CONTENTS
[THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS]
[CHAPTER I.—ATOLLS OR LAGOON-ISLANDS]
[CHAPTER III.—FRINGING OR SHORE-REEFS]
[CHAPTER IV.—ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND GROWTH OF CORAL-REEFS]
[CHAPTER V.—THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF CORAL-REEFS]
[CHAPTER VI.—ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL-REEFS WITH REFERENCE TO THE THEORY OF THEIR FORMATION]
DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS
[CHAPTER I.—ATOLLS OR LAGOON-ISLANDS]
SECTION I.—DESCRIPTION OF KEELING ATOLL. Corals on the outer margin.—Zone of Nulliporæ.—Exterior reef.—Islets.—Coral-conglomerate.—Lagoon.—Calcareous sediment.—Scari and Holuthuriæ subsisting on corals.—Changes in the condition of the reefs and islets.—Probable subsidence of the atoll.—Future state of the lagoon.
SECTION II.—GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF ATOLLS. General form and size of atolls, their reefs and islets.—External slope.— Zone of Nulliporæ.—Conglomerate.—Depth of lagoons.—Sediment.—Reefs submerged wholly or in part.—Breaches in the reef.—Ledge-formed shores round certain lagoons.—Conversion of lagoons into land.
SECTION III.—ATOLLS OF THE MALDIVA ARCHIPELAGO—GREAT CHAGOS BANK. Maldiva Archipelago.—Ring-formed reefs, marginal and central.—Great depths in the lagoons of the southern atolls.—Reefs in the lagoons all rising to the surface.—Position of islets and breaches in the reefs, with respect to the prevalent winds and action of the waves.—Destruction of islets.—Connection in the position and submarine foundation of distinct atolls.—The apparent disseverment of large atolls.—The Great Chagos Bank.—Its submerged condition and extraordinary structure.
[CHAPTER II.—BARRIER REEFS]
Closely resemble in general form and structure atoll-reefs.—Width and depth of the lagoon-channels.—Breaches through the reef in front of valleys, and generally on the leeward side.—Checks to the filling up of the lagoon-channels.—Size and constitution of the encircled islands.— Number of islands within the same reef.—Barrier-reefs of New Caledonia and Australia.—Position of the reef relative to the slope of the adjoining land.—Probable great thickness of barrier-reefs.
[CHAPTER III.—FRINGING OR SHORE-REEFS]
Reefs of Mauritius.—Shallow channel within the reef.—Its slow filling up.—Currents of water formed within it.—Upraised reefs.—Narrow fringing-reefs in deep seas.—Reefs on the coast of E. Africa and of Brazil.—Fringing-reefs in very shallow seas, round banks of sediment and on worn-down islands.—Fringing-reefs affected by currents of the sea. —Coral coating the bottom of the sea, but not forming reefs.
[CHAPTER IV.—ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND GROWTH OF CORAL-REEFS]
SECTION I.—ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL-REEFS, AND ON THE CONDITIONS FAVOURABLE TO THEIR INCREASE.
SECTION II.—ON THE RATE OF GROWTH OF CORAL-REEFS.
SECTION III.—ON THE DEPTHS AT WHICH REEF-BUILDING POLYPIFERS CAN LIVE.
[CHAPTER V.—THEORY OF THE FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF CORAL-REEFS]
The atolls of the larger archipelagoes are not formed on submerged craters, or on banks of sediment.—Immense areas interspersed with atolls.—Recent changes in their state.—The origin of barrier-reefs and of atolls.—Their relative forms.—The step-formed ledges and walls round the shores of some lagoons.—The ring-formed reefs of the Maldiva atolls.—The submerged condition of parts or of the whole of some annular reefs.—The disseverment of large atolls.—The union of atolls by linear reefs.—The Great Chagos Bank.—Objections, from the area and amount of subsidence required by the theory, considered.—The probable composition of the lower parts of atolls.
[CHAPTER VI.—ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL-REEFS WITH REFERENCE TO THE THEORY OF THEIR FORMATION]
Description of the coloured map.—Proximity of atolls and barrier-reefs.— Relation in form and position of atolls with ordinary islands.—Direct evidence of subsidence difficult to be detected.—Proofs of recent elevation where fringing-reefs occur.—Oscillations of level.—Absence of active volcanoes in the areas of subsidence.—Immensity of the areas which have been elevated and have subsided.—Their relation to the present distribution of the land.—Areas of subsidence elongated, their intersection and alternation with those of elevation.—Amount and slow rate of the subsidence.—Recapitulation.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.
PLATE I.
PLATE I.—MAP SHOWING THE RESEMBLANCE IN FORM BETWEEN BARRIER CORAL-REEFS SURROUNDING MOUNTAINOUS ISLANDS, AND ATOLLS OR LAGOON ISLANDS.
In the several original surveys, from which the small plans on this plate have been reduced, the coral-reefs are engraved in very different styles. For the sake of uniformity, I have adopted the style used in the charts of the Chagos Archipelago, published by the East Indian Company, from the survey by Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Powell. The surface of the reef, which dries at low water, is represented by a surface with small crosses: the coral-islets on the reef are marked by small linear spaces, on which a few cocoa-nut trees, out of all proportion too large, have been introduced for the sake of clearness. The entire annular reef, which when surrounding an open expanse of water, forms an “atoll,” and when surrounding one or more high islands, forms an encircling “barrier-reef,” has a nearly uniform structure. The reefs in some of the original surveys are represented merely by a single line with crosses, so that their breadth is not given; I have had such reefs engraved of the width usually attained by coral-reefs. I have not thought it worth while to introduce all those small and very numerous reefs, which occur within the lagoons of most atolls and within the lagoon-channels of most barrier-reefs, and which stand either isolated, or are attached to the shores of the reef or land. At Peros Banhos none of the lagoon-reefs rise to the surface of the water; a few of them have been introduced, and are marked by plain dotted circles. A few of the deepest soundings are laid down within each reef; they are in fathoms, of six English feet.
Figure 1.—VANIKORO, situated in the western part of the South Pacific; taken from the survey by Captain D’Urville in the Astrolabe; the soundings on the southern side of the island, namely, from thirty to forty fathoms, are given from the voyage of the Chev. Dillon; the other soundings are laid down from the survey by D’Urville; height of the summit of the island is 3,032 feet. The principal small detached reefs within the lagoon-channel have in this instance been represented. The southern shore of the island is narrowly fringed by a reef: if the engraver had carried this reef entirely round both islands, this figure would have served (by leaving out in imagination the barrