. President opposed, and reinforcements not sent.

” 14—Gen. Lewis Cass, U. S. Sec. of State, resigns. J. S. Black, of Pa., appointed.

” 17—South Carolina Convention assembles.

” 18—Crittenden Compromise proposed in U. S. Senate.

” 19—Gov. Hicks, of Maryland, refuses to receive Mississippi Commissioners.

” 20—South Carolina Convention unanimously adopts a Secession Ordinance.

” 22—Crittenden Compromise rejected in Senate Committee.

” 24—People of Pittsburg, Pa., stop shipment of military stores, from the arsenal there, to Southern forts.

Gov. Moore calls extra session of Alabama Legislature. Election to Alabama Convention; secession majority over 50,000.

South Carolina Members of U. S. House of Representatives resign.

” 25—Maj. Anderson abandons Ft. Moultrie for Ft. Sumter, Charleston Harbor. He has only 111 men.

South Carolina Commissioners arrive in Washington. President Buchanan declines to receive them.

” 28—South Carolina authorities seize Castle Pinckney, Ft. Moultrie, U. S. Custom-House, and other government property; at Charleston.

” 29—John B. Floyd, U. S. Sec. of War, resigns. Joseph Holt, of Ky., appointed.

” 31—South Carolina sends Commissioners to Slave States to arrange the organization of a Southern Confederacy.

1861.

Jan. 2—Gov. Ellis, of North Carolina, takes possession of Ft. Macon.

Georgia troops seize Fts. Pulaski and Jackson, and U. S. Arsenal, at Savannah.

” 4—Gov. Moore, of Ala., seizes Ft. Morgan, and U. S. Arsenal at Mobile.

Fast Day by proclamation of President.

” 7—State Conventions of Alabama and Mississippi, and State Legislatures of Virginia and Tennessee assemble.

” 8—Jacob Thompson, U. S. Sec. of Interior, resigns. Fts. Johnson and Caswell, North Carolina, seized by State authorities.

” 9—U. S. steamer, Star of the West, fired on in Charleston Harbor and driven away.

Mississippi Convention adopt Secession Ordinance. Vote 84 to 15.

” 10—Florida Convention secedes by vote of 62 to 7. Florida authorities seize Ft. McRae.

” 11—Alabama secedes by vote in Convention of 61 to 39. P. F. Thomas, U. S. Sec. of Treasury, resigns. John A. Dix appointed. The Governor of Mississippi seizes Forts Philip and Jackson, on the Mississippi river; Forts Pike and Macomb, on Lake Pontchartrain; and U. S. Arsenal at Baton Rouge.

” 13—Florida takes possession of Pensacola Navy Yard and Ft. Barrancas. Lieut. Slemmer, in command of Ft. Pickens, ordered by Com. Armstrong to deliver the Fort to Florida, refuses, and preserves that important post to the government of the Union.

” 16—Legislature of Arkansas calls a Convention. Col. Hayne, of South Carolina, demands of the President the surrender of Ft. Sumter, and is refused. Missouri Legislature order a convention to consider secession.

” 18—The Legislature of Virginia appropriate $1,000,000 for the defense of the State.

” 19—Georgia adopts Secession Ordinance by vote of 208 to 89.

” 21—Members of Congress from Alabama resign.

” ”—Jefferson Davis resigns his seat in the U. S. Senate.

” 23—Georgia members of Congress resign.

” 24—U. S. Arsenal, Augusta, Geo., seized.

” 26—Louisiana Legislature passes Secession Ordinance. Vote 113 to 17.

” 29—Kansas, the thirty-fourth State, admitted into the Union.

” 30—North Carolina Legislature submits the question of calling a Convention to the people.

” ”—Revenue cutters Cass, at Mobile, and McClelland, at New Orleans, surrendered to Southern authorities.

Feb. 1—Texas Convention passes Secession Ordinance, to be submitted to the people. Vote, 166 to 7. Louisiana government seize the U. S. Mint and Custom House, at New Orleans.

” 4—Peace Convention of Delegates from eighteen States, assembles at Washington; ex-President Tyler presides.

” ”—Delegates from seceded States meet at Montgomery, Ala., to organize a Confederate Government.

” ”—John Slidell and Judah P. Benjamin, U. S. Senators from Louisiana, resign their seats.

” 9—Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stevens elected provisional President and Vice-President of Confederate States, for one year.

” 13—Electoral vote counted. Abraham Lincoln received 180 votes; S. A. Douglas, 12; J. C. Breckenridge, 72; John Bell, 39. Majority required to elect, 157.

” 18—Ft. Kearney, Kansas, seized by Southern forces.

” 23—Gen. Twiggs, U. S. commander in Texas, delivered his army prisoners of war, and U. S. property valued at $1,200,000 to Confederate authorities.

” 28—Territorial Government organized in Colorado.

Mar. 1—Gen. Twiggs expelled from the army. Peace Congress adjourned.

” 2—Territorial government organized in Dacotah and Nevada.

” ”—Revenue cutter Dodge surrendered to the South, at Galveston, Texas.

” 4—Abraham Lincoln inaugurated 14th regular President of the United States.

” ”—The people of Texas having voted for the Secession Ordinance by 40,000 majority, the Convention declared the State out of the Union.

” 5—Gen. Beauregard takes command of Southern forces, at Charleston.

” 6—Ft. Brown, on the Rio Grande, surrenders to Confederate troops. Federal troops evacuated the fort and sailed for Key West, Florida.

” ”—Confederate Senate confirm nominations of President Davis to his Cabinet, viz.: R. Toombs, of Geo., Sec. of State; C. S. Memminger, of South Carolina, Sec. of Treasury; L. P. Walker, of Ala., Sec. of War; S. R. Mallory, of Fla., Sec. of Navy; J. H. Reagan, of Texas, Postmaster Gen.; J. P. Benjamin, of La., Attorney General.

” 11—The Constitution of Confederate States adopted in convention at Montgomery, Ala.; afterwards ratified by the several States.

” 28—Vote of Louisiana on secession—20,448 for, 17,926 against—made public.

” 30—Mississippi Convention ratifies the Confederate Constitution, by 78 to 70.

Apr. 3—South Carolina Convention ratifies Confederate Constitution, by 114 to 6.

Apr. 4—Virginia Convention refuse to present a Secession Ordinance to the people, by a vote of 89 to 45.

” 7—Intercourse between Ft. Sumter and Charleston stopped by order of Gen. Beauregard.

CHAPTER XXIV.
FIRST PHASE OF THE WAR.

Each side hesitated to strike the first blow; but the South, being best prepared, and to end a suspense that threatened to be hurtful to their cause, opened the conflict by the bombardment of Ft. Sumter. Each now hastened preparations with vigor. Yet so long had been the intimate, friendly relations, that neither could believe in a long, deadly struggle. More than three months passed, during which frequent skirmishes occurred; but the leaders avoided bringing on a general battle. The Southern forces advanced toward Washington, but stopped short of an attack, sending out small bodies to make trial efforts, and get possession of important points.

The battle of Bull Run was the first great, serious combat. The brilliant bravery of Southern troops would have been overcome but for an opportune reinforcement at the decisive moment. The leaders did not feel it safe to pursue the vanquished Federals to Washington. There was a large reserve force there. Thus, if they won a battle they lost the object sought—the capture of the national Capital—and the Union forces, though defeated, gained the most important point—the protection of Washington.

Both sides now recognized the magnitude of the undertaking; the indomitable resolution of their opponents; and the need of thoroughly disciplining their troops, of organizing all branches of the military and naval service, and gathering stores, and distributing forces in accordance with the plan proposed by each.

This period continued until Feb., 1862. The U. S. Navy was increased from 42 vessels at the beginning of the war to about 300 at the close of this preparatory period. These blockaded the South and served for transport and attack. Two series of operations were planned by the U. S. government for the land forces: one in the Mississippi Valley and one in Virginia. In the meantime the Confederate leaders saw that it was impossible to invade the North as they had proposed without long preparation and large armies. They organized with speed but were thrown on the defensive.

1861.

Apr. 7—Steamer Atlantic, with troops and supplies for Ft. Sumter, sailed from New York.

” 8—The Federal Government notified South Carolina that provisions would be sent to Maj. Anderson, by force, if necessary. U. S. State Department refused to recognize the Commissioners from the Confederate States.

” 11—Troops are gathered in Washington, and oath of allegiance administered. Confederate Commissioners leave Washington.

Gen. Beauregard demands the surrender of Ft. Sumter. Maj. Anderson refuses.

Bombardment of Ft. Sumter.

” 12—This was the real commencement of the Civil War. Batteries were constructed on Morris and Sullivan islands, and Cumming’s Point. The Confederate forces employ Ft. Moultrie, and a floating battery, in addition, against Ft. Sumter.

The South Carolina Legislature appropriate $500,000 to arm the State.

Ft. Pickens is reinforced by the U. S. government.

” 14—Fort Sumter was reduced to a mass of ruins, its fire silenced, and Maj. Anderson capitulated with the honors of war, and evacuated the fort, sailing for New York.

Gov. Yates, of Illinois, called an extra session of Legislature to meet April 22.

” 15—The President issues a proclamation commanding all in arms against the government to disperse in 20 days; calling also for 75,000 volunteers to defend Washington; and the New York Legislature authorizes the raising of $3,000,000 for their equipment and support.

The President calls an extra session of Congress, for July 4.

” 16—The governors of Kentucky, Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri refuse to furnish troops, under the President’s proclamation.

The Confederate government calls for 32,000 men.

” 17—The Virginia Convention, in secret session, adopt a Secession Ordinance, to be submitted to the people in May. The vote was 60 to 53.

Virginia forces sent to seize U. S. Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry, and Gosport Navy Yard, at Portsmouth.

All the military power of the State of Virginia placed under the control of President Davis.

Jefferson Davis issues a proclamation offering Letters of Marque and Reprisal to privateers against Federal commerce.

” 18—U. S. Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry destroyed by Federal troops, to prevent its falling into the hands of the enemy.

Col. Coke, with 400 of 25th Penn. regiment, arrives in Washington for its defense.

” 19—U. S. steamer Star of the West seized at Indianola, Texas.

Massachusetts troops on the way to Washington, attacked by a mob in Baltimore. Troops fired on the mob. Blood shed on both sides.

President issues a proclamation declaring the coast from North Carolina to Texas in a state of blockade.

Military department of Washington covering Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania, put under command of Gen. Patterson.

City Council of Philadelphia appropriate $1,000,000 to equip volunteers, and support their families.

” 20—Governor of North Carolina seizes U. S. Branch Mint, at Charlotte.

Bridges and railroads in Maryland destroyed by Secessionists, to prevent passage of troops to Washington.

U. S. Navy Yard, at Gosport, and property worth $25,000,000, destroyed by the Federals in charge, to prevent their falling into the hands of the enemy. Eight vessels of war were destroyed, and one, the Cumberland, was towed out.

Massachusetts troops arrive at Fortress Monroe.

Gov. Curtin calls special meeting of Penn. Legislature, for April 30th.

” 21—Federal government takes possession of Philadelphia and Baltimore railroad.

Senator Andrew Johnson mobbed at Lynchburg, Va.

” 22—U. S. Arsenals in North Carolina and Arkansas seized.

” 24—Fort Smith Arkansas, seized. Cairo, Ill., occupied by Union troops.

Maj. Sibley surrenders 450 U. S. troops to Col. Van Dorn, in Texas.

” 26—Gov. Brown, of Geo., forbids payment of debts to Northern people.

” 27—A steamer at Cairo, loaded with military stores for the South, seized.

Blockade extended to ports of Virginia and North Carolina.

” 29—The Maryland House of Delegates votes against secession, 63 to 13.

Governors Harris of Tennessee and Moore of Louisiana seize government property.

May 1—The Legislature of N. C. and Tenn. prepare for formal secession.

” 3—President Lincoln calls for 82,714 additional troops.

Fourteen companies of Kentucky troops offer themselves to the government, though the Governor had refused a levy.

” 4—Gen. McClellan takes command of the department of the Ohio.

” 6—Virginia admitted into the Confederacy. Tennessee and Arkansas pass Ordinances of Secession.

” 10—A rebel force in St. Louis surrenders to Capt. Lyon.

Gen. R. E. Lee takes command of Southern troops in Virginia.

” 13—Convention called at Wheeling to organize a new State.

” 14—Vessels with stores and property for the South seized at Baltimore.

” 15—Massachusetts offers U.S. Government $7,000,000 to carry on the war.

” 16—Gen. Scott orders the fortification of Arlington Heights.

” 17—Confederates commence fortifying Harpers Ferry.

” 18—Gen. Butler takes command of Department of Virginia.

” 19—Sewalls Pt. attacked by U S. steamers. Two schooners, with Southern troops, captured.

” 20—North Carolina formally secedes. Kentucky proclaimed neutral.

” 21—Southerners blockade the Mississippi at Memphis.

” 24—Alexandria and Arlington Heights occupied by Union troops.

” 26—Western Virginia voted largely in favor of the Union.

” 27—One hundred slaves fled to Fortress Monroe. Gen. Butler declared them “contraband” of war.

” ”—Two steamers engage the rebel batteries at Acquia Creek.

June 1—Various skirmishes between parties of the hostile armies.

” 3—Senator S. A. Douglas, of Illinois, died.

Battle of Philippi, Va. Union Col. Kelly wounded but victorious. Gen. Beauregard assumed command of Confederate forces at Manassas Junction. Voluntary contributions of northern States in aid of the Government over $32,000,000.

Battle of Big Bethel.

” 10—Three Federal regiments defeated. 16 killed, 41 wounded.

” 11—Skirmish at Romney. Wheeling Convention meets.

” 14—Harper’s Ferry evacuated and burnt by Southern forces.

” 15—Confederate privateer, Savannah, brought, a prize, to New York.

” 17—Wheeling Convention of Unionists determine to make West Virginia an independent State.

” 18—Battle of Booneville, Mo. Gen. Lyon defeats Confederate Gen. Price.

” 20—At Cole Camp, Mo., Union men defeated; at Liberty, Mo., Southerners overcome.

” 23—Forty-eight locomotives of Baltimore and Ohio R. R. destroyed by Southern forces; value, $400,000.

” 26—President Lincoln recognizes the Wheeling government as that of Virginia.

” 29—Southern privateer, Sumter, escapes through blockade at New Orleans.

July 2—Battle near Martinsburg, Va., Gen. Patterson, Union, and Gen. Jackson, Confederate.

” 3—Southern men captured at Neosho, Mo. Consisted of 94 men.

” 4—Southern forces seize Louisville and Nashville railroad.

” 5—Congress assemble at Washington. President calls for 400,000 volunteers, and $400,000,000 to put down the rebellion.

Battle of Carthage, between Sigel, Union, and Gen. Jackson, Southern. Gen. Sigel retreated.

” 11—Nine Southern Senators expelled from U. S. Congress.

” 12—Battle of Rich Mountain, Va. Col. Rosecrans, Union, defeated Col. Pegram, taking 800 prisoners and his camp stores.

” 13—Confederates under Gen. Garnett, defeated at Carrick’s Ford, by Gen. Morris. Gen. Garnett killed.

” 15—Col. Stuart, commanding Confederate cavalry, attacks Union forces at Bunker Hill, Va., and is defeated.

” 16—Skirmishes at Millville, Mo., and Barboursville, Va.

” 18—Outposts of the two armies fight at Blackburn’s Ford, on Bull Run, some 20 miles from Washington. Southern troops withdraw.

Battle of Bull Run.

” 21—This was the first great battle. The Confederate government aims at the capture of Washington. Their forces, under Gen. Beauregard, about 22,000, afterwards strengthened by 6,000, are attacked by Union army under Gen. McDowell, with 28,000 men. It turns in favor of McDowell until arrival of Confederate reinforcement of 6,000, when Union army was totally defeated, the fugitives flying in great disorder to the defenses of Washington. Yet Confederates lost more in wounded, and failed to take the National Capital, the preservation of which was the supreme point to the Union forces. The South gained the battle, and the Union gained the cause.

” 25—Gen. McClellan takes command of the Army of the Potomac.

Aug. 1—Confederate forces at Harpers Ferry retreat to Leesburg.

” 2—Congress authorized the raising of 500,000 men and $500,000,000 to suppress the insurrection, providing for the last by tax and tariff.

Gen. Lyon repulses the Confederates at Dug Spring, Mo.

” 5—Commodore Allen bombarded Galveston, Texas.

” 7—Hampton, Va., burned by Southern forces.

Battle of Wilson’s Creek, Mo.

” 10—Gen. Lyon, (Union,) with about 5,000 men, attacked Gen. McCullough, (Confederate,) with over 10,000. Gen. Lyon killed. Federal losses in killed, wounded, and missing, 1,211; Southern losses over 1,600. Union forces retreated to Springfield. McCullough too much shattered to follow.

” 12—President Lincoln proclaimed Sept. 30, a Fast Day.

” 14—Gen. Fremont declared martial law in St. Louis.

” 15—President Davis ordered all northern men to leave the South in 40 days.

” 16—President Lincoln forbids commercial intercourse with the South.

” 23—Cherokee Indians take part with the South.

” 28—Capture of Forts Hatteras and Clark, N. C., by Gen. Butler and Com. Stringham.

” 31—Gen. Fremont proclaims freedom of slaves and confiscates property of disunionists in Missouri. President Lincoln countermands it.

Sept. 1—Southerners defeated at Boonville, Va., and town destroyed.

” 4—Confederate Gen. Polk occupies Columbus, Ky. Southern forces, attempting to cross Potomac at Great Falls, repulsed.

” 10—Gen. Banks attacks Confederate Gen. Floyd, in intrenched camp, at Carnifex Ferry. Gen. Floyd retreats in the night.

” 12—Battle of Cheat Mountain, a Union victory. Col. J. A. Washington killed.

” 18—Secession members of Maryland Legislature imprisoned.

” 19—Arrest of Gov. Morehead and others for treason, in Louisville, Ky.

” 20—Col. Morehead, Union, besieged, at Lexington, Mo., and compelled to surrender with over 2,000 men, after a fight of four days.

Oct. 2—Battle of Chapmanville, Va. Confederates defeated.

” 3—Battle of Greenbriar, Va. Federal success.

” 4—Confederate success at Chicamacomico, Va. Federals retreated.

” 5—Steamer Monticello drives Southern forces from Chicamacomico.

” 7—Confederate Iron Clad Merrimac appears at Fortress Monroe.

” 11—Confederate Commissioners Slidell and Mason escape from Charleston, S. C.

” 16—U. S. troops recapture Lexington, Mo. Battle of Pilot Knob, Mo. Unionists successful.

” 21—Battle of Balls Bluff. U. S. forces under Col. Baker, member of Congress, 1,900 strong, defeated with loss of 918 men. Col. Baker killed.

Gen. Zollicoffer defeated by U. S. troops at Camp Wild Cat, Ky.

” 25—Gen. Kelly gains a battle against Confederates at Romney, Va.

” 29—U. S. naval and military force of 27,000 men and 75 vessels leave Fortress Monroe for the South.

Nov. 1—Gen. Scott retires from command of the Union army. Gen. McClellan appointed Gen. in Chief. Gen. Floyd fails in his attack on Gen. Rosencranz, at Gauley, Va.

” 2—Gen. Fremont superseded by Gen. Hunter in Mo.

” 4—Houston, Mo., taken by Union troops.

” 7—Com. Dupont and Gen. Sherman capture Forts Walker and Beauregard, S. C., and occupy Beaufort and Hilton Island.

Gen. Grant captured Confederate camp at Belmont, Mo., opposite Columbus. Reinforcements arriving he retired.

” 8—Mason and Slidell, Confederate Commissioners to Europe, were taken from British steamer Trent, by U. S. ship San Jacinto. On subsequent demand of the English government they were given up.

” 10—Union soldiers having been killed by inhabitants of Guyandotte, Va., the town was burnt in retaliation.

” 15—The San Jacinto arrived at Fortress Monroe with Slidell and Mason.

” 28—Bombardment of Pensacola, Fla., by Ft. Pickens and U. S. war vessels.

” 27—Gen. McClellan orders observance of the Sabbath in the army.

” 29—Skirmish at Warsaw, Mo. Town partly destroyed.

” 30—Fight at Salem, Mo. Southern forces defeated.

Dec. 3—Congress met at Washington.

” 4—Two Congressmen and Senator Breckenridge of Ky., expelled for treason.

” 5—Naval engagement at Cape Hatteras.

Forces of U. S. army and navy reported very near 700,000 men.

” 9—Confederate Congress declares Kentucky a State in the Southern Confederacy.

” 13—Gen. Milroy defeats Confederate Col. Johnson, at Camp Alleghany.

” 16—Platte City, Mo., burnt by Southern forces.

” 17—More than 20 vessels, filled with stone, sunk at the entrance of Charleston and Savannah harbors.

” 18—Gen. Pope captured 1,300 Southerners and 1,000 stand of arms at Millford, Mo.

” 31—U. S. navy increased from 42 vessels at beginning of the war to 246, of all kinds, up to this date.

1862.

Jan. 1—Mason and Slidell leave Ft. Warren, Boston Harbor, for England.

” 2—Success of Unionists on Port Royal Island, near Charleston, S. C.

” 4—Gen. Milroy defeats Confederates at Huntersville, Va.

” 7—Confederate defeat at Romney. U. S. troops capture stores in Tucker Co., Va.

” 8—Union victory by Gen. Palmer at Silver Creek, Mo.

” 10—Humphrey Marshall defeated by Union troops in Kentucky.

Senators Johnson and Polk of Mo., expelled from the U. S. Senate.

” 11—Simon Cameron, U. S. Sec. of War, resigned; E. M. Stanton appointed.

Naval engagement on the Mississippi near the mouth of the Ohio; Union vessels superior.

” 12—125 vessels and 15,000 troops, under Gen. Burnside, sail for the South.

” 18—Ex-President Tyler dies.

” 19—Union victory at Mill Spring, Ky., by Gen. Shoepf over Gen. Zollicoffer and Gen. Crittenden. Much spoil taken; Gen. Zollicoffer killed.

” 27—Bishop Ames and Gov. Fish of New York appointed to visit prisons in the South, to look after the interests of Union prisoners. Confederate authorities refuse to receive them.

CHAPTER XXV.
THE SECOND PHASE OF THE WAR.

The previous period, though abounding in battles, so-called, were really skirmishes of detached bodies without any well defined plan. It covered much of the surface of all the Border States, but especially Virginia and Missouri, and was a trial of bravery and strategy in which both parties learned how to fight, and of what metal their opponents were made.

The Second Period covered about eleven months—from the advance of the Federal armies on the South in West and East, in Feb., to the close of the year.

This period is defined in its commencement, by the surrounding of the southern territory on nearly all sides by the Union forces, both naval and military; and the inauguration of aggressive movements both by sea and land; and in its close by the failure of the two southern Generals, Bragg in the West, and Lee in the East, in the endeavor to break through this beleaguering line. It was an immense and desperate conflict.

In the West it began by the attack of Grant on Fts. Henry and Donelson, followed up by the battle of Pittsburg Landing, and various other operations in Tennessee and Mississippi; the advance of McClellan on Richmond, and his campaign in the Peninsula, his failure and return to Washington; the strengthening of the Southern Army, and the advance of Lee northward into Maryland and his defeat there. The disasters to the Union army in Virginia served to check the successes of the Western Army under Grant, Sherman, Buell, Rosecranz and others; the Confederate forces in the West were increased under Bragg, who checked the advance of U. S. troops eastward at Chattanooga, and he himself assumed the offensive, by invading Kentucky. He was compelled to retreat again to Chattanooga. Thus there was an alternation of great successes and great reverses on both sides.

The Union Army commenced with about 600,000 men, and the Southern with about 400,000. They both largely added to these during the campaign.

Meanwhile the navy was not idle. A foothold was gained in South Carolina, and in North Carolina, as well as at Norfolk, Virginia, the mouth of the Mississippi was opened by Admiral Farragut, and New Orleans captured. The compression of a vast naval and land force was applied in all directions, even west of the Mississippi. Missouri had been quieted by driving the organized forces into the border of Arkansas, and inflicting on them a heavy blow at Pea Ridge. This, however, was not followed up; the disasters to the Union cause in Virginia, and the rebound of the Confederates in East Tennessee, requiring concentration.

The South had shown the most determined bravery, and great steadiness in disaster; and activity, and ability in making the most of circumstances. The speed with which she collected other levies and armies and used them within the campaign greatly impressed the authorities and people of the Federal government. They were convinced that the blacks left at home to till the ground, or employed in the fortifications and other labor of the war, contributed much to the strength of the South; enabling them to concentrate all their resources on a given point with extreme rapidity, and to use all their best fighting material. After so vast an outlay, to see their immense armies defied and the Northern States threatened with invasion was discouraging. Hitherto slavery had not been interfered with much, in deference to the sentiment in the Border States, and the views of the democratic party. The Union administration determined to weaken the South by abstracting as much as possible of the slave element from it and to use it themselves. The issue of the Proclamation of Emancipation marks a Third Phase of the War.

1862.

Feb. 3—The Federal government decides to treat crews of privateers taken in arms, not as pirates, but as prisoners of war.

” 5—Jesse D. Bright, of Indiana, expelled from the U. S. Senate.

” 6—Com. Foote, acting in concert with Gen. Grant, advances up the Tennessee river in Ky., and captures Fort Henry.

” 8—Gen. Burnside and Com. Goldsborough capture forts, forces and war material on Roanoke Island, in Albemarle Sound, N. C.

” 10—Gunboats of Confederate government taken or destroyed.

” 12—Gen. Grant invests Ft. Donelson, on Cumberland river, Ky.

” 13—Gen. Curtis advances to Springfield, Mo.

U. S. Congress determine to construct 20 iron clad gunboats.

” 15—Bowling Green, Ky., evacuated by Southern forces.

” 16—Gen. Grant captures Ft. Donelson, with 13,300 prisoners.

” 18—Gen. Curtis drives Confederates out of Missouri into Arkansas.

Confederate Congress assemble at Richmond Va.

” 19—Jefferson Davis and A. H. Stevens elected permanent President and Vice-President of Confederate States for six years.

” 21—Defeat of Union forces at Clarksville, New Mexico.

” 23—Nashville, Tenn., occupied by Union forces.

” 27—Columbus, on the Mississippi, in Ky., evacuated by Confederates.

Mar. 2—Severe encounter between Union gunboats and Confederate battery at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Union success.

” 3—Gen. Beauregard assumes command of Southern army in Mississippi.

” 6-8—Gen. Curtis defeats Gen. McCullough at Pea Ridge, Ark. Curtis’ army 22,000, McCullough’s 35,000. McCullough killed.

” 9—First trial of Monitors. The formidable Merrimac, a Confederate iron clad vessel, conquered by the Monitor.

” 11—Gen. McClellan’s command confined to the army of the Potomac.

” 12—Com. Dupont takes possession of Jacksonville, Florida.

” 13—Confederates evacuate New Madrid, Mo., in haste, leaving $1,000,000 of military stores.

” 14—Newburn, N. C., captured by Gen. Burnside. Immense stores taken.

” 18—Confederate fortifications at Acquia Creek, Va., evacuated.

” 23—Battle of Winchester, Va. Southern forces defeated.

” 28—Fight at Union Ranch, New Mexico. Union troops 3,000, Texans 1,100. Result undecided.

Apr. 6-7—Battle of Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh. First day’s battle fought by Beauregard and Johnston, Confederate Generals, with 40,000 available troops, by Gen. Grant with 33,000. He was supported by gunboats in the Tennessee river. Attack and defense desperate, and the slaughter fearful. The second day Beauregard had no more than 20,000 effective men. Grant was reinforced by Buell, and his effective force was 45,000. It was great honor to Union troops not to recognize defeat on the 6th, and highly creditable to Confederates to make a desperate stand and inflict an immense loss on Federals on the 7th. They were almost annihilated but retreated without immediate pursuit.

” 8—Island No. 10, Mississippi river, captured.

” 11—Ft. Pulaski captured by Gen. Hunter, commands entrance to Savannah, Geo. Gen. Mitchell occupies Huntsville, Ala.

” 12—Gen. Mitchell captures 2,000 prisoners at Chattanooga, East Tennessee.

” 16—Slavery abolished in the District of Columbia, by U. S. Congress.

” 18—Gen. McClellan’s advance attacked on the Peninsula, Va.

” 19—Successes of Union Gens. Burnside and Reno, in North Carolina.

” 25—Com. Farragut, passing the forts, captures New Orleans.

” 28—Forts Jackson and St. Philip, at mouth of Mississippi below New Orleans, surrender.

” 29—Gen. Mitchell defeats Confederates at Bridgport, Ala.

May 1—Union cavalry captured at Pulaski, Tenn.

” 3—Yorktown evacuated by Southern troops. Occupied by McClellan.

” 5—Battle of Williamsburg, Va. Lasts all day. Unionists successful.

” 7—Southern Gen. Lee attacks McClellan’s army but is repulsed.

” 8—Union Gen. Milroy repulsed at McDowell’s, Va., after a five hour’s fight.

” 9—Pensacola, Fla. evacuated by Southern forces.

” 10—Norfolk, Va., occupied by Union forces. The Merrimac, Gosport Navy Yard, and vast quantities of stores destroyed by retreating Confederates.

” 15—The Agricultural Department created by Congress.

” 12—Natchez, on the Mississippi river, surrendered to Farragut.

” 17—Union forces drive Confederates over the Chickahominy, Va.

” 24—Southern success at Front Royal, Va., over Col. Kenley.

” 25—Gen. Banks, defeated at Winchester, Va., retreats across the Potomac.

” 27—Confederates defeated at Hanover, Va.

” 30—Union troops occupy Corinth, Mississippi.

” 31—Battle of Fair Oaks. Union troops repulsed.

June 1—Battle of Fair Oaks renewed. Southern forces repulsed with heavy loss.

” 6—Gunboats capture Memphis, Tenn., and Confederate vessels.

” 8—Battle of Cross Keys, Va. Gen. Fremont defeats Stonewall Jackson.

” 14—Union forces defeated on James Island, near Charleston, S. C.

” 18—Union troops occupy Cumberland Gap, Tenn.

” 19—Congress prohibits slavery in the Territories.

” 26—Six days fight before Richmond commenced at Mechanicsville. Union forces repulsed.

” 27—Bombardment of Vicksburg. Gen. Fremont relieved of command. Battle before Richmond renewed.

” 28—Severe battles before Richmond; enemy repulsed at night. Unionists fall back.

” 29—Battles of Peach Orchard and Savage’s Station, Va. Federal repulse.

” 30—Battle of White Oak Swamp. McClellan continues to retreat toward James river. Confederates repulsed with loss.

July 1—Battle of Malvern Hill. Southern forces repulsed. End of 6 days fight.

President Lincoln calls for 600,000 volunteers.

Internal Revenue Bill passed Congress. Polygamy forbidden in the United States.

Union Pacific Railroad chartered by Congress.

” 7—Fight at Bayou Cache, Ark. Gen. Curtis, Union, defeats Gen. Pike, Southern.

” 9—Hamilton, N. C., captured by Federal troops.

” 11—Southern Gen. Morgan enters Glasgow, Ky. Gen. Halleck appointed Commander-in-Chief of the U. S. armies.

” 13—Southern forces capture Murfreesborough, Tenn. Stores and prisoners taken.

” 17—Cynthiana, Kentucky, captured.

” 18—Southern raid into Indiana. Gen. Twiggs died.

” 22—Siege of Vicksburg abandoned by U. S. forces.

This month is generally disastrous to eastern and western Union armies. Confederate armies become strongly aggressive, and advance north into Ky., and toward Maryland.

Aug. 3—Gen. Jeff. Thompson, Confederate, defeated near Memphis, Tenn.

” 4—U. S. Sec. of War ordered a draft of 300,000 men to serve for nine months.

” 5—Battle of Baton Rouge, La. Gen. Breckinridge defeated.

” 10—Battle of Cedar Mountain. Gen. Jackson fails to drive Gen. Banks.

” 16—Gen. McClellan evacuates the Peninsula.

” 21—Gen. Sigel obtains an important and bloody advantage on the Rappahannock.

” 26—Confederate Gen. Ewell drives Unionists from Manassas, Va.

Union expedition up the Yazoo river, Mississippi, is successful.

” 27—Gen. Pope defeats Gen. Ewell at Haymarket, Va.

” 28—Battle of Centreville. Gen. Jackson repulsed.

” 29—Battle of Groveton, near Bull Run, Va. Confederates repulsed, but renewed the fight next day and Gen. Pope withdrew.

” 30—Battle near Richmond, Ky. Union Gen. Nelson defeated with heavy loss.

” 31—Battle of Weldon, Va., a Union victory. The general operations of this month by the main armies east and west largely in favor of the South, notwithstanding heavy losses inflicted and successes gained in detached engagements by the U. S. troops. The armies under Lee and Bragg pressed on northward with incredible vigor. No repulses or defeats could stop their headlong rush.

Sept. 1—The last of Gen. Pope’s battles in Va., near Washington. Two of his generals were killed, Kearney and Stevens. The enemy retired, leaving their dead and wounded. In 6 days Pope had lost near 10,000 in killed and wounded.

Battle at Britton’s Lane, Tenn. Confederates fled.

Union Army evacuate Lexington, Ky. Fight at Jackson, Tenn.

” 2—McClellan put in command of army for the defense of Washington.

” 5—Confederate army cross the Potomac to Frederick, Maryland.

Attack on Union troops at Washington, N. C. It is repulsed.

” 6—Col. Lowe recaptured Clarksville, Tenn.

” 8—Gen. Lee issues a proclamation to the Marylanders.

” 9—Col. Grierson overcomes Southern forces at Coldwater, Miss.

Union forces repel the enemy at Williamsburgh, Va.

Fredericksburg, Va., evacuated by Southern forces.

” 10—Great fears of invasion in Pennsylvania and Ohio. Philadelphia and Cincinnati begin to prepare for an attack.

” 11—Ganby, Va., Maysville, Ky., and Bloomfield, Mo., taken by Southern forces.

” 12—Charleston, S. C., bombarded and partially burnt. Fight on Elk river, Va., and at Middletown, Maryland.

” 13—Harper’s Ferry, Va., besieged. It surrendered on the 15th with 11,500 men.

” 14—McClellan engages Lee’s army at South Mountain, Md. Lee retired toward the Potomac. The invasion of the North was stopped, for this time, in the East.

” 16—Munfordsville, Ky., captured by Confederates and 4,000 prisoners taken.

” 17—Lee unwilling to give up his plan of invasion, makes another stand at Antietam creek, and a great battle was fought. Near 100,000 men on each side. The result was indecisive, the losses nearly equal, both in the neighborhood of 13,000. Lee retreated across the Potomac in the night, and Harper’s Ferry was evacuated.

” 20—Gen. Rosecrans defeats the Southerners with great loss at Iuka, Miss.

” 22—President Lincoln issues an Emancipation Proclamation, declaring all the slaves free, unless the Southern States discontinued the war within 100 days.

” 27—U. S. garrison at Augusta, Ky., surrender after a very gallant fight.

Oct. 3—Battle of Corinth, Miss. Confederates defeated with great loss.

” 8-9—Battle of Perryville, Ky. Southern army having been arrested in its advance and obliged to retreat before Gen. Buell, turned on his advance and inflicted a severe blow, but are forced to resume their retreat.

” 10—Confederate cavalry, under Stuart, make a raid on Chambersburg, Penn. They capture 500 horses and many stores and hastily return to Virginia.

” 14—One hundred thousand dollars sent to Sanitary Commission from San Francisco.

” 15—Battle near Richmond, Ky.

” 19—Gen. Forrest defeated by Union forces, near Gallatin, Texas.

” 22—Southern defeat at Maysville, Ark., by Gen. Blunt.

” 24—An English steamer bringing military stores to the South, captured.

” 28—Confederates defeated by Gen. Herron, at Fayetteville, Ark.

” 30—Gen. Rosecrans supersedes Buell in Kentucky. Gen. Mitchell, the astronomer, died in S. C.

Nov. 5—Gen. McClellan relieved of command in Va. by Gen. Burnside.

Attack on Nashville by Confederates. They are repulsed.

” 11—Southern defeat at Garrettsburg, Ky., by Gen. Ransom.

Exchange of prisoners effected.

” 16—President Lincoln enjoins on soldiers in camp and garrison observance of the Sabbath.

” 17—Cavalry fight near Kingston, N. C. Southerners beaten.

” 22—All political State prisoners released by U. S. government.

” 25—Newbern, N. C. attacked by Southern troops. They soon retire.

” 28—Battle of Cane Hill, Ark. A Union victory.

Dec. 1—The Pittsburg Battery, captured on the Peninsula, retaken by a Union force sent from Suffolk, Va.

” 5—Battle of Coffeeville, Miss. Southern loss was heavy.

” 6—Gen. Banks’ expedition for the South sailed for New Orleans.

” 7—At Prairie Grove, Ark., Gens. Blunt and Herron defeated Confederates.

Confederate Gen. Morgan captured several regiments of Western troops.

” 8—Steamer Lake City destroyed by Southerners.

” 9—U. S. troops burn Concordia, on the Mississippi.

” 13—Battle of Fredericksburg. A severe repulse to the Union army.

Gen. Foster makes a cavalry raid into the interior of N. C., a success.

Commodore Parker destroys Confederate salt works, five schooners and two sloops.

” 17—Gen. Banks captures Baton Rouge, the capital of Louisiana.

” 19—Confederates retake Holly Springs, Miss., and large stores with 4,000 bales of cotton.

” 26—Indians, engaged in the Minnesota massacre, hung—38 in number.

” 27—Vicksburg attacked by Gen. Sherman and gunboats, unsuccessfully.

” 31—Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River, commenced with a Federal repulse.

The Monitor that conquered the Merrimac, foundered at sea.

Act of Congress admitting West Virginia into the Union as a sovereign State. This was to take effect 60 days after the President’s proclamation making this announcement.

CHAPTER XXVI.
CAMPAIGN OF 1863.

The preliminary Proclamation of Emancipation, issued Sept. 22d, 1862, was not to take effect for 100 days, or until Jan. 1st, 1863. Meanwhile the final details of the great operations, undertaken on both sides during 1862, were wound up. The bold efforts of the South, in the East and West, to transfer the war into the North, and indemnify themselves for the strict blockade of the coast by drawing supplies from the enemy, had resulted in defeat and withdrawal; not unaccompanied with booty, especially in the west, where Bragg’s train of supplies was said to have been 40 miles long. The southern people had failed in the main point, yet they had gained much. Federal reverses in the east had stopped the victories in the west in mid career, both by withdrawing from those armies to the east, and adding to the Confederates from the same region. Grant and Sherman failed at Vicksburg, and Buell at Chattanooga.

Yet these reverses to the Union arms served to stimulate the north, and to demonstrate the energy, resources, and indomitable resolution of the National government, and to undeceive the South as to the real sentiments of the great body of the Democratic party from which they had hoped aid on an invasion in force. Several of the European Powers, who would have liked to support the South, seeing the formidable character of the General Government, drew back in fear. The South might have foreseen that her cause was really hopeless; but she was too American not to feel an unconquerable resolution to carry her point or perish. She strengthened her armies and prepared for another invasion.

The Federal armies were now (Jan. 1863,) about 800,000 strong; her navy consisted of near 450 vessels, a large number being iron-clads. The great events of the campaign were Lee’s invasion of Pennsylvania and his retreat after the battle of Gettysburg, and Grant’s success at Vicksburg and Chattanooga. The resolution of the South, enveloped in the embrace of so mighty an antagonist, was wonderful; the unfaltering spirit, and readiness of the northern people to furnish whatever was required for success was still more so. The whole South, at least every State, was the theater of many contests of more or less importance; but the main interest centered on the Mississippi river, at Chattanooga and its vicinity, and on Gen. Lee’s army in Virginia or Pennsylvania. It was a contest of giants; yet, struggle as she might, the South was doomed. At the end of this year she was still strong, her armies were veterans, her spirit unbroken. The Federal Government had gained much, but it was step by step, inch by inch; and, in some parts, as in Virginia, what had been gained many times over, in territory, had been as often lost. Her general gain over the Confederate States lay most largely in the fatal process of exhaustion to which the vast operations of the Federal government forced the South. Increase of numbers made the battles more bloody and wasteful of life. The three leading events in this campaign—the capture of Vicksburg, (the battle of Chickamauga was a Confederate victory, but balanced by that of Chattanooga,) the battle of Gettysburg, and the battle of Chattanooga—were all decisive against the Confederates, yet leaving her strength for a long and vigorous contest of more than a year and a half.

1863.

Jan. 1—The year opened with a Confederate success at Galveston, Texas. An attack by sea and land resulted in the capture of 300 troops, the destruction of one vessel with its crew, and the capture of another, the Harriet Lane. Com. Renshaw was blown up with his vessel.

Confederate defeat at Lexington, Tenn., after an obstinate fight.

Proclamation of Emancipation issued by President Lincoln.

Long, but indecisive battle of Stone River. Federal killed and wounded, 8,000.

” 3—Union army withdraws from before Vicksburg. Southern army retreats at Murfreesborough, Tenn.

” 7—Springfield, Mo., successfully defended by Unionists.

” 9—20,000 prisoners exchanged.

” 11—A combined attack on Fts. Hindman and Arkansas Post by gunboats and land forces, resulted in Union success—over 7,000 prisoners.

” 12—Three Federal transports and a gunboat captured on Cumberland river.

” 13—The Southern steamer, Florida, escapes from Mobile.

” 17—$100,000,000 issued by the U. S. government in notes to pay the army.

” 20—Blockading vessels captured by Confederates, at Sabine City, Texas.

” 22—Attack on Vicksburg resumed. Gen. Porter dismissed from U. S. army.

” 25—A regiment of colored soldiers organized at Port Royal, S. C.

” 26—Gen. Hooker succeeds Gen. Burnside, in command of the Union Army of the Potomac, and Gens. Sumner and Franklin are relieved from duty.

The Confederate war steamer, Alabama, destroys one vessel and captures another.

Feb. 1—A second unsuccessful gunboat attack on Ft. McAllister.

” 5—Destruction of transports on Red River, La. Ft. Donelson repels Southern troops.

” 12—The Florida captures the Union merchant vessel, Jacob Bell.

” 13—The iron-clad, Indianola, runs the blockade at Vicksburg, and is captured.

” 18—Vicksburg bombarded by gunboats—ineffectually.

” 21—The Alabama, a Confederate cruiser, destroys two vessels on the African coast.

” 25—The Bureau of Currency and National Banks established by U. S. Congress.

” 26—The Cherokees return to the Union, and abolish slavery.

Twenty-eight cars, with stores, destroyed by Confederates, in Kentucky.

” 28—Confederate iron-clad, Nashville, destroyed in Ogeechee river, Geo.

Mar. 1—Third fruitless Union attack on Ft. McAllister, Geo.

” 2—U. S. Generals increased to 358.

” 3—Congress authorizes loan of $900,000,000. These are called ten-forty’s.

The President authorized to suspend the writ of Habeas Corpus.

U. S. Assistant Treasurer provided by act of Congress.

Territorial government organized in Idaho.

Two U. S. gunboats destroyed.

” 5—Van Dorn (Confederate) captures Springfield, Tenn., and many prisoners.

” 6—Van Dorn captures a considerable Union force at Franklin, Tenn.

” 7—Gen. Minty captures a Confederate cavalry force at Unionville, Tenn.

” 10—Colored troops captured Jacksonville, Florida.

” 14—Port Hudson, Mississippi river, attacked by the Union gunboat fleet under Com. Farragut. The flag ship disabled and burnt.

” 17—Gallant and successful exploit of Union cavalry at Kelly’s Ford, Va.

” 19—An English steamer with arms for the South destroyed off Charleston.

” 20—Defeat of Morgan (Confederate) at Milton, Tenn.

” 25—Two Union vessels lost before Vicksburg.

” 28—Confederate steamer Iris captured near Charleston, S. C.

Apr. 1—Admiral Farragut passes the batteries of Grand Gulf.

Great scarcity of many things in the Confederacy from the strictness of the blockade, and extreme depreciation of Confederate money. No cotton could be sold.

” 7—An attack on Fort Sumter by nine Union iron clads. They are worsted.

The Alabama Confederate cruiser captures the U. S. ship Morning Star.

” 10—Two Union gunboats destroyed on Cumberland river.

Van Dorn repulsed by Union General Granger, at Franklin, Tenn.

” 16—Com. Porter runs the batteries at Vicksburg successfully.

” 17—Gen. Banks vanquished Southern troops at La Teche and Grand Lake, La.

” 22—The Queen of the West captured on Grand Lake. Grigsby, Confederate, surprised at McMinnville, Tenn. Banks occupied Opelousas and Washington, Miss.

” 23—Gen. Hunter informs Confederate authorities that colored soldiers must be treated as other prisoners of war, on pain of retaliation.

” 24—Union defeat at Beverly, Va., and victories at Weber Falls, Ark., and on Iron Mountain Railroad, Mo.

May 1—Gen. Grant defeated the Southern troops at Port Gibson.

Gen. Pegram, Confederate, defeated at Monticello, Ky.

A third defeat of Southern troops, at South Quay, Va.

Unionists defeated at La Grange, Ark. Battle of Chancellorsville, Va., begins.

” 2—Col. Grierson, of U. S. army, finished a daring and successful raid through the interior of Miss. Traveled 800 miles in 16 days. Battle of Chancellorsville continued. It was a Federal repulse. Loss each side 15,000.

” 3—Capture of Grand Gulf, Miss., by Admiral Porter.

” 2—Vallandigham arrested in Ohio for treason. He was sent South. 100 Secessionists of St. Louis sent South for treason.

” 10—Stonewall Jackson, an able and brilliant Southern general, died of wounds received in battle.

” 11—Gen. Logan, Union, defeats Gen. Grigg at Farnden’s Creek, Miss. Each had about 5,000 men.

” 12—Gen. McPherson captured Raymond, Miss., from Confederates.

” 13—Yazoo City, and $2,000,000 property, captured by Union gunboats. Gen. Grant defeats Confederate army and captures Jackson, Miss.

” 16—Gen. Grant defeats Pemberton at Baker’s Creek, Miss., with heavy loss. Each had about 25,000 men. Pemberton lost 4,000 men and next day 2,000 more.

” 18—Grant commences siege of Vicksburg, Miss.

” 26—Gen. Breckenridge, Confederate, suffered defeat in Tennessee.

” 29—An immense train arrives in Gen. Banks’ lines near Port Hudson: 600 wagons, 3,000 horses and mules, 1,500 cattle, 6,000 negroes. Gen. Banks fails in several attacks on Port Hudson.

June 3—A brilliant raid by a colored regiment in South Carolina.

” 11—Forrest, of Confederate cavalry, defeated at Triune, Tenn.

” 15—President Lincoln calls for 120,000 militia, to repel Lee’s invasion of Penn.

” 18—About 100,000 Southern forces enter Penn., near Chambersburg.

” 20—West Virginia admitted as a State into the Union. Missouri Legislature abolishes slavery.

In this month the great events of the campaign, the taking of Vicksburg and opening the Mississippi river, and the failure of Gen. Lee’s invasion by his loss of the battle of Gettysburg, are rapidly approaching the grand crisis.

July—The first days of this month formed the crisis of the war.

” 3—Gen. Lee, with 100,000 men, was defeated by Gen. Meade at Gettysburg, Pa., with about equal numbers. Lee retreated into Virginia. The Union losses at Gettysburg were 23,000. Lee had lost in his 17 days in the Free States 60,000 men altogether.

” 4—Vicksburg surrendered to Gen. Grant, after a siege of 41 days. In the battles immediately preceding, under Grant, and in this siege and capitulation, the South lost near 50,000 men. Grant’s losses were about 9,000.

Gen. Prentice defeated a greatly superior force at Helena, Ark.

” 8—Port Hudson surrenders to Gen. Banks, with 7,000 men.

Morgan, of Confederate cavalry, invades Indiana and Ohio with 5,000 men. He is captured before he can return.

” 13—Great riot in New York city.

” 17—Gen. Sherman defeats Johnson, and occupies Jackson, Miss.

” 20—Two successful Union cavalry expeditions, in N. C. and Va.

” 23—Battle of Manassas Gap. Unionists defeat a superior force.

A Confederate victory at Richmond, Ky.

” 31—Confederates beaten in Kentucky.

Aug. 1—Two cavalry battles in Va.

” 4—Disastrous loss of U. S. steamer Ruth, on the Mississippi, by fire.

” 12—Gen. Gilmore bombarded Ft. Sumter and Charleston most of the month.

” 17—Successful cavalry raid into Mississippi to destroy stores.

” 20—Lawrence, Kansas, attacked and destroyed by guerillas.

A guerilla war was carried on very largely this month, both east and west of the Mississippi.

Sept. 1—Knoxville, Tenn., captured by Gen. Burnside.

Gen. Blunt defeated the Confederates, and captured Ft. Smith, Ark.

” 6—Fts. Wagner and Gregg captured by Gen. Gilmore, Charleston, S. C.

” 8—Cumberland Gap taken by Gen. Burnside. 2,000 prisoners.

” 10—Little Rock occupied by Union forces.

” 19-20—A terrible battle is fought at Chickamauga (in Indian the “River of Death,”) in which Gen. Rosecrans with some 50,000 to 60,000 troops is severely defeated by Bragg, with about 45,000. Federal losses about 15,000. Yet Bragg did not capture Chattanooga.

” 22—Severe battle at Madison Court House, Va. Union victory.

” 28—Gen. Burnside repulses Confederates at Knoxville, Tenn.

Oct. 3—Union troops throw Greek fire into Charleston, S. C.

” 5—Chattanooga bombarded by Bragg.

” 9—Defeat of Wheeler’s Confederate cavalry, in Tenn.

” 14—Battle at Bristoe Station, Va. Favorable to U. S. troops.

” 16—Gen. Grant takes command of the Western armies.

” 17—The President calls for 300,000 more troops.

” 21—A battle in Alabama, in Mississippi, and in Tennessee.

” 27—Battle of Brown’s Ferry, near Chattanooga. Confederates beaten.

” 28—Gen. Hooker takes Lookout Mountain.

” 31—Gen. Hooker gains the battle of Shell Mound.

Nov.—The main interest of the month gathers about the great and decisive battle of Chattanooga, between Gens. Grant and Bragg. All the forces to be spared on either side were concentrated here. Chattanooga has been called, “The back door of the Confederacy.”

Nov. 5—Chattanooga bombarded by the Southern forces.

Gen. Avery gains a Union victory at Lewisburg, Va.

” 6—The North is thrilled with indignation at barbarities ascertained to have been perpetrated in Southern prisons.

” 7—Gen. Meade drives Southern army across the Rappahannock.

” 11—The British government makes known an intended invasion of the North from Canada, by Confederates.

” 15—Gen. Banks takes Corpus Christi, Texas.

” 17—Charleston continues to be shelled.

Gen. Longstreet detached from Confederate army at Chattanooga, with 15,000 men, to attack Burnside.

” 19—National Cemetery consecrated, at Gettysburg.

” 23-26—Battles of Chattanooga and Lookout Mountain. Southern forces about 60,000, Grant’s about 80,000. Confederate losses 10,000, Union, 5,616. It was a blow never recovered by the Confederacy.

” 28—Gen. Longstreet attacks Knoxville and is repulsed with loss.

CHAPTER XXVII.
CAMPAIGN OF 1864.

There was a lull, for a time, in the tempest of war. The Confederate forces had lost ground that they could hardly hope to regain. The Mississippi river and Eastern Tennessee, both of supreme importance to the Confederacy, were in possession of the Union armies, which grew ever stronger. They were now about 1,000,000 men, and the navy had increased to over 600 vessels. This force was soon put in vigorous hands, that gripped fast what they once held. The misfortune of many commanders and continual changes, from political rather than military considerations, began to be well understood. Grant had gained so uniformly when others had failed, he was recognized as so tenacious and unwearied, that he received and held the confidence of the people and the government. This was a point of great importance for shortening the war; for the Southern people were still resolute, had still a vast country, were on the defensive in a smaller region than before, and could resist more effectively with a smaller army. It still made a most gallant and determined resistance which the vast resources of the national government did not enable them to overcome for a year and a half. The country was still covered with detached bodies of troops. A desultory war was maintained where strong armies failed to hold the ground, or were concentrated at a few points. The great movements were in Virginia and Georgia. The secondary in Tennessee, in Mississippi, and Texas.

It took a year to break the will of the Southern people after they were really conquered. This period covers the year 1864; 1865 furnishes only the dying struggles of the Confederacy, already mortally wounded.

1864.

The bombardment of Charleston continued during the preceding month. Some cavalry movements were made, the President of the U. S. offered amnesty to all who would take an oath of allegiance, and Gen. Butler announced that the Confederate government refused to receive any more supplies for Union prisoners from the North.

Jan. 7—Three blockade runners captured.

” 11—Two more were destroyed, making 22 in a few months.

” 25—Mr. Vanderbilt, having presented a steamer worth $800,000 to the U. S. government, received the thanks of Congress.

Feb. 1—The President of the U. S. ordered a draft of 500,000 men.

” 5—Two English steamers, with supplies for the South, captured.

” 9—Cotton worth $700,000 burned at Wilmington, N. C.

” 20—Negro troops cover the retreat of a defeated white Union force at Olustee, Fla.

” 28—The large armies being broken up or concentrated, and the lines of communication very much interrupted, many Union cavalry raids, aiming to break the lines of communication by railroad completely, to lay waste the country, and to free the negroes, who were raising supplies for the Southern armies, in the far interior, were undertaken. That of Sherman to Meridian, in Miss., and of Grierson and Smith, and many smaller ones, were executed during this month. The damage to railroads and the supplies destroyed were incalculable. 18 blockade runners and other vessels bringing supplies to the South were destroyed during the month.

Mar. 2—Gen. Grant made Lt. General; the only one who had reached that dignity since Gen. Washington—Gen. Scott being Lt. Gen. only by brevet.

” 12—Gen. Grant made Commander-in-chief of the U. S. armies.

” 15—The President of the U. S. calls for 200,000 more men.

” 25—Confederate Gen. Forrest makes three assaults on Paducah, Ky., with loss of 1,500 men, in vain.

” 28—A severe defeat inflicted on Southern forces at Cane River, La.

Apr. 4—Gen. Marmaduke defeated by Gen. Steele, Unionist, at Little Missouri, Ark.

” 8—Gen. Banks suffers reverses on the Red River, and retreats with loss.

” 12—Gen. Forrest takes Ft. Pillow and massacres the garrison, many being negroes.

” 21—Salt works in North Carolina destroyed—value $100,000. As salt was indispensable to army operations, the utmost effort was made to ruin as many as possible.

” 23—Governors of Western States offer the U.S. government 85,000 men for 100 days. President accepts them.

May 2—400 Union prisoners are brought to Annapolis nearly starved.

” 4—Gen. Grant crosses the Rapidan in Va. and commences operations in the Wilderness. He, with 140,000 men, confronts Lee, who has 60,000.

” 5—Fighting in the Wilderness for two days without decided result. Costs Grant 30,000 (5,000 were prisoners) and Lee 10,000. Lee was intrenched and familiar with the ground, which was highly unfavorable to the Union army.

” 6—Gen. Sherman confronts Gen. Joe Johnson near Chattanooga. Sherman has near 100,000; Johnson 60,000.

” 7—Lee retreats toward Spottsylvania Court-House. Union army follows, fighting.

To this date 150,000 Southern soldiers had been made prisoners during the course of the war.

May 8—Battle of Spottsylvania; result indecisive.

” 10—Battle of Spottsylvania continued. Still indecisive. Losses to each side 10,000 men.

” 12—Lee and Grant fight again, without victory by either.

” 13—Sheridan destroyed Lee’s depot of supplies in his rear, at Beaver Dam.

” 15—Sherman drives Johnson from Resaca after two days’ fighting.

” 21—Lee is flanked at Spottsylvania, and retires to the North Anna.

” 23—Morgan (Confederate cavalry) enters Ky. with 4,000 men.

” 25—Sheridan rejoins Grant, after a brilliant series of daring deeds in the rear of Lee. Gen. Stuart, a very able Confederate cavalry leader, is killed in this raid.

” 27—Grant again flanked Lee, crossing the Pamunky to Hanovertown.

June 1—Battle of Cold Harbor, north of, and near, Richmond. It was fought with the utmost bravery and obstinacy, but gained no more decisive end than the destruction of men and material involved. This was very severe on Lee, from the smaller number he had to fall back on.

” 7—Abraham Lincoln renominated for the presidency of the U. S.

” 14—Gen. Polk (a Southern bishop) killed.

” 15—An unsuccessful assault for three days on Petersburg. Union losses 10,000 men.

” 18—To this time Grant had lost 64,000 men—Lee 38,000 during this campaign.

” 19—Steamer Kearsarge sinks the famous Alabama, on the coast of France.

” 20—Petersburg strongly reinforced by Lee.

” 27—Sherman, pushing Johnson at Keneshaw, meets a severe repulse. In one month he had driven Johnson 100 miles, fought six battles, and killed, wounded or taken prisoner 17,000 men. He followed Grant’s principle, and “flanked” him. A retreat was the result.

July 1—Public debt over $1,740,000,000.

” 9—Gen. Early, with 20,000 Confederate troops, passes into Grant’s rear, and makes a hasty march north into Maryland. This day he gained a victory over Gen. Wallace, but his losses were so great that he was hindered in his design of capturing Washington, though within six miles of it at one time. He retreats, but soon turns back.

” 18—President Lincoln calls for 500,000 more troops.

” 19—Gen. Averill (Union) gives Early a check, but finally falls back.

” 20-22—Severe battles in the neighborhood of Atlanta, Geo. Gen. Sherman victorious. Confederate losses in all over 15,000; Union about 5,500. Union Gen. McPherson killed.

” 22—A mine, made under the fortifications of Petersburg, completed. It was charged with 8,000 lbs. of powder.

” 28—Early sent a detachment into Penn., which burnt Chambersburg.

” 30—Gen. Stoneman defeated and taken prisoner at Macon, Geo., by Confederates.

The mine exploded at Petersburg, blowing up a fort and its garrison; but, from unskillful management, proved a Union disaster; 4,000 men were lost in killed, wounded and prisoners. A constant artillery attack was kept up on Petersburg through this month.

Aug. 2—Gen. Banks puts all the negroes in his region in the army (Grand Gulf, La.).

” 3—Constant fighting at Atlanta. Hood (Confederate) repulsed.

” 5—Admiral Farragut enters Mobile bay with 18 vessels, and captures or destroys the vessels and forts. It was the last seaport of the Confederacy.

” 7—Union Gen. Averill gains a complete victory at Moorfield, West Va.

” 9—Atlanta, Geo., bombarded by Sherman’s army.

” 11—The Confederate vessel Tallahassee burns 5 vessels, and 5 more in the course of Aug.

” 13—Mosby, Confederate, captures an immense supply train at Berryville, Va.

” 19—Success of Southern forces before Petersburg. Took 2,000 prisoners.

” 21—Lee fails to dislodge Warner, who is destroying the Weldon R. R. In three days Grant lost 4,500 men in this undertaking.

” 31—Gen. Howard, of Sherman’s army, gains a decided victory at Jonesborough, Geo.

Sept. 2—Gen. Hood evacuates Atlanta, Geo., a very important place, which Sherman at once occupies. Sherman had lost 30,000 men in this campaign, the Confederates 42,000.

” 5—Gen. Morgan, an active Southern cavalry officer, is killed at Granville, Tenn.

” 12—Sherman sends away all the families and burns a good part of Atlanta, preparatory to great and brilliant operations.

” 13—General Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, Va.

” 16—A strong force of Confederate cavalry drive off 2,500 beeves belonging to the Union army on James river.

” 19—Sheridan defeats Early, (at Oquequan, Shenandoah valley,) inflicting a loss of 8,000 men.

” 22—Sheridan again inflicts a loss of near 4,000 on Early, at Fisher’s Hill, Va.

” 29—Gen. Grant advances to within ten miles of Richmond, on the north.

Gen. Price again invades Missouri.

” 30—The blockading force captured and destroyed 50 vessels this month.

Oct. 5—A repulse of the Southern forces at Allatoona, Geo.

” 7—The Confederate steamer Florida captured by the Wachusett, on the coast of Brazil.

Sheridan, having laid waste the Shenandoah valley, returns South.

” 8—Sheridan defeats the Confederates again in the Shenandoah valley.

” 11—Maryland votes for a constitution abolishing slavery.

” 19—Sheridan annihilated Early, at Cedar Creek, by his famous “ride from Winchester,” and rallying his men, after they had been defeated.

Confederate refugees from Canada rob a bank in St. Albans, Vt.

” 23—Gen. Price defeated at Blue river, Missouri.

” 27—Gen. Grant closes the active campaign by an extensive reconnaissance.

” 28—Gen. Blunt defeats Price and drives him out of Missouri. He returns no more.

Nov.—Gen. Hood, in command of the forces in Georgia, withdrew from the neighborhood of Atlanta, for the purpose of destroying Sherman’s base of supplies, and invading Tennessee and Kentucky. He had now about 40,000 men. Gen. Thomas was sent into Tennessee, by Sherman, with a strong force, to contend with him; and Sherman, breaking away from his northern connections, commences his celebrated “march to the sea,” in which he is lost to his friends for 40 days, but reaches Savannah in safety.

” 4—Johnsonville, Tenn., bombarded. 3 gunboats and 8 transports, with $1,500,000 of stores destroyed.

” 8—President Lincoln re-elected. Gen. McClellan resigns his commission.

” 11—A gunboat, the Tulip, blows up on Potomac river. Her boiler burst.

” 13—Gen. Breckenridge attacks Gillem, near Morristown, Tenn., capturing his artillery, and several hundred prisoners.

” 14—Atlanta completely destroyed by Sherman, before his march South.

” 16—Gen. Stoneman attacks Breckenridge, at Marion, Tenn., and captures his artillery and 200 prisoners.

Gen. Sherman starts for Savannah through the heart of the Confederacy, with over 65,000 troops. He destroys railroads and lays the country waste wherever he is treated in a hostile manner.

” 22—Sherman’s army reach Milledgeville, the capital of Georgia. The Gov. and Legislature hastily retire. The soldiers amuse themselves by holding a mock legislature, passing loyal resolutions, &c.

” 24—The Union army in Va., receive nearly 100,000 pounds of turkeys, sent from the North to supply them a Christmas dinner.

” 25—An attempt to fire New York city miscarries.

” 30—Gen. Hood, Confederate, with 40,000 men, attacks Schofield, 18 miles from Nashville. Gen. Schofield had only 17,000 men. Hood made four attacks, and was each time repulsed. He lost 6,000 men. At midnight Schofield retreated to Nashville, and joined Thomas, followed by Hood’s army.

Dec. 1—The U. S. navy has 671 vessels, carrying over 4,000 guns, and 51,000 men. It has captured 324 vessels during the year—during the war, 1,379—267 being steamers.

” 5—65 blockade runners, ships and cargoes worth $12,000,000, have been captured or destroyed by the U. S. navy, at Wilmington, N. C.

” 6—Mr. Chase, ex-Sec. of the U. S. Treasury, appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

” 12—Gen. Sherman’s army reaches the rear of Savannah, Geo., which is occupied by the Confederate Gen. Hardee, with 15,000 men.

” 13—Gen. Hazen, of Sherman’s command, captures Ft. McAllister, near Savannah. It had been frequently attacked by gunboats, in vain.

” 15—Gen. Rousseau defeats the Southern forces under Forrest at Murfreesborough, Tenn., with great loss.

” 15-16—Battle of Nashville, Tenn., in which Gen. Hood is completely defeated by Gen. Thomas, Federal commander. Hood’s flying troops pursued 200 miles. It was one of the most fatal blows of the war for the South.

” 19—President Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers to finish the war.

” 20—Gen. Stoneman, Unionist, captures forts and destroys salt works, lead mines, and railway bridges at Saltville, East Tennessee.

Gen. Sherman summons Savannah to surrender. Gen. Hardee retreated in the night. Gen. Sherman takes possession next day.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
CONCLUDING CAMPAIGN.

The year 1864 closed in general disaster to the Confederacy. Sherman had broken the Confederate power in Georgia, destroyed its communications with the Mississippi States, and taken Savannah. Gen. Thomas had broken up Hood’s army, in Tennessee, and Grant had closely beleagured the Southern army in Virginia within Richmond and its defenses; while Sheridan had dealt blow after blow on Early, in the Shenandoah Valley, and quite ruined his army.

The future operations required the subjugation of the interiors of North and South Carolina, the taking of a few forts on the coast, and the capture of Lee’s army in Richmond. The only other army of strength, the remnant of Hood’s forces, was in the Southern interior. The Federal government was stronger than ever, both by sea and land. The Southern people were much discouraged; their finances ruined; their fighting men mostly disabled, scattered, forced into submission, or, hopeless of ultimate success, had voluntarily withdrawn from the contest in so large numbers that the Confederate forces were everywhere inferior, and only upheld by the indomitable pride and bravery inherent in the Anglo-American. They would submit only when necessity absolutely compelled them; and thus saved their honor, in their own eyes. They had made a fatal mistake, and they reaped the full harvest of ruin. Yet, their prolonged resistance served to utterly annihilate slavery; raised the negroes to the honorable position of Defenders of the Union; and, the last of Jan., 1865, an amendment to the U. S. Constitution was prepared forever abolishing slavery in the country. In the end the blacks became citizens. We have now but a short record to complete our View of the Civil War. The South had still over 100,000 men in arms, but they were surrounded, cut off from supplies, outnumbered, and pressed with relentless vigor. This was Grant’s policy.

1865.

Jan. 14—Vessels are sent from Boston and New York with large supplies from the charitable, for Southern sufferers in Savannah, Geo.

” 15—Ft. Fisher, on the coast of N. C., captured by Gen. Terry, in conjunction with the U. S. fleet. It is the last stronghold of the South on the sea.

Edward Everett died, at Boston, Mass.

” 16—The magazine at Ft. Fisher exploded, killing and wounding 300 Union men.

” 17—A Federal monitor blown up by torpedoes, in Charleston Harbor, S. C.

” 20—Corinth, Miss., evacuated by Southern troops.

” 23—Gen. Hood surrenders his command in the Southern army to Gen. Taylor.

” 28—Gen. Breckenridge becomes Confederate Sec. of War.

” 29—Southern Commissioners seek an interview with President Lincoln at Fortress Monroe, in the interest of Peace. They failed to make any satisfactory terms.

” 31—Joint resolution of Congress to amend the U. S. Constitution abolishing slavery (14th Amendment).

Feb.—Nine States ratify the Constitutional Amendment in this month.

” 5—Grant suffers a repulse at Hatcher’s Run. Loss 2,000 men.

” 17—Columbia, S. C., accidentally burned on its evacuation by Southern troops. A Confederate dollar (paper) worth but two cents in Richmond, Va.

” 18—Union troops take possession of Charleston, S. C., as a result of Sherman’s march from Savannah north-eastward toward Richmond. Many buildings in Charleston burned in the destruction of Confederate stores by the retiring army.

Gen. Lee in favor of arming the negroes for the defense of the South. It is declined by the Confederate government, until too late.

” 25—800 Southern soldiers desert, and come into Union lines.

Mar. 2—Sheridan completely routs Gen. Early again, taking 1,700 troops prisoners.

” 4—President Lincoln inaugurated for his second term.

” 10—Gen. Bragg defeated, at Kingston, N. C.

” 15—Gen. Hardee (Confederate) defeated by Sherman’s army.

” 18—The Confederate Congress adjourned. It never met again.

Battle of part of Sherman’s army with Johnston, Confederate, 24,000 strong. Southern forces made six assaults which were withstood. After fighting and manouvering 3 days, Johnston retreated having lost 3,000 men. Sherman lost 1,646.

” 25—Ft. Steadman, near Petersburg, Va., captured by Confederates, but was immediately retaken, with 2,000 prisoners. This attack was made by Lee, preparatory to evacuating Richmond. Grant had about 120,000 troops, Lee 70,000.

” 29—Sheridan commences an expedition to the rear of Richmond to cut off Lee’s retreat South.

” 31—Sheridan attacked and hard pushed by Lee’s forces, but at night they fall back.

Apr. 1—Sheridan, in turn, follows the Confederates, and drives them toward Richmond. He takes more than 5,000 prisoners. This was the battle of Five Forks. It was fatal to Lee’s retreat.

” 2—Grant’s forces make a grand assault. It is successful, and Lee prepares to evacuate Richmond. President Davis leaves his capital in haste, for Danville, N. C. Gen. Lee commences his retreat in the night.

” 3—Richmond occupied by colored Federal troops. They find the city in flames.

” 4—President Davis endeavors to make a stand against disaster. He issues a proclamation from Danville.

” 9—Terms of surrender arranged by Gens. Grant and Lee.

” 10—Gen. Lee issues his farewell address to his army.

” 12—Confederate army yielded prisoners of war at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. 27,805 Confederate soldiers paroled.

Gen. Stoneman defeats a Confederate force, at Salisbury, N. C.

Gen. Canby, Union, occupies Mobile, Ala.

” 14—President Lincoln assassinated in Washington, by J. Wilkes Booth.

Mr. Seward stabbed in bed, but not killed.

” 15—Abraham Lincoln died at 7 A. M. The whole country is in mourning.

Andrew Johnson assumes the office of President of the U. S.

” 18—Paine, or Powell, who endeavored to assassinate Sec. Seward, arrested at Mrs. Surratt’s house in Washington. Mrs. Surratt arrested.

Gen. Sherman arranges preliminaries for the surrender of all the remaining Confederate forces, with Gen. Johnston, commanding Southern army in N. C., with consent of Confederate Sec. of War and Jeff. Davis. It includes the basis of a general peace, and a policy of reconstruction. It is sent to the Federal government for their approval or rejection.

” 19—Funeral ceremonies of President Lincoln, at Washington. Funeral services are held all over the North. The body is carried in state to Springfield, Ill., stopping at prominent places on the route; and visited by great numbers of the people. 700,000 were said to have been in the procession at New York.

” 21—Gen. Sherman’s arrangement with Johnston disapproved by the government, and he is ordered to resume hostilities. Steamboat Sultana blows up on the Mississippi, and about 1,300 U. S. soldiers returning home were killed.

” 24—Gen. Grant visits Sherman.

” 25—J. W. Booth, the assassin of the President, taken prisoner near Port Royal, Va. Refusing to surrender, a soldier shot him, contrary to orders. He died in 4 hours. No assassin ever met with more universal execration than Booth. Its necessary effect was to render the Reconstruction policy much more stern and painful to the South.

” 26—Johnston surrenders to Gen. Sherman all the Confederate troops in his command, on the terms granted Gen. Lee.

” 29—Arms and stores of Gen. Johnston’s army delivered to U. S. authorities, at Greensboro, N. C.

May 2—Reward offered for capture of Jeff. Davis, of $100,000. He was, at first, believed accessory to the murder of President Lincoln.

” 3—President Lincoln’s remains arrive at Springfield, Ill.

” 4-9—All the Confederate forces disbanded, or surrendered to U. S. officers, east and west of Mississippi river.

” 10—Jeff. Davis captured in Geo., in woman’s clothes.

GENERAL DATA.

The number of volunteer troops to be mustered out of the Union army, May 1st, 1865, was 1,034,064. They were mostly discharged and paid in the next three months. The entire enlistments in the Federal army, during the whole war, were 2,688,523. Many were re-enlistments. It is believed that the whole number of individuals forming the armies was only 1,500,000. 75 per cent. were native Americans, 9 per cent. Germans, and 7 per cent. Irish. Various nationalities made up the remaining 9 per cent.

Of this million and a half 56,000 were killed in battle, 35,000 died in hospitals of their wounds received in battle, and 184,000 died in hospitals of disease. Many afterwards died, and others were ruined in health for life.

It has been stated by the Adjutant General of the Confederate army, since the close of the war, that the available Confederate force during the entire war was 600,000, and that they never had more than 200,000 in the field at any one time. This would seem likely to be an underestimate, but is the nearest to official data that we have. He states the entire force opposing the 1,000,000 men in the closing campaign to have been 100,000. There is reason to believe that the Confederates killed, and the wounded and sick who died in hospital, was about 300,000.

The entire amount expended by the National government, by States, counties and towns, and contributed in other ways to the comfort or sustenance of the army, is computed at $4,000,000,000. The support of the Southern army cannot be ascertained, but it is thought that those expenses and the destruction of property inflicted about an equal loss on them.

These losses in life and property are fearful; but they are the price of Freedom and of Nationality. The general prosperity of the country has made it richer than before, while natural increase and immigration have filled the places vacant by death.

The South was hopeless and exhausted at the close of the war. It had been feared that a guerrilla war, the most desolating and bloody of all wars, would follow the defeat of the great armies. It could result only in destruction of what remained to the Southern people, and they submitted quietly to their fate. Various excesses and deeds of blood were indeed committed, but they were not sympathized with by the mass of the people. It was only the desperate and lawless class that came to the surface naturally in war.

Many of the influential Southern leaders counseled submission to inevitable necessity, and themselves set the example. The policy of reconstruction adopted by the National government, excluded, at first, all who had taken a part in the rebellion from political influence. The loyal element, small as it was, was alone to restore the Southern States to their place in the Union. It was, however, proposed to admit others, both individuals and classes, to participation in political action as they proved themselves trustworthy and loyal to the new order of things. After some years, and when it was felt to be quite safe, these disabilities were nearly all removed.

The most distasteful act of the General Government, to the people of the South, was clothing the blacks with the rights of citizens. They received the elective franchise, and assisted to rule over their former masters. It was considered necessary, since they had now no masters to be interested in them, to give them the power to protect themselves, and to elevate them to something of influence and respectability by force of the ballot. That advantage given them, they must take their chances with others, and win their own way. They had been loyal to the Union, which strongly recommended this policy to the government. The Northern people who now settled in the South and the blacks mainly reorganized the State governments. This was the chief punishment inflicted on the Southern people in retaliation for the war they had waged with such fearful energy. It was a clemency quite unexampled in history. No blood was shed after they laid down their arms. The assassination of the beloved President Lincoln made the North thoroughly angry, but no vengeance was taken except on those believed to be immediately connected with the atrocious deed. The most lively indignation had long been felt at the dreadful treatment experienced by prisoners of war in some of the prisons of the South; but the government and the people contented themselves with the punishment of the governor of Andersonville prison, on due civil trial and conviction.

On the whole, the conduct of the Northern people was extremely magnanimous. The dissolution of the Union would have been an irreparable loss to them; they resolved not to suffer it; and, with extraordinary energy, they put in the field more than a million and a half of men, and near 700 vessels, to subdue it, and suffered no reverses to discourage them until this was done. When resistance ceased and the Union was secure, they exacted only the pledges necessary to keep it safe. Appreciating the unfortunate condition to which nearly all the before prosperous classes of the South were reduced, they aided them in their distress, ceased at once all hostile action, and left them to recover from their disasters under as favorable circumstances as their own conduct warranted. The South naturally felt an affection for her Lost Cause, proportionate to the sacrifices she had made and the suffering she had endured for it. Time, and busy care to develop the vast resources that slavery had, in great part, neglected, would gradually restore them to right feeling, and the state of mind fitting them for citizenship. This, in part, has already taken place, and, by and by, the Bonds of the Whole Union will be more firmly cemented than ever before. May it be soon.

CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF THE U. S. FROM 1865 TO 1874.

May 13—During the week ending with this day there was subscribed to the U. S. seven-thirty loan $98,000,000. It was an expression of the enthusiastic confidence of the people in the government and its resources.

” 22-23—Grand review of Gen. Sherman’s army at Washington. There were 200,000 men.

” 26—Kirby Smith, the last leader of a Southern military organization, surrendered his command.

” 30—The great Sanitary Fair opened at Chicago.

” 31—Gen. Hood and his staff surrendered prisoners of war.

June 1—A day of fasting and national humiliation for the death of President Lincoln.

” 4—Toombs, of Georgia, prominent in the early days of secession, shot himself to avoid arrest. Yet no one was capitally punished for treason.

” 5—The four confederates of Booth, the assassin of President Lincoln, were found guilty. They were hanged on the 6th and 7th. These were Harold, Atzerott, Powell and Mrs. Surratt.

” 11—Gen. R. E. Lee appointed president of the Washington College, Va. It was done by Southern people as a mark of respect, and to furnish him a support; he having lost his property in the war.

Sept. 20—The marking of the graves of 12,000 of the unfortunate Andersonville prisoners completed.

” 29—Cession of 1,000,000 acres of land to the government by the Osage Indians, for $300,000.

Oct. 20—Champ Ferguson, noted for his crimes in guerilla warfare, hung at Nashville, Tenn.

Nov. 10—Henry Wirz, the inhuman keeper of Andersonville prison, hung, after trial and condemnation.

Dec. 18—Secretary Seward officially announces that the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States, has been adopted by three-fourths of the States, and it is now the law of the land.

1866.

Jan. 1—Third anniversary of Emancipation celebrated by the colored people.

” 2—Funeral of Hon. Henry Winter Davis, U. S. Senator, at Baltimore.

” 12—The Kentucky University purchases the homestead of Henry Clay.

” 23—The 13th Constitutional Amendment reconsidered by the Legislature of New Jersey and passed. It had been rejected in the previous year.

” 25—Kentucky refused to pass the 13th Amendment.

” 31—Commissary and quartermaster warehouses burned, at Ft. Riley, Kansas. $1,000,000 lost.

Feb. 2—The Civil Rights bill passed the Senate.

” 11—The U. S. Sanitary Commission closed with an anniversary meeting at Washington.

” 12—Memorial services in honor of President Lincoln held in the capitol, at Washington; address delivered by the Hon. Geo. Bancroft, statesman and historian.

” 19—President Johnson vetoed the Freedmen’s Bureau bill.

” 22—The 134th anniversary of Washington’s birthday celebrated.

” 26—Meeting held at Richmond to ratify President Johnson’s policy.

Mar. 10—North Carolina passes a Negro Rights bill.

” 12—North Carolina passes a Negro Testimony bill.

Texas Convention declares their Secession ordinance null and void.

” 13—The Civil Rights bill passed the House of Representatives.

” 19—The Reciprocity Treaty with Canada expires.

” 27—The Civil Rights bill vetoed by President Johnson.

April 2—Gen. Hawley elected republican governor of Connecticut.

” 4—Gen. Burnside elected governor of Rhode Island.

” 6-7—Civil Rights bill passed Congress over the veto.

” 30—Two churches of colored people burned by incendiaries in Richmond, Va.

May 15—The President vetoes the bill admitting Colorado as a State.

” 29—Gen. Scott died at West Point, N. Y.

June 3—Gen. Meade goes to Buffalo to prevent the Fenians (Irish Patriots) from invading Canada.

” 6—President Johnson issues a proclamation forbidding belligerent operations against Canada from the United States.

” 8-13—The 14th Constitutional Amendment passed by Congress.

July 4—Great fire at Portland, Me. Loss, $15,000,000. The U. S. government a heavy loser by this fire.

” 23—Tennessee readmitted as a State in the Union, by joint resolution of Congress. This was the first State readmitted after the war.

” 25—Lieut. Gen. Grant nominated General—the highest grade known in our military organization—never before occupied. Vice Admiral Farragut nominated Admiral.

” 27—Hon. J. H. Harlan, Sec. of the Interior, resigns. O. H. Browning appointed.

” 28—The Great Eastern reaches Hearts Content, Newfoundland, with the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable, which proved successful. It had failed in the previous year. Great rejoicings. It was one of the most important events of this century.

” 30—Great riot at New Orleans, in which many were killed. It was thought the result of President Johnson’s policy of reconstruction, which was not in harmony with the system adopted by Congress.

Aug. 1—Gen. Sherman commissioned as Lieut. General.

” 8—Queen Emma, wife of the late King of the Sandwich Islands, arrives at New York, and is received as a National Guest.

” 12—Telegraphic communication between New York and Europe complete, by the Atlantic Cable.

” 31—American and English naval forces unite to break up piracy by Chinese junks in the East Indies.

Sept. 6—The monument to S. A. Douglas, at Chicago, inaugurated. President Johnson made many speeches on his journey to attend this celebration, which were indiscreet, and disrespectful to Congress. It was called his “Swinging around the Circle,” in derision; a figure employed in one of his speeches.

Oct. 9—Gen. Geary elected governor of Pennsylvania.

” 23—Dedication of The Stonewall Jackson Cemetery, at Winchester, Va.

Nov. 6—State elections in 12 States are held to-day.

” 20—The Grand Army of the Republic, formed of the present and previous officers of the U. S. Army serving in the late war, hold a convention at Indianapolis, Ind.

” 22—Raphael Semmes, former Commander of the Confederate war steamer Alabama, appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Louisiana State Seminary.

Dec. 7—The Louisiana Legislature rejects the 14th Amendment to the Constitution.

” 13—Territorial Legislature of Colorado organized.

” 16—The U. S. frigate New Ironsides burned at League Island.

” 22—Massacre of nearly a hundred soldiers near Ft. Kearney.

” 24—U. S. Minister John A. Dix enters on his duties in France.

1867.

Jan. 7—A suffrage bill for the Dist. of Columbia vetoed by President Johnson, but passed over the veto by Congress. Congress was laboring to harmonize the laws of the country with the changes produced by the war. President Johnson did his utmost to prevent the success of this policy. Congress, however, succeeded in carrying its point. This is an important and interesting history, since it shows how the Representatives of the People may check and neutralize the power of a President when his designs conflict with the interests of the country and the purposes of the people.

” 8-10—14th Amendment ratified by two States (Missouri and New York) and rejected by another (Virginia).

” 28—Nebraska bill vetoed, but passed over the veto.

Most of the Northern States ratified the 14th Amendment in this month.

Feb. 20—Military government bill passed Congress.

Mar. 1—Nebraska proclaimed a State by the President.

” 2—The President vetoes the Military Government and Civil Tenure of Office Bills. They are passed over his veto.

” 4—The 39th Congress ends, and the 40th is organized.

” 11—Military governors assigned to various districts in the South.

” 30—The President announces the ratification of the treaty with Russia, by which the United States bought all her North American Possessions for $7,200,000.

Apr. 3—Gen. Burnside re-elected governor of Rhode Island.

May 13—Jeff. Davis admitted to bail in $100,000; Horace Greeley and others furnish the bonds.

June 19—The Arch Duke Maximilian, Titular Emperor of Mexico, shot by order of the Mexican Republican government. The remonstrances of the U. S. government obliged the French to withdraw their support from Maximilian.

July 13—The steamer Dunderberg, bought by France, sailed for Cherbourg.

Aug. 1—Gov. Brownlow re-elected governor of Tennessee.

” 5—The President requires Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, to resign. He refuses, when the President suspends him and appoints Gen. Grant.

” 23—Grand ovation to Admiral Farragut, by Russian officers at Cronstadt.

Sept. 17—The National Cemetery at Antietam dedicated.

Dec. 4—The Patrons of Husbandry, or Farmers’ Grange, organized, in Washington.

” 7—A resolution in the House of Representatives to impeach President Johnson fails by three votes.

1868.

Jan. 1—Fifth Emancipation Anniversary celebrated by the colored people in various places.

” 6—Censure of the President by Congress for removing Gen. Sheridan from command of the 5th Military District.

Feb. 7—The resignation of U. S. Minister to England, Hon. C. F. Adams, announced.

” 19—Senate refuse his seat to P. F. Thomas, of Maryland, on account of disloyalty.

” 20—The Legislature of New Jersey withdraws its ratification of the 14th Amendment. Ohio and Oregon did the same. This action, considered as absurd as Secession, was not recognized.

” 21—President Johnson expels Mr. Stanton, Sec. of War, and appoints Gen. Thomas. This is done in defiance of the Senate, by whose “advice and consent” the Constitution requires it to be supported.

” 24—The House of Representatives adopt articles of impeachment of the President presented by Thaddeus Stephens, of Pa., by a vote of 126 to 57. This was 12 more than the requisite two-thirds.

Mar. 5—The Senate is organized as a Court of Impeachment, Chief Justice Chase presiding.

May 16—The impeachment trial terminated by a vote in the Senate of 35 for, to 19 against. As a two-thirds vote was necessary the impeachment failed by three votes. A few Republican Senators incurred great odium by voting for the President’s acquittal.

” 20—Gen. Grant nominated for President by the Republican Convention at Chicago.

” 22—A Chinese embassy, headed by Hon. Anson Burlingame, who had been U. S. Minister to China and acquired the confidence of the government of China to such an extent as to be chosen by them as the leader of their embassy to this country and the governments of Europe, arrived at New York.

” 29—Gen. Schofield appointed Sec. of War.

June 5—Mr. Burlingame and the Chinese embassy presented to the President.

” 6—A Bill for the re-admission of Arkansas passes Congress.

” 9—Bills for the re-admission of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Alabama and Florida are passed.

” 12—Hon. Reverdy Johnson appointed Minister to England.

” 20—Bill for re-admission of Ark. vetoed by the President, but passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote.

” 24—The Bill for the admission of the other States being vetoed by the President was likewise passed over his veto.

July 4—Horatio Seymour of N. Y. and F. P. Blair of Mo. nominated for President and Vice-President by the Democrats.

A political amnesty proclamation issued by the President.

” 16—Admiral Farragut received with distinguished honor by the Queen of England.

” 20—A Bill to exclude the electoral votes of the Southern States not re-admitted vetoed by the President and passed by Congress over the veto.

” 21—The 14th Amendment declared ratified, and a part of the Constitution.

” 28—Military government ceases in Arkansas, North and South Carolina, Louisiana, Georgia, Florida and Alabama.

Aug. 6—Jefferson Davis lands in Liverpool, England.

” 13—U. S. steamers Wateree and Fredonia destroyed during an earthquake at Lima, Peru; 40,000 lives were lost in this dreadful catastrophe.

Sept. 7—Negro members of the Georgia Legislature expelled on account of race, contrary to the 14th Amendment.

” 18—Battle with the Indians on Republican River. Lt. Beecher and others killed.

” 19—Riot at Camilla, Geo., caused by hostility of Southern people to the political privileges of the blacks. Many negroes killed.

” 29—Gen. Reynolds, military governor of Texas, forbids the election in that State for President, Texas not having been re-admitted. This was in accordance with the law of Congress passed the 20th of July.

Oct. 17—The Legislature of Oregon withdraws its assent once given to the 14th Amendment.

Nov. 3—U. S. Grant and Schuyler Colfax elected President and Vice-President. Popular majority 309,722. Electoral votes for Grant and Colfax, 214; for Seymour and Blair, 80. Virginia, Mississippi and Texas did not vote, and Nevada was not counted in. The whole popular vote was 5,722,984. In Florida the electors were chosen by the Legislature.

” 27—The Indians defeated by Gen. Custer, on the Washita river. Black Kettle, the chief, and more than a hundred warriors killed.

Dec. 1—Ft. Lafayette, N. Y., destroyed by fire.

” 3—Political troubles in Arkansas, in which many murders are committed.

” 7—Third session of the 40th Congress begins.

” 15—A social gathering of the Union soldiers at Chicago.

1869.

Jan. 7—John Minor Botts, a statesman of Va., imprisoned by the Confederate government during the war for his Union sentiments, died.

Feb. 27—A joint resolution of Congress recommends to the States the adoption of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution.

Mar. 4—Gen. Grant inaugurated eighteenth President.

” ”—First session of the 41st Congress commenced.

” 13—James Guthrie, a statesman of Ky., died.

” 25—Hon. E. Bates, of Mo., Att’y Gen’l under Lincoln, died.

May 15—The Union Pacific Railroad was completed by joining the two ends at Ogden, Utah. Distance from Omaha to San Francisco 1904 miles. This completed the line of railroad joining the Atlantic and Pacific. The greatest triumph of engineering yet known was accomplished in the Nevada Mts., by carrying the road to a height of over 7000 feet in 105 miles.

July 30—Hon. I. Toucey, of Conn., who had filled many offices in the State and United States government, died.

Sept. 8—William B. Fessenden, of Me., a statesman of reputation, died.

” 10—John Bell, of Ky., candidate for the Presidency in 1860, died.

” 6—Gen. J. A. Rawlins, Sec. of War, died. He had been Gen. Grant’s Chief of Staff during the war.

Oct. 8—Franklin Pierce, of N. H., ex-President, died.

Nov. 7—Rear Admiral Stewart, of U. S. Navy, died.

Dec. 24—Edwin M. Stanton, of Pa., Sec. of War during most of the civil war, died.

This year closes a most important era in the history of the United States, and of the world. The account with the civil war was definitely closed, and the final seal set on the policy of reconstruction by the inauguration of Gen. Grant, and the continuance of the Republican party in power by the people, together with the readmission of most of the Southern States and the possibility of the reversal of the decision in regard to slavery done away by the adoption of the fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, giving the elective franchise to the colored population. Much emphasis was given to all these things by the prosperity of the country, and the rapid reduction of the debt, by the generally wise conduct of the Southern people, and the slowly increasing prosperity of that section. These results reacted in other countries to strengthen the tendency to freer and more popular governments, and seem, in some respects to have introduced the Era of Republicanism. However slow may be the changes in this direction, they are sure to be made.

1870.

Jan. 1—Ten years ago the cloud of civil war settled densely over the country, and threatened its destruction. To-day that tornado has been passed by nearly six years, and its ruins are almost buried under the new and more thrifty growth of all interests and industries even in the South.

” 20—H. R. Revels, of Miss., is chosen the first colored Senator who ever represented a State in Congress.

” 23—The U. S. steamer Oneida sunk by collision with another vessel on the coast of Japan. 176 lives lost.

Feb. 22—Hon. Anson Burlingame, head of the Chinese embassy to the powers of Christendom, died at St. Petersburg, Russia.

Mar. 28—Gen. G. H. Thomas dies in San Francisco, Cal.

” 30—The Sec. of State proclaims the ratification of the 15th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution by three-fourths of the States.

June 15—Death of Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, at Baltimore, Md.

July 12—Death of Admiral Dahlgren, at Washington, D. C.

” 20—Death of M. Prevost Paradol, French Minister at Washington.

Aug. 14—Death of Admiral Farragut, at Portsmouth, N. H.

Sept. 7—Recognition of the French Republic by the U. S. government.

Oct. 12—Death of Gen. R. E. Lee, formerly of the Confederate army.

1871.

Great changes have been taking place in Europe. The Emperor, Napoleon III. taken prisoner by the Germans, his government was set aside by the people of France who founded a Republic.

Jan. 1—At this time the German army, under the lead of the King of Prussia (about this time made Emperor of Germany), is besieging Paris, the capital of France.

” 17—The San Domingo Commission sail from New York.

” 28—Paris capitulates to the Germans, which ends the Franco-Prussian war, terms of peace being soon arranged.

Feb. 12—Alice Carey, the authoress, died at New York.

” 16—An important Japanese mission to the U. S. and other governments arrives at San Francisco.

Mar. 1—The Germans make a triumphal entry into Paris.

” 20—British House of Commons votes $265,000 for the relief of Paris.

Apr. 20—A Bill against the Kuklux, a secret organization of Southern conspirators and murderers, passed in Congress.

May 1—The Legal Tender Act declared Constitutional by the U. S. Supreme Court.

” 31—The French government does not imitate our clemency to prisoners taken in rebellion. The soldiers of the Commune are slaughtered by thousands, by order of the Court Martial of the government army.

June 18—An earthquake on Long and Staten Islands, N. Y.

” 20—The first Atlantic Cable of 1865, which soon broke and became useless, is recovered and worked.

July 5—Earthquake at Visalia, Cal.

” 12—Irish Catholic riot in New York; 51 killed, 30 wounded.

” 30—Steamer Westfield explodes, killing near 100 people.

Sept. 17—The Mont Cenis Tunnel, opening a passage for a railroad 7⅗ths miles long through the Alps from France to Italy, inaugurated. It had been many years building.

Oct. 2—Brigham Young, the head of the Mormons in Utah, arrested for bigamy.

” 8—A fire nearly consumes Chicago, destroying-property worth $200,000,000 and many lives. Fires rage in the forests of Wisconsin and Michigan. Much property, some towns, and many persons are burned.

” 17—South Carolina placed under martial law.

$2,050,000 received in aid of the people of Chicago.

Nov. 15—Cholera appears on vessels at New York.

” 18—The Grand Duke Alexis, of Russia, arrives at New York. He travels through the country for some months.

Dec. 9—Commissioners of the English and U. S. governments meet in Washington to settle the difficulties between the two governments arising from the spoliations of the Alabama.

” 16—Catacazy, the Russian Minister, called home at the request of our government.

” 29—Investigation of abuses in the New York city government commences. W. M. Tweed surrenders to the sheriff.

1872.

Jan. 2—Brigham Young arrested on a charge of murder.

Mar. 7—Trial and conviction of Kuklux prisoners in Ala.; 3 sentenced to imprisonment for 20 years.

Apr. 1—The colored people celebrate the adoption of 15th Amendment.

May 3—Horace Greeley nominated for President by a convention at Cincinnati, O.

” 22—The General Amnesty Bill signed by the President.

” 30—Graves of the Union soldiers decorated throughout the country.

June 6—Grant and Wilson nominated for President and Vice-President.

” 26—Trial of Stokes for the murder of Fisk begun. After several trials he was condemned to imprisonment for murder.

July 24—Spotted-Tail and other western Indians visit Washington.

Aug. 16—Yellow Fever appears at New York.

Sept. 2—Father Hyacinthe, a liberal French Catholic priest, marries an American lady.

” 14—The arbitrators of the Alabama Claims, to whom the case had been submitted, and who had been two months sitting at Geneva, Switzerland, announced their award. The United States was to receive $15,500,000 in gold.

Oct. 14—Wm. H. Seward, one of our most distinguished statesmen, is this day buried at Auburn, N. Y.

” 25—About this time the Horse disease commences, and spreads rapidly over the whole country.

Nov. 5—In the presidential election on this day President Grant is re-elected.

” 9—A great fire in Boston, Mass. Loss $75,000,000 in buildings and merchandise. Insurance $50,000,000.

In this month and December following storms of extreme severity caused great loss of life and property. An overflow of the river Po, in Italy, rendered 40,000 persons homeless. In the Baltic Sea 80 vessels were wrecked, some islands were inundated, and all their inhabitants drowned. It was not less severe on the coasts of England and Ireland.

” 29—Horace Greeley, recent candidate for President of the U. S., died, aged 62 years.

Dec. 11—The King of the Sandwich Islands, Kamehameha V., died, leaving no heir.

” 12—The actor, Edwin Forrest, dies, at Philadelphia.

” 17—Edward A. Pollard, editor and author, died.

Important investigations of abuses in New York city and in the conduct of the Pacific Railway are made this winter, and many healthy reforms inaugurated. The order of Patrons of Husbandry becomes popular among agriculturists, and spreads rapidly, through the coming year.

1873.

Jan. 7, 8, 9—A dreadful snow storm occurs in Minnesota, by which 70 lives are lost.

” 9—The ex-Emperor Napoleon III. dies at Chiselhurst, in England, aged 64 years.

” 31—At Chicago, Ill., Joel A. Matteson, ex-governor of Illinois, died.

Feb. 1—M. F. Maury, formerly distinguished in the U. S. Naval service, dies at Lexington, Va.

” 9—J. W. Geary, ex-Governor of Penn., died at Harrisburg.

” 15—Steamer Henry A. Jones burned in Galveston Bay, Texas. 21 lives lost.

Mar. 3—Congress enacted a law increasing their pay, that of the President, and various officers of the government. It extended over the whole previous term of the 42d Congress, commencing March 4th, 1871. This law was very offensive to the mass of the people.

” 4—The wreck of the Alaska mail steamer, Geo. S. Wright, is reported at Portland, Oregon. All on board, 23 persons, perished.

” 16—The Boston steamer, Grace Irving, foundered. 8 lives lost.

” 17—Great fire at Lawrenceburg, Ky.

” 19—San Salvador, Central America, destroyed by an earthquake. Property destroyed estimated at from $12,000,000 to $20,000,000; and 500 lives lost.

Apr. 1—Steamer Atlantic wrecked near Halifax, N. S. 535 lives lost.

May 5—James Orr, American Minister to Russia, died, at St. Petersburg, aged 51.

” 4—An iron bridge at Dixon, Ill., crowded with people witnessing a baptism, fell, killing and drowning 100 persons.

” 7—Salmon P. Chase, Chief Justice of the U. S., died in New York, aged 65.

” 8—Hon. Oakes Ames, M. C., died at North Easton, Mass., aged 69.

John Stuart Mill, a celebrated English philosopher and author, died at Avignon, France.

” 30—A second great fire in Boston, Mass.

June 28—Hon. Horace F. Clark, prominent in railway enterprises, died in New York.

” 27—Hiram Powers, the distinguished American sculptor, died in Florence, Italy.

” 29—Jesse R. Grant, father of the President, died.

July 4—Severe storm, very destructive to crops in Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin and Missouri. 20 persons drowned in Green Lake, Wisconsin.

Aug. 2—Great fire at Portland, Oregon. Loss $1,500,000.

” 24—A storm of unprecedented severity raged on the coast of British America, and, at the same time, on the coast of Mexico. More than 100 vessels were destroyed in and near the gulf of St. Lawrence. Some populous islands were quite laid waste. 176 sailing vessels and 12 steamers were lost in the Gulf of Mexico.

Sept. 15—The propeller Ironsides foundered in Lake Michigan. 31 lives lost.

The Patrons of Husbandry organize about this time at the rate of near 1,000 granges a month.

In this month commenced a most serious financial panic at New York, that spread over the whole country.

Oct. 26—J. C. Heenan, the prize fighter, died on the Union Pacific R. R.

Nov. 6—Gen. Sickles, U. S. Minister to Spain, telegraphs to Washington the capture of the Virginius by the Cubans.

” 8—Stephen R. Mallory, former Sec. of the Confederate Navy, died, aged 63.

” 19—John P. Hale, of N. H., a statesman of some celebrity, died.

” 22—The steamship Ville du Havre run into and sunk by the Loch Earn in mid ocean. 226 lives lost.

” 27—Richard Yates, ex-U. S. Senator and ex-Governor of Illinois, died at St. Louis, aged 55.

Dec. 1—The 43rd Congress assembles for its first session.

” 14—Louis Agassiz, a distinguished naturalist and man of science, died at Cambridge, Mass.

1874.

Jan.—The U. S. government narrowly escaped a war with Spain on account of the taking of the Virginius by Cuban authorities. That vessel was sailing under the American flag which was violated by its capture. 54 men were shot as pirates, some of them American citizens. The Spanish government disavowed the act, and gave up the vessel, Dec. 16th, 1873. It was so much damaged as to sink while on the way to the United States.

” 2—A Revolution in Spain overthrows the government of Señor Castelar.

” 5—The President sends a message to Congress concerning the Spanish difficulty, now substantially settled.

” 8—U. S. Senate repeals the bill of March 3rd, 1873, increasing the pay of members of Congress.

” 9—Hon. Caleb Cushing nominated Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court.

” 14—Nomination of Caleb Cushing recalled.

” 17—Death of the Siamese twins.

” 19—Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio, was nominated by the President as Chief Justice and confirmed afterward by the Senate.

” 27—Reliable intelligence of the death of David Livingstone, the African explorer, reaches England.

Feb. 4—The seventh annual meeting of the National Grange of the Patrons of Husbandry occurs in St. Louis, Mo. 8,000 subordinate granges have been added during the year. The Executive Committee state that farmers had saved $8,000,000 during the year by their co-operative system.

Mar. 8—Ex-President Fillmore died, in Buffalo, N. Y.

” 11—Death of Hon. Charles Sumner, a distinguished statesman and Senator from Mass., in Washington. He was born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 6th, 1811, and was 63 years old. He was of a patriotic race which originated in the county of Kent, England. His grandfather was a Major distinguished for valor in the Revolutionary army. Charles Sumner graduated from Harvard College in 1830, was admitted to the bar in 1834, and became highly distinguished as a lawyer. He succeeded Daniel Webster in the U. S. Senate in 1851, in which he remained till his death, being always conspicuous as one of the foremost leaders in public affairs.

” 24—A bill increasing the currency to $400,000,000 passed in the U. S. House of Representatives by 168 to 77.

Apr. 1—The U. S. debt officially stated to be $2,152,690,728.62. Decrease of debt during March, 1874, $2,189,338.46.

” 14—The Senate bill increasing the currency passes the House of Representatives. Many protests from different parts of the country are presented against it as injurious to the credit and interests of the country. The discussion of this measure has occupied much of the time of Congress for some months.

” 18—The funeral of Livingstone, the lamented African explorer, takes place in London, England, where his remains had arrived. He was interred in Westminster Abbey, as a mark of distinguished honor.

” 17—Gov. Wm. B. Washburn is elected by the Mass. Legislature to represent the State in the U. S. Senate, made vacant by the death of Charles Sumner.

” 22—President Grant vetoes the Currency Bill increasing the issues of paper money, which defeats the measure, its friends in Congress not being numerous enough to pass it over the veto.

” 24—The Congressional committee on Transportation, after long and careful investigation, advised government oversight of Railroads, but against government ownership.

” 28—Congress voted $90,000 in aid of sufferers by the inundation of the lower Mississippi.

May 7—$100,000 were added to the above sum for the same purpose.

” 19—The system of payments to informers in customs revenue cases, repealed. That system appeared to have been very grossly abused.

” ”—The conflict in Arkansas ended in the retreat of Brooks and the reinstatement of Gov. Baxter.

” ”—The New York Legislature passed a Compulsory Education Bill, which became a law in that state.

June 1—Mr. Richardson, Secretary of the Treasury, resigned. Gen. Benj. H. Bristow of Ky., was appointed to succeed him.

” ”—The number of subordinate Granges of the Patrons of Husbandry is 19,492. The number of Patrons who are voters is estimated at 1,000,000.

” 23—Congress adjourned. The sums appropriated at this session for carrying on the government amounted to $189,784,346.25. The largest item was for the Post Office Department—over $41,000,000.

” 24—Postmaster-General, John A. J. Creswell resigned, and Hon. Marshall Jewell was appointed in his place.

” 25—Telegraphic communication between the United States and Brazil introduced by congratulatory messages between the Emperor of Brazil and the President of the U. S.

July 8—Message of Gov. Davis of Minnesota to the Sec. of War, announcing the entire destruction of crops in many counties of that state by grasshoppers.

” 14—Another great fire in Chicago. Loss over $4,000,000.

Gen Custer, commanding an exploring expedition in the Black Hills of Dacotah, reported discoveries of rich gold mines there.

” 27—An International Congress for mitigating the sufferings of war by means of an International Code of Laws, convened at Brussels, in Belgium.

Aug. 19—A riot between whites and blacks in Kentucky, resulted in several murders of blacks. The Gov. called out the militia to restore order.

Sept. 2—400 Mormons sail from England for this country en route to Utah.

” 5—Gen. Sherman orders Military head quarters of the U. S. Army removed from Washington to St. Louis, Mo.

” 5—The one hundredth anniversary of the first meeting of the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, celebrated.

” 7—Great fire at Meiningen, Germany. Loss in buildings alone, $3,000,000.

” 13—Guizot, a celebrated French author and statesman, died, aged 87.

” 14—The white League, a secret organization opposed to the enfranchisement of the colored people, produced a conflict in New Orleans. 17 were killed and 32 wounded in a street fight, and the State government completely overthrown.

” 16—President Grant interfered by proclamation and the government

” 18—was surrendered to the regular authorities, under protest.

Oct. 13—Elections held in 6 states returned 12 democratic Congressmen more than the previous number.

Nov. 3—Elections in 23 states give a strong democratic gain, indicating a reaction against the government. A sense of the necessity of reform in various ways, and of greater purity and integrity of administration was wide spread. It had caused, in part, the rapid growth of the Patrons of Husbandry, and was again expressed by political reaction. It was a significant rebuke to those in power. A typhoon, or hurricane at Hong Kong, China, Sept. 22-23, destroyed 30,000 lives and $50,000,000 of property.

Europe is making great political improvements. In France, during the last three years, out of 184 elections to fill vacancies in the National Assembly, 152 have been republican—only 32 monarchists, and in Russia the government has decided to enforce compulsory education.

Dec. 1—The number of Granges in the United States is 21,472.

” 7—The last session of the forty-third Congress commenced. The President’s Message strongly recommends early resumption of specie payments.

” 12—Kalakaua, King of the Sandwich Islands, reached Washington on a visit. He was received by the President on the 15th and by Congress on the 18th.

” 21—Disturbances at Vicksburg, Miss., called out a proclamation from the President.

” 28—Gerrit Smith, a distinguished abolitionist and philanthropist, died in New York, aged 78.

1875.

Jan. 1—Monarchy was restored in Spain. Alphonso XII, son of the ex-queen Isabella, was proclaimed King, and received the support of the army and navy. It was only a few months before that most of the European governments recognized the Spanish Republic.

” 4—Gen. Sheridan took command of the Department of the Gulf, at New Orleans. On that day the Legislature of Louisiana was organized, and United States troops, acting under the orders of the speaker and of Gov. Kellogg, ejected several members who, it was alleged, were not entitled to seats. It produced much excitement throughout the country, the opposition denouncing it as an unexampled interference of the Federal Executive with State government. Congress sustained the action of the President, but exerted its influence to quiet the excitement in Louisiana, and a compromise was effected under which it gradually ebbed away.

” 12—Toung-tchi, Emperor of China, died, aged 19 years.

The emigrants arriving at the port of New York during the year 1874, numbered 149,762; a decided falling off, the arrivals having for some years, amounted to 250,000. The governments of Germany are endeavoring to remove the causes of emigration which threatens to affect their resources seriously.

Feb. 3—A proposed reciprocity treaty with Canada, was rejected by the Senate.

” 5—The civil rights Bill, adopted by the Senate during the last session, was amended by an omission relating to schools and adopted by the House. It was accepted by the Senate Feb. 27th, and signed by the President, March 1st.

” 25—A Republic was definitely recognized in France.

Mar. 2—A Bill increasing the Tariff was passed by the Senate.

Gen. Lorenzo Thomas of the U. S. army died, aged 71.

” 3—A law admitting Colorado as a state was passed.

” 4—A law, passed in haste in the last hours of the session, restored the Franking Privilege to members of Congress until Dec. 1, and increased the postage on newspapers and packages for the people. The forty-third Congress came to a close.

” 5—The Senate convened in extra session in accordance with a call previously made by the President. G. S. Orth was confirmed U. S. Minister to Austria, and Horace Maynard U. S. Minister to Turkey.

” 10—A new treaty with Belgium was ratified.

” 18—The Senate ratified the treaty with Hawaii, which renders the interests of the Sandwich Islands substantially identical with those of the United States.

” 20—A destructive tornado in Georgia caused great loss of life and property.

” 24—The Senate, after officially approving the action of the President in Louisiana, closed its special session.

F. E. Spinner, United States Treasurer, resigned, and John C. New, of Ind. was appointed his successor.

Apr. 19—The centennial anniversary of the battle of Lexington was celebrated with great interest. This battle was the first decisive step in the War of Independence. Its scenes and their consequences were dwelt on by some of the most distinguished literary Americans, and honored by the presence of the President of the United States and many of its most eminent authorities.

” 23—Three Steamers burned at New Orleans, in which fifty lives were lost.

” 28—A fire at Oshkosh, Wis., destroyed a square mile of the city. Loss in property over $2,000,000.

May 7—A Bill for suppressing religious orders introduced into the German Parliament. It subsequently became a law.

The Steamship Schiller was wrecked on the coast of Great Britain. Three hundred and eleven lives were lost.

” 10—Centennial anniversary of the capture of Fort Ticonderoga by Ethan Allen.

” 15—Attorney General Williams resigned and Judge Edwards Pierrepont was appointed his successor.

” 17—John C. Breckenridge, formerly Vice President of the United States, and a general in the Confederate army during the Civil War, died, aged 54.

” 18—A fearful earthquake in New Granada, South America. The city of Cucuta was completely destroyed; between two and three thousand lives were lost and more than $8,000,000 of property destroyed.

” 20—Celebration of the Mecklenburg, N. C., Declaration of Independence, with great enthusiasm.

” 30—The Steamer Vicksburg, on a voyage from Canada to England, was wrecked in a field of ice. 80 lives were lost.

June 17—Centennial anniversary of the battle of Bunker Hill was celebrated with great eclat. Its most interesting feature was the fraternal spirit manifested by the North and South toward each other. Several Southern States were represented by bodies of soldiers.

” 30—Business failures since Jan. 1, of this year reported at 3,377, with liabilities amounting in all to $74,940,869.

July 8—Gen. Frank P. Blair, Jun., died in St. Louis, aged 54.

” 18—Lady Franklin, widow of Sir John Franklin, the unfortunate Arctic Explorer, died in England, aged 70.

Great loss of life and property has been caused in France by floods. In two cities alone the damage is estimated at $20,000,000, and in the south of France at $75,000,000. Other parts of Europe have suffered heavily from the same cause.

” 23—Isaac Merrit Singer, inventor of the Sewing Machine of that name, died in London, England, aged 64.

The most prominent political issue of the time is hard money and currency. A Democratic convention in Md., and a Republican convention in Minn., each, yesterday and to-day, adopted a hard money platform. Ohio and Pa. democratic conventions afterwards declared for paper money.

” 31—Ex-President Andrew Johnson died in Tenn., aged 67. He was recently elected U. S. Senator from Tennessee.

Aug.—The Gov. of Tenn. appointed Hon. D. M. Key, to fill the vacancy in the Senate caused by Andrew Johnson’s death.

” 4—Republican government in France was strengthened by the passage of a Bill constituting a Senate.

The census of population in Louisiana, gives 850,390, an increase of over 15 per cent. since 1870. The excess of increase of colored over white population has been 45,668.

The census in Wisconsin gives a population of 1,236,090, being an increase of 17⅓ per cent. since 1870.

” 26—The Bank of California suspended payment. It has long been the leading bank in the Pacific States.

” 27—W. C. Ralston, president of the Bank of California, was drowned while bathing.

Sept. 1—Violent disturbances in Mississippi between whites and blacks result in many deaths.

” 7—The Governor of Miss. called on the President for federal aid to protect citizens and restore order.

CHAPTER XXX.
PARLIAMENTARY RULES.

We give in this chapter the Standing Rules and Orders for conducting business in the House of Representatives of the United States, as a proper compend of parliamentary rules for the people of the United States. They are naturally a standard of procedure in all public bodies in this country so far as the circumstances are parallel; they have been carefully compiled and adopted by our highest popular Legislative Body during the course of more than three-quarters of a century, and may therefore be considered thoroughly well adapted to the genius of our people and the character of our institutions; and they were originally based on Jefferson’s Manual, compiled by him for the use, and at the request of the Senate when, as Vice-President of the United States, he became its presiding officer, and was digested by him from the usages of the English Parliament and other Legislative bodies in Europe.

The value of this manual is attested by its use continued to the present day, so far as it is applicable. The Rules of the House are therefore representative of the wisdom of the Old World on this point as well as of the usages of the New.

They deserve to be carefully studied by American citizens above any other body of parliamentary rules for several reasons besides those mentioned above. Hardly any other will be likely to contain so many points of adaptation to popular use; every one should be fairly acquainted with the prevailing usages that he may be ready to act his part well if called on to preside in any public meeting; all who read the reports of congressional doings require such acquaintance with parliamentary usage to fully appreciate many points in such reports, and these Rules are a fine illustration of the spirit of our government and the genius of the American people.

We see, in the most impressive manner, that the utmost pain is taken to make Legislative work orderly, decorous, and as rapid as is consistent with due care that what is done shall be well and carefully done; that no pains are spared, in regulations, that every legislator shall have the means of knowing all that is his special business to know; and we discover that proper care is taken to see that economy and faithfulness are constantly observed by all the officers of the government. If this is not always actually the case there is, at least, no fault in the arrangements, rules and orders to that effect. All the people should know to what they may properly hold their Representatives accountable, and they will be prepared to judge of the extent of obedience or transgression. The Rules are just and good. Let the people see that they are properly observed.

The House of Representatives has 160 Rules, the Senate 52, and the Joint Rules of the House and Senate, regulating their intercourse with each other, number 22. Whatever of difference exists between them is unimportant after due allowance is made for the different character and constitution of the two bodies. The principles on which they are founded are identical.

STANDING RULES AND ORDERS FOR CONDUCTING BUSINESS IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED STATES.

THE DUTY OF THE SPEAKER.

1. He shall take the chair every day precisely at the hour to which the House shall have adjourned on the preceding day; shall immediately call the members to order; and, on the appearance of a quorum, shall cause the journal of the preceding day to be read.

2. He shall preserve order and decorum; may speak to points of order in preference to other members, rising from his seat for that purpose; and shall decide questions of order, subject to an appeal to the House by any two members—on which appeal no member shall speak more than once, unless by leave of the House.

3. He shall rise to put a question, but may state it sitting.

4. Questions shall be distinctly put in this form, to wit: “As many as are of opinion that (as the question may be) say Aye;” and after the affirmative voice is expressed, “As many as are of the contrary opinion say No.” If the Speaker doubt, or a division be called for, the House shall divide; those in the affirmative of the question shall first rise from their seats, and afterwards those in the negative. If the Speaker still doubt, or a count be required by at least one-fifth of the quorum of the members, the Speaker shall name two members, one from each side, to tell the members in the affirmative and negative—which being reported, he shall rise and state the decision to the House.

5. The Speaker shall examine and correct the journal before it is read. He shall have a general direction of the hall, and the unappropriated rooms in that part of the capitol assigned to the House shall be subject to his order and disposal until the further order of the House. He shall have a right to name any member to perform the duties of the chair, but such substitution shall not extend beyond an adjournment.

6. No person shall be permitted to perform divine service in the chamber occupied by the House of Representatives, unless with the consent of the Speaker.

7. In all cases of ballot by the House, the Speaker shall vote; in other cases he shall not be required to vote, unless the House be equally divided, or unless his vote, if given to the minority, will make the division equal; and in case of such equal division, the question shall be lost.

8. All acts, addresses, and joint resolutions, shall be signed by the Speaker; and all writs, warrants, and subpœnas, issued by order of the House, shall be under his hand and seal, attested by the clerk.

9. In case of any disturbance or disorderly conduct in the galleries or lobby, the Speaker (or Chairman of the Committee of the Whole House,) shall have power to order the same to be cleared.

OF THE CLERK AND OTHER OFFICERS.

10. There shall be elected at the commencement of each Congress, to continue in office until their successors are appointed, a clerk, sergeant-at-arms, doorkeeper, and postmaster, each of whom shall take an oath for the true and faithful discharge of the duties of his office, to the best of his knowledge and abilities, and to keep the secrets of the House; and the appointees of the doorkeeper and postmaster shall be subject to the approval of the Speaker; and, in all cases of election by the House of its officers, the vote shall be taken viva voce.

11. In all cases where other than members of the House may be eligible to an office by the election of the House, there shall be a previous nomination.

12. In all other cases of ballot than for committees, a majority of the votes given shall be necessary to an election; and where there shall not be such a majority on the first ballot, the ballots shall be repeated until a majority be obtained. And in all ballotings blanks shall be rejected, and not taken into the count in enumeration of the votes, or reported by the tellers.

13. It shall be the duty of the clerk to make and cause to be printed and delivered to each member at the commencement of every session of Congress, a list of the reports which it is the duty of any officer or department of the government to make to Congress; referring to the act or resolution and page of the volume of the laws or journal in which it may be contained, and placing under the name of each officer the list of reports required to be made, and the time when the report may be expected.

14. It shall be the duty of the clerk of the House at the end of each session, to send a printed copy of the journals thereof to the Executive, and to each branch of the Legislature of every State.

15. All questions of order shall be noted by the clerk, with the decision, and put together at the end of the journal of every session.

16. The clerk shall, within thirty days after the close of each session of Congress, cause to be completed the printing and primary distribution to members and delegates, of the Journal of the House, together with an accurate index of the same.

17. There shall be retained in the library of the clerk’s office, for the use of the members there, and not to be withdrawn therefrom, two copies of all the books and printed documents deposited in the library.

18. The clerk shall have preserved for each member of the House an extra copy, in good binding, of all the documents printed by order of either House at each future session of Congress.

19. The clerk shall make a weekly statement of the resolutions and bills (Senate bills inclusive) upon the Speaker’s table accompanied with a brief reference to the orders and proceedings of the House upon each, and the date of such order and proceedings; which statement shall be printed for the use of the members.

20. The clerk shall cause an index to be prepared to the acts passed at every session of Congress, and to be printed and bound with the acts.

21. All contracts, bargains, or agreements, relative to the furnishing any matter or thing or for the performance of any labor for the House of Representatives, shall be made with the clerk, or approved by him, before any allowances shall be made therefor by the Committee of Accounts.

22. It shall be the duty of the sergeant-at-arms to attend the House during its sittings; to aid in the enforcement of order under the direction of the Speaker; to execute the commands of the House from time to time; together with all such process, issued by authority thereof, as shall be directed to him by the Speaker.

23. The symbol of his office (the mace) shall be borne by the sergeant-at-arms when in the execution of his office.

24. The fees of the sergeant-at-arms shall be for every arrest, the sum of two dollars; for each day’s custody and releasement, one dollar; and for traveling expenses for himself or a special messenger, going and returning, one-tenth of a dollar for each mile necessarily and actually traveled by such officer or other person in the execution of such precept or summons.

25. It shall be the duty of the sergeant-at-arms to keep the accounts for the pay and mileage of members, to prepare checks, and, if required to do so, to draw the money on such checks for the members, (the same being previously signed by the Speaker, and endorsed by the member,) and pay over the same to the member entitled thereto.

26. The sergeant-at-arms shall give bond, with surety, to the United States, in a sum not less than five nor more than ten thousand dollars, at the discretion of the Speaker, and with such surety as the Speaker may approve, faithfully to account for the money coming into his hands for the pay of members.

27. The doorkeeper shall execute strictly the 134th and 135th rules, relative to the privilege of the hall. And he shall be required, at the commencement and close of each session of Congress, to take an inventory of all the furniture, books, and other public property in the several committee and other rooms under his charge, and shall report the same to the House; which report shall be referred to the Committee on Accounts, who shall determine the amount for which he shall be held liable for missing articles.

28. The postmaster shall superintend the post-office kept in the capitol for the accommodation of the members.

OF THE MEMBERS.

29. No member shall vote on any question in the event of which he is immediately and particularly interested, or in any case where he was not within the bar of the House when the question was put. And when any member shall ask leave to vote, the Speaker shall propound to him the question, “Were you within the bar before the last name on the roll was called?” and if he shall answer in the negative the Speaker shall not further entertain the request of such member to vote: Provided, however, that any member who was absent by leave of the House, may vote at any time before the result is announced.

30. Upon a division and count of the house on any question, no member without the bar shall be counted.

31. Every member who shall be in the house when the question is put, shall give his vote unless the House shall excuse him. All motions to excuse a member from voting, shall be made before the house divides, or before the call of the yeas and nays is commenced; and the question shall then be taken without debate.

32. The name of a member who presents a petition or memorial, or who offers a resolution for the consideration of the House, shall be inserted on the journals.

33. No member shall absent himself from the service of the House unless he have leave, or be sick and unable to attend.

OF CALLS OF THE HOUSE.

34. Any fifteen members (including the Speaker, if there be one), shall be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members.

35. Upon calls of the House, or in taking the yeas and nays on any question, the names of the members shall be called alphabetically.

36. Upon the call of the House, the names of the members shall be called over by the clerk, and the absentees noted; after which the names of the absentees shall again be called over; the doors shall then be shut, and those for whom no excuse or insufficient excuses are made may, by order of those present, if fifteen in number, be taken into custody as they appear, or may be sent for and taken into custody, wherever to be found, by special messengers to be appointed for that purpose.

37. When a member shall be discharged from custody, and admitted to his seat, the House shall determine whether such discharge shall be with or without paying fees; and in like manner whether a delinquent member, taken into custody by a special messenger, shall or shall not be liable to defray the expenses of such special messenger.

ON MOTIONS, THEIR PRECEDENCE, ETC.

38. When a motion is made and seconded, it shall be stated by the Speaker; or, being in writing, it shall be handed to the chair and read aloud by the clerk, before debated.

39. Every motion shall be reduced to writing if the Speaker or any member desire it. Every written motion made to the House shall be inserted on the journals, with the name of the member making it, unless it be withdrawn on the same day on which it was submitted.

40. After a motion is stated by the Speaker, or read by the clerk, it shall be deemed to be in the possession of the House, but may be withdrawn at any time before a decision or amendment.

41. When any motion or proposition is made, the question, “Will the House now consider it?” shall not be put unless it is demanded by some member, or is deemed necessary by the Speaker.

42. When a question is under debate, no motion shall be received but to adjourn, to lie on the table, for the previous question, to postpone to a certain day, to commit or amend, to postpone indefinitely; which several motions shall have precedence in the order in which they are arranged; and no motion to postpone to a certain day, to commit, or postpone indefinitely, being decided, shall be again allowed on the same day, and at the same stage of the bill or proposition.

43. When a resolution shall be offered, or a motion made, to refer any subject, and different committees shall be proposed, the question shall be taken in the following order:

The Committee of the Whole House on the state of the Union; the Committee of the Whole House; a Standing Committee; a Select Committee.

44. A motion to adjourn, and a motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn, shall be always in order; these motions and the motion to lie on the table, shall be decided without debate.

45. The hour at which every motion to adjourn is made shall be entered on the journal.

46. Any member may call for the division of a question before or after the main question is ordered, which shall be divided if it comprehend propositions in substance so distinct that, one being taken away, a substantive proposition shall remain for the decision of the House. A motion to strike out and insert shall be deemed indivisible; but a motion to strike out being lost, shall preclude neither amendment nor a motion to strike out and insert.

47. Motions and reports may be committed at the pleasure of the House.

48. No motion or proposition on a subject different from that under consideration shall be admitted under color of amendment. No bill or resolution shall, at any time, be amended by annexing thereto, or incorporating therewith, any other bill or resolution pending before the House.

49. When a motion has been once made, and carried in the affirmative or negative, it shall be in order for any member of the majority to move for the reconsideration thereof, on the same or succeeding day; and such motion shall take precedence of all other questions, except a motion to adjourn, and shall not be withdrawn after the said succeeding day without the consent of the House; and thereafter any member may call it up for consideration.

50. In filling up blanks, the largest sum and longest time shall be first put.

ORDER OF BUSINESS OF THE DAY.

51. As soon as the journal is read, and the unfinished business in which the House was engaged at the last preceding adjournment has been disposed of, reports from committees shall be called for and disposed of; in doing which the Speaker shall call upon each standing committee in regular order, and then upon select committees; and if the Speaker shall not get through the call upon the committees before the House passes to other business, he shall resume the next call where he left off, giving preference to the report last under consideration: Provided, That whenever any committee shall have occupied the morning hour on two days, it shall not be in order for such committee to report further until the other committees shall have been called in their turn. On the call for reports from committees on each alternate Monday, which shall commence as soon as the journal is read, all bills reported during the first hour after the journal is read shall be committed, without debate, to the Committee of the Whole, and together with their accompanying reports, printed; and if during the hour all the committees are not called, then, on the next alternate Monday, the Speaker shall commence where such call was suspended: Provided, That no bill reported under the call on alternate Mondays, and committed, shall be again brought before the House by a motion to reconsider.

52. Reports from committees having been presented and disposed of, the Speaker shall call for resolutions from the members of each State and delegate from each Territory, beginning with Maine and the Territory last organized, alternately; and they shall not be debated on the very day of their being presented, nor on any day assigned by the House for the receipt of resolutions, unless where the House shall direct otherwise, but shall lie on the table, to be taken up in the order in which they are presented; and if on any day the whole of the States and Territories shall not be called, the Speaker shall begin on the next day where he left off the previous day: Provided, That no member shall offer more than one resolution, or one series of resolutions, all relating to the same subject, until all the States and Territories shall have been called.

53. A proposition requesting information from the President of the United States, or directing it to be furnished by the head of either of the Executive departments, or by the Postmaster General—shall lie on the table one day for consideration, unless otherwise ordered by the unanimous consent of the House, and all such propositions shall be taken up for consideration in the order they were presented, immediately after reports are called for from select committees, and when adopted the clerk shall cause the same to be delivered.

54. After one hour shall have been devoted to reports from committees and resolutions, it shall be in order, pending the consideration or discussion thereof, to entertain a motion that the House do now proceed to dispose of the business on the Speaker’s table, and to the orders of the day—which being decided in the affirmative, the Speaker shall dispose of the business on his table in the following order, viz.:

1st. Messages and other Executive communications.

2d. Messages from the Senate, and amendments proposed by the Senate to bills of the House.

3d. Bills and resolutions from the Senate on their first and second reading, that they be referred to committees and put under way; but if, on being read a second time, no motion being made to commit, they are to be ordered to their third reading unless objection be made; in which case, if not otherwise ordered by a majority of the House, they are to be laid on the table in general file of bills on the Speaker’s table, to be taken up in their turn.

4th. Engrossed bills and bills from the Senate on their third reading.

5th. Bills of the House and from the Senate on the Speaker’s table, on their engrossment, or on being ordered to a third reading, to be taken up and considered in the order of time in which they passed to a second reading.

The messages, communications and bills on his table having been disposed of, the Speaker shall then proceed to call the orders of the day.

55. The business specified in the 54th and 130th rules shall be done at no other part of the day, except by permission of the House.

56. The consideration of the unfinished business in which the House may be engaged at an adjournment shall be resumed as soon as the journal of the next day is read, and at the same time each day thereafter until disposed of; and if, from any cause, other business shall intervene, it shall be resumed as soon as such other business is disposed of. And the consideration of all other unfinished business shall be resumed whenever the class of business to which it belongs shall be in order under the rules.

OF DECORUM AND DEBATE.

57. When any member is about to speak in debate, or deliver any matter to the House, he shall rise from his seat and respectfully address himself to “Mr. Speaker”—and shall confine himself to the question under debate, and avoid personality.

58. Members may address the House or committee from the clerk’s desk, or from a place near the Speaker’s chair.

59. When two or more members happen to rise at once, the Speaker shall name the member who is first to speak.

60. No member shall occupy more than one hour in debate on any question in the House, or in committee; but a member reporting the measure under consideration from a committee may open and close the debate, provided that when debate is closed by order of the House, any member shall be allowed, in committee, five minutes to explain any amendment he may offer, after which any member who shall first obtain the floor shall be allowed to speak five minutes in opposition to it, and there shall be no further debate on the amendment; but the same privilege of debate shall be allowed in favor of and against any amendment that may be offered to the amendment; and neither the amendment nor an amendment to the amendment shall be withdrawn by the mover thereof, unless by the unanimous consent of the committee. Provided further, that the House may, by the vote of a majority of the members present, at any time after the five minutes’ debate has taken place upon proposed amendments to any section or paragraph of a bill, close all debate upon such section or paragraph, or at their election upon the pending amendments only.

61. If any member in speaking or otherwise, transgress the rules of the House, the Speaker shall, or any member may call him to order; in which case the member so called to order shall immediately sit down, unless permitted to explain; and the House shall, if appealed to, decide on the case, but without debate; if there be no appeal the decision of the chair shall be submitted to. If the decision be in favor of the member called to order, he shall be at liberty to proceed; if otherwise, he shall not be permitted to proceed, in case any member object, without leave of the House; and if the case require it, he shall be liable to the censure of the House.

62. If any member be called to order for words spoken in debate, the person calling him to order shall repeat the words excepted to, and they shall be taken down in writing at the clerk’s table; and no member shall be held to answer, or be subject to the censure of the House, for words spoken in debate, if any other member has spoken, or other business has intervened, after the words spoken, and before exception to them shall have been taken.

63. No member shall speak more than once to the same question without leave of the House, unless he be the mover, proposer or introducer of the matter pending; in which case he shall be permitted to speak in reply, but not until every member choosing to speak shall have spoken.

64. If a question depending be lost by adjournment of the House, and revived on the succeeding day, no member who shall have spoken on the preceding day shall be permitted again to speak without leave.

65. While the Speaker is putting any question, or addressing the House, none shall walk out of or across the House; nor in such case, or when a member is speaking, shall entertain private discourse; nor while a member is speaking, shall pass between him and the chair. Every member shall remain uncovered during the session of the House. No member or other person shall visit or remain by the clerk’s table while the ayes and noes are calling, or ballots are counting.

66. All questions relating to the priority of business to be acted on shall be decided without debate.

OF COMMITTEES.

67. All committees shall be appointed by the Speaker, unless otherwise specially directed by the House, in which case they shall be appointed by ballot; and if upon such ballot the number required shall not be elected by a majority of the votes given, the House shall proceed to a second ballot, in which a plurality of votes shall prevail; and in case a greater number than is required to compose or complete a committee shall have an equal number of votes, the House shall proceed to a further ballot or ballots.

68. The first named member of any committee shall be the chairman; and in his absence, or being excused by the House, the next named member, and so on, as often as the case shall happen, unless the committee, by a majority of their number, elect a chairman.

69. Any member may excuse himself from serving on any committee at the time of his appointment, if he is then a member of two other committees.

70. It shall be the duty of a committee to meet on the call of any two of its members, if the chairman be absent, or decline to appoint such meeting.

71. The several standing committees of the House shall have leave to report by bill or otherwise.

72. No committee shall sit during the sitting of the House without special leave.

73. No committee shall be permitted to employ a clerk at the public expense, without first obtaining leave of the House for that purpose.

74. Thirty-one standing committees shall be appointed at the commencement of each Congress, viz.:

TO CONSIST OF NINE MEMBERS EACH.

TO CONSIST OF FIVE MEMBERS EACH.

TO CONSIST OF SEVEN MEMBERS.

75. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Elections to examine and report upon the certificates of election, or other credentials, of the members returned to serve in this House, and to take into their consideration all such petitions and other matters touching elections and returns as shall or may be presented or come into question, and be referred to them by the House.

76. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Appropriations to take into consideration all Executive communications and such other propositions in regard to carrying on the several departments of the government as may be presented and referred to them by the House.

In preparing bills of appropriations for other objects, the Committee on Appropriations shall not include appropriations for carrying into effect treaties made by the United States; and where an appropriation bill shall be referred to them for their consideration, which contains appropriations for carrying a treaty into effect, and for other objects, they shall propose such amendments as shall prevent appropriations for carrying a treaty into effect being included in the same bill with appropriations for other objects.

77. It shall also be the duty of the Committee on Appropriations, within thirty days after their appointment, at every session of Congress, commencing on the first Monday of December, to report the general appropriation bills for legislative, executive, and judicial expenses; for sundry civil expenses; for consular and diplomatic expenses; for the army; for the navy; for the expenses of the Indian Department; for the payment of invalid and other pensions; for the support of the Military Academy; for fortifications; for the service of the Postoffice Department, and for mail transportation by ocean steamers; or, in failure thereof, the reasons of such failure. And said committee shall have leave to report said bills (for reference only) at any time.

78. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Claims to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching claims and demands on the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report their opinion thereupon, together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem expedient.

79. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Commerce to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching the commerce of the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may come into question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report, from time to time, their opinion thereon.

80. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Public Lands to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things respecting the lands of the United States as shall be presented, or shall or may come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem expedient.

81. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Post-Office and Post-Roads to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching the post-office and post-roads as shall be presented, or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

82. It shall be the duty of the Committee for the District of Columbia to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching the said District as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House; and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

83. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Judiciary to take into consideration such petitions and matters or things touching judicial proceedings as shall be presented or may come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

84. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things touching claims and demands originating in the Revolutionary war, or arising therefrom, as shall be presented, or shall or may come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereupon, together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem expedient.

85. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Public Expenditures to examine into the state of the several public departments, and particularly into laws making appropriations of money, and to report whether the moneys have been disbursed conformably with such laws; and also to report from time to time such provisions and arrangements as may be necessary to add to the economy of the departments, and the accountability of their officers.

86. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Private Land Claims to take into consideration all claims to land which may be referred to them, or shall or may come in question; and to report their opinion thereupon, together with such propositions for relief therein as to them shall seem expedient.

87. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Military Affairs to take into consideration all subjects relating to the military establishment and public defense which may be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereupon; and also to report, from time to time, such measures as may contribute to economy and accountability in the said establishment.

88. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Militia to take into consideration and report on all subjects connected with the organizing, arming and disciplining the militia of the United States.

89. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Naval Affairs to take into consideration all matters which concern the naval establishment, and which shall be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereupon; and also to report, from time to time, such measures as may contribute to economy and accountability in the said establishment.

90. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Foreign Affairs to take into consideration all matters which concern the relations of the United States with foreign nations, and which shall be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion on the same.

91. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Territories to examine into the legislative, civil and criminal proceedings of the Territories, and to devise and report to the House such means as in their opinion may be necessary to secure the rights and privileges of residents and non-residents.

92. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Revolutionary Pensions to take into consideration all such matters respecting pensions for services in the Revolutionary war, other than invalid pensions, as shall be referred to them by the House.

93. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Invalid Pensions to take into consideration all such matters respecting invalid pensions as shall be referred to them by the House.

94. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Roads and Canals to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things relating to roads and canals, and the improvement of the navigation of Rivers, as shall be presented or may come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report thereupon, together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

95. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Patents to consider all subjects relating to patents which may be referred them; and report their opinions thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as may seem to them expedient.

96. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds to consider all subjects relating to the public edifices and grounds within the city of Washington which may be referred to them; and report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relating thereto as may seem to them expedient.

97. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Revisal and Unfinished Business to examine and report what laws have expired, or are near expiring, and require to be revived or further continued; also to examine and report, from the journal of last session, all such matters as were then depending and undetermined.

98. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Accounts to superintend and control the expenditures of the contingent fund of the House of Representatives; also to audit and settle all accounts which may be charged thereon.

99. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Mileage to ascertain and report the distance to the sergeant-at-arms for which each member shall receive pay.

100. There shall be referred by the clerk to the members of the Committee on Printing on the part of the House, all drawings, maps, charts, or other papers which may at any time come before the House for engraving, lithographing, or publishing in any way; which committee shall report to the House whether the same ought, in their opinion, to be published; and if the House order the publication of the same, that said committee shall direct the size and manner of execution of all such maps, charts, drawings, or other papers, and contract by agreement, in writing, for all such engraving, lithographing, printing, drawing, and coloring, as may be ordered by the House; which agreement, in writing, shall be furnished by said committee to the Committee of Accounts, to govern said committee in all allowances for such works, and it shall be in order for said committee to report at all times.

101. It shall be in order for the Committee on Enrolled Bills and the Committee on Printing to report at any time.

102. Seven additional standing committees shall be appointed at the commencement of the first session in each Congress, whose duties shall continue until the first session of the ensuing Congress.

COMMITTEES, TO CONSIST OF FIVE MEMBERS EACH.

1. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Department of State;

2. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Treasury Department;

3. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Department of War;

4. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Department of the Navy;

5. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Post Office;

6. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Public Buildings; and

7. A committee on so much of the public accounts and expenditures as relates to the Interior Department.

103. It shall be the duty of the said committees to examine into the state of the accounts and expenditures respectively submitted to them, and to inquire and to report particularly—

Whether the expenditures of the respective departments are justified by law;

Whether the claims from time to time satisfied and discharged by the respective departments are supported by sufficient vouchers, establishing their justness both as to their character and amount.

Whether such claims have been discharged out of funds appropriated therefor, and whether all moneys have been disbursed in conformity with appropriation laws; and

Whether any, and what, provisions are necessary to be adopted, to provide more perfectly for the proper application of the public moneys, and to secure the government from demands unjust in their character or extravagant in their amount.

And it shall be, moreover, the duty of the said committees to report, from time to time, whether any, and what, retrenchment can be made in the expenditures of the several departments, without detriment to the public service; whether any, and what, abuses at any time exist in the failure to enforce the payment of moneys which may be due to the United States from public defaulters or others; and to report, from time to time, such provisions and arrangements as may be necessary to add to the economy of the several departments and the accountability of their officers.

It shall be the duty of the several committees on public expenditures to inquire whether any officers belonging to the branches or departments, respectively, concerning whose expenditures it is their duty to inquire, have become useless or unnecessary; and to report from time to time, on the expediency of modifying or abolishing the same; also to examine into the pay and emoluments of all officers under the laws of the United States; and to report from time to time such a reduction or increase thereof as a just economy and the public service may require.

OF COMMITTEES OF THE WHOLE.

104. The House may at any time, by a vote of a majority of the members present, suspend the rules and orders for the purpose of going into the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union; and also for providing for the discharge of the Committee of the Whole House, and the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union, from the further consideration of any bill referred to it, after acting without debate on all amendments pending and that may be offered.

105. In forming a Committee of the Whole House, the Speaker shall leave his chair, and a chairman to preside in committee shall be appointed by the Speaker.

106. Whenever the Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union, or the Committee of the Whole House, finds itself without a quorum, the chairman shall cause the roll of the House to be called, and thereupon the committee shall rise, and the chairman shall report the names of the absentees to the House, which shall be entered on the journal.

107. Upon bills committed to a Committee of the Whole House, the bill shall be first read throughout by the clerk, and then again read and debated by clauses, leaving the preamble to be last considered; the body of the bill shall not be defaced or interlined; but all amendments, noting the page and line, shall be duly entered by the clerk on a separate paper, as the same shall be agreed to by the committee, and so reported to the House. After report, the bill shall again be subject to be debated and amended by clauses, before a question to engross it be taken.

108. All amendments made to an original motion in committee shall be incorporated with the motion, and so reported.

109. All amendments made to a report committed to a Committee of the Whole House shall be noted and reported, as in the case of bills.

110. No motion or proposition for a tax or charge upon the people shall be discussed the day on which it is made or offered, and every such proposition shall receive its first discussion in a Committee of the Whole House.

111. No sum or quantum of tax or duty, voted by a Committee of the Whole House, shall be increased in the House until the motion or proposition for such increase shall be first discussed and voted in a Committee of the Whole House; and so in respect to the time of its continuance.

112. All proceedings touching appropriations of money shall be first discussed in a Committee of the Whole House.

113. The rules of proceedings in the House shall be observed in a Committee of the Whole House, so far as they may be applicable, except the rule limiting the times of speaking; but no member shall speak twice to any question until every member choosing to speak shall have spoken.

114. In Committee of the Whole on the State of the Union, the bills shall be taken up and disposed of in their order on the calendar; but when objection is made to the consideration of a bill, a majority of the committee shall decide, without debate, whether it shall be taken up and disposed of, or laid aside; provided, that general appropriation bills, and, in time of war, bills for raising men or money, and bills concerning a treaty of peace, shall be preferred to all other bills at the discretion of the committee; and when demanded by any member, the question shall first be put in regard to them; and all debate on special orders shall be confined strictly to the measure under consideration.

OF BILLS.

115. Every bill shall be introduced on the report of a committee, or by motion for leave. In the latter case, at least one day’s notice shall be given of the motion in the House, or by filing a memorandum thereof with the clerk, and having it entered on the journal; and the motion shall be made, and the bill introduced, if leave is given, when resolutions are called for; such motion, or the bill when introduced, may be committed.

116. Every bill shall receive three several readings in the House previous to its passage; and the bills shall be dispatched in order as they were introduced, unless where the House shall direct otherwise; but no bill shall be twice read on the same day, without special order of the House.

117. The first reading of a bill shall be for information, and if opposition be made to it, the question shall be, “Shall this bill be rejected?” If no opposition be made, or if the question to reject be negatived, the bill shall go to its second reading without a question.

118. Upon the second reading of a bill, the Speaker shall state it as ready for commitment or engrossment; and if committed, then a question shall be, whether to a select or standing committee, or to a Committee of the Whole House; if to a Committee of the Whole House, the House shall determine on what day; if no motion be made to commit, the question shall be stated on its engrossment; and if it be not ordered to be engrossed on the day of its being reported, it shall be placed on the general file on the Speaker’s table, to be taken up in order. But if the bill be ordered to be engrossed, the House shall appoint the day when it shall be read the third time.

119. General appropriation bills shall be in order in preference to any other bill of a public nature unless otherwise ordered by a majority of the House.

And the House may, at any time, by a vote of the majority of the members present, make any of the general appropriation bills a special order.

120. No appropriation shall be reported in such general appropriation bills, or be in order as an amendment thereto, for any expenditure not previously authorized by law, unless in continuation of appropriations for such public works and objects as are already in progress, and for the contingencies for carrying on the several departments of the government.

121. Upon the engrossment of any bill making appropriations of money for works of internal improvement of any kind or description, it shall be in the power of any member to call for a division of the question, so as to take a separate vote of the House upon each item of improvement or appropriation contained in said bill, or upon such items separately, and others collectively, as the members making the call may specify; and, if one-fifth of the members present second said call, it shall be the duty of the Speaker to make such divisions of the question, and put them to vote accordingly.

122. The bills from the Court of Claims shall, on being laid before the House, be read a first and second time, committed to a Committee of the Whole House, and, together with the accompanying reports, printed.

123. A motion to strike out the enacting words of a bill shall have precedence of a motion to amend; and, if carried, shall be considered equivalent to its rejection. Whenever a bill is reported from a Committee of the Whole, with a recommendation to strike out the enacting words, and such recommendation is disagreed to by the House, the bill shall stand recommitted to the said committees without further action by the House.

124. After commitment and report thereof to the House, or at any time before its passage, a bill may be recommitted; and should such recommitment take place after its engrossment, and an amendment be reported and agreed to by the House, the question shall be again put on the engrossment of the bill.

125. All bills ordered to be engrossed shall be executed in a fair round hand.

126. No amendment by way of rider shall be received to any bill on its third reading.

127. When a bill shall pass, it shall be certified by the clerk, noting the day of its passage at the foot thereof.

LOCAL OR PRIVATE BUSINESS.

128. Friday and Saturday of every week shall be set apart for the consideration of private bills and private business, in preference to any other, unless otherwise determined by a majority of the House.

129. On the first and fourth Friday and Saturday of each month the calendar of private bills shall be called over (the chairman of the Committee of the Whole House commencing the call where he left off the previous day,) and the bills to the passage of which no objection shall then be made shall be first considered and disposed of. But when a bill is again reached, after having been once objected to, the committee shall consider and dispose of the same, unless it shall again be objected to by at least five members.

OF BILLS ON LEAVE AND RESOLUTIONS.

130. All the States and Territories shall be called for bills on leave and resolutions on each alternate Monday during each session of Congress; and, if necessary to secure the object on said days, all resolutions which shall give rise to debate shall lie over for discussion, under the rules of the House already established; and the whole of said days shall be appropriated to bills on leave and resolutions, until all the States and Territories are called through. And the Speaker shall first call the States and Territories for bills on leave; and all bills so introduced during the first hour after the journal is read shall be referred, without debate, to their appropriate committees; provided, however, that a bill so introduced and referred shall not be brought back into the House upon a motion to reconsider.

OF PETITIONS AND MEMORIALS.

131. Members having petitions and memorials to present, may hand them to the clerk, indorsing the same with their names, and the reference or disposition to be made thereof; and such petitions and memorials shall be entered on the journal, subject to the control and direction of the Speaker; and if any petition or memorial be so handed in, which, in the judgment of the Speaker, is excluded by the rules, the same shall be returned to the member from whom it was received.

OF THE PREVIOUS QUESTION.

132. The previous question shall be in this form: “Shall the main question be now put?” It shall only be admitted when demanded by a majority of the members present; and its effect shall be to put an end to all debate, and to bring the House to a direct vote upon a motion to commit if such motion shall have been made; and if this motion does not prevail, then upon amendments reported by a committee, if any; then upon pending amendments, and then upon the main question. But its only effect, if a motion to postpone is pending, shall be to bring the House to a vote upon such motion. Whenever the House shall refuse to order the main question, the consideration of the subject shall be resumed as though no motion for the previous question had been made. The House may also, at any time, on motion seconded by a majority of the members present, close all debate upon a pending amendment, or an amendment thereto, and cause the question to be put thereon; and this shall not preclude any further amendment or debate upon the bill. A call of the House shall not be in order after the previous question is seconded, unless it shall appear, upon an actual count by the Speaker, that no quorum is present.

133. On a previous question there shall be no debate. All incidental questions of order arising after a motion is made for the previous question and pending such motion, shall be decided, whether on appeal or otherwise, without debate.

OF ADMISSION ON THE FLOOR.

134. No person except members of the Senate, their secretary, heads of departments, the President’s private secretary, foreign ministers, the Governor for the time being of any State, Senators and Representatives elect, and Judges of the Supreme Court of the United States and of the Court of Claims, shall be admitted within the hall of the House of Representatives, or any of the rooms upon the same floor or leading into the same.

OF REPORTERS.

135. Stenographers and reporters, other than the official reporters of the House, wishing to take down the debates, may be admitted by the Speaker to the reporters’ gallery over the Speaker’s chair, but not on the floor of the House; but no person shall be allowed the privilege of said gallery under the character of stenographer or reporter without a written permission of the Speaker, specifying the part of said gallery assigned to him; nor shall said stenographer or reporter be admitted to said gallery unless he shall state in writing for what paper or papers he is employed to report; nor shall he be so admitted, or, if admitted, be suffered to retain his seat, if he shall become an agent to prosecute any claim pending before Congress; and the Speaker shall give his written permission with this condition.

UNFINISHED BUSINESS OF THE SESSION.

136. After six days from the commencement of a second or subsequent session of any Congress, all bills, resolutions, and reports which originated in the House, and at the close of the next preceding session remained undetermined, shall be resumed and acted on in the same manner as if an adjournment had not taken place. And all business before committees of the House at the end of one session shall be resumed at the commencement of the next session of the same Congress as if no adjournment had taken place.

MISCELLANEOUS.

137. Whenever confidential communications are received from the President of the United States, the House shall be cleared of all persons, except the members, clerk, sergeant-at-arms, and doorkeeper, and so continue during the reading of such communications, and (unless otherwise directed by the House) during all debates and proceedings to be had thereon. And when the Speaker, or any other member, shall inform the House that he has communications to make which he conceives ought to be kept secret, the House shall, in like manner, be cleared till the communication be made; the House shall then determine whether the matter communicated requires secrecy or not, and take order accordingly.

138. The rule for paying witnesses summoned to appear before this House, or either of its committees, shall be as follows: for each day a witness shall attend, the sum of two dollars; for each mile he shall travel in coming to or going from the place of examination, the sum of ten cents each way; but nothing shall be paid for traveling home when the witness has been summoned at the place of trial.

139. Maps accompanying documents shall not be printed, under the general order to print, without the special direction of the House.

140. No extra compensation shall be allowed to any officer or messenger, page, laborer, or other person in the service of the House, or engaged in or about the public grounds or buildings; and no person shall be an officer of the House, or continue in its employment, who shall be an agent for the prosecution of any claim against the government, or be interested in such claim otherwise than an original claimant; and it shall be the duty of the Committee of Accounts to inquire into and report to the House any violation of this rule.

141. When the reading of a paper is called for, and the same is objected to by any member, it shall be determined by a vote of the House.

142. When a question is postponed indefinitely, the same shall not be acted upon again during the session.

143. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate shall be necessary, shall be read to the House, and laid on the table, on a day preceding that in which the same shall be moved, unless the House shall otherwise expressly allow.

144. The rules of parliamentary practice, comprised in Jefferson’s Manual, shall govern the House in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the standing rules and orders of the House, and joint rules of the Senate and House of Representatives.

145. No standing rule or order of the House shall be rescinded or changed without one day’s notice being given of the motion therefor; nor shall any rule be suspended, except by a vote of at least two-thirds of the members present; nor shall the order of business, as established by the rules, be postponed or changed, except by a vote of at least two-thirds of the members present; nor shall the Speaker entertain a motion to suspend the rules, except during the last ten days of the session, and on Monday of every week at the expiration of an hour after the journal is read, unless the call of the States and Territories for bills on leave and resolutions has been earlier concluded, when the Speaker may entertain a motion to suspend the rules.

146. All election of officers of the House, including the Speaker, shall be conducted in accordance with these rules, so far as the same are applicable; and pending the election of a Speaker, the clerk shall preserve order and decorum, and shall decide all questions of order that may arise, subject to appeal to the House.

147. These rules shall be the rules of the House of Representatives of the present and succeeding Congresses unless otherwise ordered.

148. An additional standing committee shall be appointed at the commencement of each Congress, whose duties shall continue until the first session of the ensuing Congress, to consist of five members, to be entitled a “Committee on a Uniform System of Coinage, Weights, and Measures;” and to this committee shall be referred all bills, resolutions, and communications to the House upon that subject.

149. The names of members not voting on any call of the ayes and noes shall be recorded in the journal immediately after those voting in the affirmative and negative, and the same record shall be made in the Congressional Globe.

150. It shall be the duty of the Committee on the Pacific Railroad to take into consideration all such petitions and matters or things relative to railroads or telegraph lines between the Mississippi valley and the Pacific coast, as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as to them shall seem expedient.

151. It shall be the duty of the Committee of Ways and Means to take into consideration all reports of the Treasury Department, and such other propositions relative to raising revenue and providing ways and means for the support of the government as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report their opinion thereon by bill or otherwise, as to them shall seem expedient; and said committee shall have leave to report for commitment at any time.

152. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Banking and Bank Currency to take into consideration all propositions relative to banking and the currency as shall be presented or shall come in question, and be referred to them by the House, and to report thereon by bill or otherwise.

153. It shall be the duty of the Committee on Mines and Mining to consider all subjects relating to mines and mining that may be referred to them, and to report their opinion thereon, together with such propositions relative thereto as may seem to them expedient.

154. The allowance of stationery to each member and delegate shall be of the value of seventy-five dollars for a long session, and forty-five dollars for a short session of Congress.

155. The hall of the House shall not be used for any other purpose than the legitimate business of the House, nor shall the Speaker entertain any proposition to use it for any other purpose, or for the suspension of this rule: Provided, That this shall not interfere with the performance of divine service therein, under the direction of the Speaker, or with the use of the same for caucus meetings of the members, or upon occasions where the House may, by resolution, agree to take part in any ceremonies to be observed therein.

156. There shall be appointed at the commencement of each Congress a standing Committee on Freedmen’s Affairs, to consist of nine members, whose duty it shall be to take charge of all matters concerning freedmen, which shall be referred to them by the House.

157. When an act has been approved by the President, the usual number of copies shall be printed for the use of the House.

158. Messages from the Senate and the President of the United States, giving notice of bills passed or approved, shall be reported forthwith from the clerk’s desk.

159. Estimates of appropriations, and all other communications from the executive departments, intended for the consideration of any of the committees of the House, shall be addressed to the Speaker and by him submitted to the House for reference.

160. There shall be appointed to each Congress a Committee on Education and Labor, to consist of nine members, to whom shall be referred all petitions, bills, reports, and resolutions on those subjects, and who shall from time to time report thereon.

161. Pending a motion to suspend the rules the Speaker may entertain one motion that the House do now adjourn; but after the result thereon is announced, he shall not entertain any other dilatory motion till the vote is taken on suspension.

162. Whenever a question is pending before the House, the Speaker shall not entertain any motion of a dilatory character except one motion to adjourn and one motion to fix the day to which the House shall adjourn; but the previous question on the engrossment and third reading of any bill or joint resolution shall not be ordered during the first day of its consideration, unless two thirds of the members present shall second the demand: provided, that this rule shall not apply to House resolutions offered in the morning hour of Monday: and provided further, that it shall not apply to any proposition to appropriate the money, the credit, or other property of the United States, except the regular annual appropriation bills.

CHAPTER XXXI.
THE STATISTICS OF THE WORLD.

Country.Population.Square miles.Title of Ruler.Capital.
NORTH AMERICA.
Arctic Region——600,000——None.
Bermuda12,00046GovernorHamilton.
Columbia (Brit.)54,600230,000GovernorN. Westminster.
Costa Rica150,00016,250PresidentSan Jose.
Greenland10,000380,000InspectorLichtenfels.
Guatemala1,180,00044,778PresidentGuatemala.
Honduras500,00047,092PresidentComayagua.
Honduras (Brit.)25,63513,500Lt. GovBelize.
Mexico8,743,614773,144PresidentMexico.
Mosquito16,00026,000KingBlewfields.
New Britain200,0001,800,000——York Factory.
New Brunswick285,77727,720Lt. Gov.Fredericton.
Newfoundland146,53640,200GovernorSt. John’s.
Nicaragua400,00058,169PresidentManagua.
Nova Scotia387,80019,650Lt. Gov.Halifax.
Ontario1,620,842180,000Lt. Gov.Toronto.
Prince Edward Island93,3382,173Lt. Gov.Charlottetown.
Quebec1,190,505210,000Lt. Gov.Quebec.
San Salvador750,0007,230PresidentSan Salvador.
St. Pierre2,250120Com.St. Pierre.
United States40,000,0003,578,392PresidentWashington.
SOUTH AMERICA.
Argentine Confederacy1,800,000826,828PresidentBuenos Ayres.
Bolivia1,987,352535,760PresidentChuqueaca.
Brazil11,780,0003,231,047EmperorRio Janeiro.
Cayenne27,56030,000GovernorCayenne.
Chili2,084,945139,335PresidentSantiago.
Colombia2,794,470357,179PresidentS. Fe de Bogota.
Demerara, etc.148,90076,000GovernorGeorgetown.
Ecuador1,040,371218,984PresidentQuito.
Falkland Islands6867,600GovernorPort Louis.
Paraguay1,337,431126,352PresidentAsuncion.
Patagonia120,000315,000——None.
Peru3,374,000510,107PresidentLima.
Surinam64,27038,500GovernorParimaraibo.
Uruguay387,42166,716PresidentMonte Video.
Venezuela1,565,000426,712PresidentCaracas.
WEST INDIA ISLANDS
Antigua36,412183GovernorSt. John’s.
Bahamas35,2873,021GovernorNassau.
Barbadoes152,127166GovernorBridgetown.
Burmudas11,796——GovernorHamilton.
Curacoa30,000580——Williamstadt.
Cuba1,500,00043,383Capt. Gen.Havana.
Dominica26,882290Lt. Gov.Rosseau.
Grenada36,672133Lt. Gov.St. George.
Guaduloupe, etc.134,544534——Basse Terre.
Hayti572,00011,718PresidentPort au Prince.
Jamaica441,2556,400Capt. Gen.Spanish Town.
Martinique121,145322——Port Royal.
Montserrat7,64547PresidentPlymouth.
Nevis9,82250Adminis.Charlestown.
Porto Rico620,0003,895Capt. Gen.San Juan.
St. Bartholomew’s10,00025——Gustavia.
St. Christopher, etc.26,940103Lt. Gov.Basse Terre.
St. John’s3,00072——
St. Lucia29,519250Adminis.Castries.
St. Martin’s (S.)3,50011
St. Thomas13,46337
St. Vincent31,755131Lt. Gov.Kingston.
San Domingo136,50018,000PresidentSan Domingo.
Santa Cruz etc.35,00081——Christianstadt.
Tobago15,41097Lt. Gov.Scarboro.
Trinidad84,4381,754GovernorPort Espana.
Turk’s Island4,372450PresidentGrand Turk.
Virgin Islands6,05157PresidentRoad Town.
EUROPE.
Andorra12,000149Rep.Andorra.
Austria35,677,455240,381EmperorVienna.
Belgium4,984,45111,373KingBrussels.
Denmark1,608,36214,734KingCopenhagen.
Faroe and Iceland75,90940,258
France38,192,064209,428PresidentParis.
Germany
Northern Confederation
Anhalt197,0411,026DukeDessau.
Bremen109,57274BurgomBremen.
Brunswick302,7921,425DukeBrunswick.
Hamburg305,196156BurgomHamburg.
Hesse Darmstadt (N.)257,4791,280G. DukeDarmstadt.
Lippe Detmold111,352438PrinceDetmold.
Lippe Schaumburg31,186171PrinceBuckburg.
Lubeck48,538107BurgomLubeck.
Mecklenburg Schwerin560,6185,190G. DukeSchwerin.
Mecklenburg Strelitz98,7701,052G. DukeNew Strelitz.
Oldenburg315,6222,469G. DukeOldenburg.
Prussia24,039,668136,806KingBerlin.
Reuse Greiz43,889145PrinceGreiz.
Reuss Schleiz88,097320PrinceSchleiz.
Saxe Altenburg141,426510DukeAltenburg.
Saxe Coburg Gotha168,851760DukeCoburg.
Saxe Meiningen180,335956DukeMeiningen.
Saxe Weimar282,9281,404G. DukeWeimar.
Saxony2,423,4015,779KingDresden.
Schwarzb. Rudolstadt75,116374PrinceRudolstadt.
Swarzb. Sondershausen67,533332PrinceSonderhausen.
Waldeck56,807433PrinceCorbach.
Southern Confederation
Baden1,434,9705,912G. DukeCarlsruhe.
Bavaria4,824,42129,373KingMunich.
Hesse Darmstadt (S.)565,6591,690G. DukeDarmstadt.
Lichtenstein8,32062PrinceLichtenstein.
Wurtemberg1,778,3967,532KingStuttgardt.
Great Britain31,817,108120,769QueenLondon.
Gibraltar24,1752GovernorGibraltar.
Heligoland2,300GovernorHeligoland.
Malta143,003115GovernorMalta.
Greece1,096,81018,347KingAthens.
Ionian Islands251,7121,006
Italy25,766,217114,389KingRome.
Monaco1,88715Prince
Netherlands3,652,07012,685KingHague.
Luxemburg199,958991
Portugal3,829,61836,494KingLisbon.
Azores and Madeira363,6581,483
Russia78,400,0007,862,568CzarSt. Petersburgh.
San Marino5,77022RepubSan Marino.
Spain16,302,625195,607RepubMadrid.
Sweden4,158,757128,776KingStockholm.
Norway1,712,628120,295
Switzerland2,510,49415,722PresidentBerne.
Turkey10,510,000131,295SultanConstantinople.
Montenegro196,2381,709PrinceCettinge.
Roumania3,864,84846,710PrinceBucharest.
Servia1,078,28121,218PrinceBelgrade.
ASIA.
Anam (C. China)9,000,000198,043EmperorHue.
Arabia4,000,0001,026,040Muscat.
Borneo25,000,000300,000
British India192,012,1371,545,336Gov. Gen.Calcutta.
Burmah4,000,000190,517Comm.Ava.
Ceylon2,081,39524,454GovernorColombo.
China477,500,0004,695,334EmperorPekin.
Japan35,000,000149,399MikadoYeddo.
Java14,168,41651,336Gov. Gen.Batavia.
Persia11,000,000562,344SchahTeheran.
Siam6,298,990309,024KingBangkok.
Tartary7,870,000640,516Bokhara.
Turkey in Asia16,463,000660,870
AFRICA.
Abyssinia3,000,000148,392EmperorGondar.
Algeria2,921,846259,313Gov. Gen.Algiers.
Cape of Good Hope566,158200,610GovernorCape Town.
Egypt7,465,000659,081ViceroyCairo.
Gambia6,93921Adminis.Bathurst.
Gold Coast262,0006,000Adminis.Cape C’st Castle.
Lagos110,000Lagos.
Liberia717,5009,567PresidentMonrovia.
Madagascar5,000,000232,315QueenAntinarivo.
Morocco2,750,000672,300SultanFez.
Natal193,10316,150Lt. Gov.Port Natal.
Sierra Leone41,497468GovernorFreetown.
St. Helena6,44447GovernorJames Town.
Tripoli750,00061,760BeyTripoli.
Tunis2,000,00050,000BeyTunis.
Zanzibar380,0001,600SultanZanzibar.
AUSTRALIA.
New South Wales447,620323,437GovernorSydney.
Queensland109,897678,600Capt. Gen.Port Denison.
South Australia176,298383,328GovernorAdelaide.
Tasmania98,45526,215GovernorHobart Town.
Victoria703,81786,831Capt. Gen.Melbourne.
Western Australia21,065978,000Governor
POLYNESIA.
Feejee Islands200,0008,033King
New Guinea1,000,000275,518
New Zealand220,092106,261GovernorAuckland.
Philippine Islands2,250,00056,000Manilla.
Sandwich Islands62,9597,633KingHonolulu.
Society Islands15,000700QueenTahiti.

STATISTICS OF THE RACE.

The earth is inhabited by about 1,380,000,000 of inhabitants, namely:

All these respectively speak 3064 languages, and possess 1,000 different religions.

The amount of deaths per annum is 33,333,333, or 91,954 per day, 3730 per hour, 60 per minute, or one per second. This loss is compensated by an equal number of births.

The average duration of life throughout the globe is thirty-three years. One-fourth of its population dies before the seventh year, and one-half before the seventeenth. Out of 10,000 persons only one reaches his hundredth year; only one in 500 his eightieth; and only one in 100 his sixty-fifth.

Married people live longer than unmarried ones, and a tall man is likely to live longer than a short one. Until the fiftieth year women have a better chance of life than men; but beyond that period the chances are equal.

Sixty-five persons out of one thousand marry. The months of June and December are those in which marriages are most frequent.

Children born in spring are generally stronger than those born in other seasons.

Births and deaths chiefly occur at night.

The number of men able to bear arms is but one-eighth of the population.

AFRICANS IN AMERICA.

It is estimated that there are some 14,580,000 persons of African descent on this continent. In the United States they number 4,880,000; Brazil 4,200,000; Cuba and Porto Rico 1,500,000; South and Central American Republics 1,100,000; Hayti 1,350,000; British Possessions 800,000; French, 250,000; Dutch and Mexican 400,000.

CREEDS OF THE WORLD.

The population of the world is religiously distributed very nearly in the following proportions:

Christians388,600,000
Buddhists360,000,000
Other Asiatic religions260,000,000
Pagans200,000,000
Mohammedans165,000,000
Jews7,000,000

In Europe, America, Australia, and many of the Polynesian Islands, Christianity is the prevailing creed of every State. In Africa the only independent Christian States are Abyssinia and Liberia, while Christianity prevails in several European colonies. The largest empire of Asia—Russia—is also a Christian country. India, the third country in point of extent, is under the rule of a Christian government, and so is a large portion of Farther India.

The Mohammedan countries in Asia are Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, and the Khanates of Central Asia; in Africa—Morocco, the dependencies of Turkey (Egypt, Tunis, Tripoli) and a number of interior States.

Buddhism prevails in India, Farther India, in many parts of China, and in Japan. The governments of Burmah and Siam are Buddhist; the government of China adheres to the religion of Confucius; the religion of Japan is Sintooism.

Judaism is represented throughout the civilized world. The Handbuch der Vergleichenden Statistik of G. Von Kolb (Leipzig, 1868) gives the following as the number of Jews in the countries named: Germany, 478,500; Austria, 1,124,000; Great Britain, 40,000; France, 80,000; European Russia, 2,277,000; Italy, 20,200; Switzerland, 4,200; Belgium 1,500; Netherlands, 64,000; Luxemburg, 1,500; Denmark, 4,200; Sweden, 1,000; Greece, 500; European Turkey, 70,000. The Jews in Portugal are estimated at 3,000; in Syria and Asiatic Turkey, 52,000; in Morocco and North Africa, 610,000; in Eastern Asia, 500,800; in America, 500,000.

SUPPLEMENT.
BY JUDGE J. C. POWER
OF THE FIRST DISTRICT OF IOWA.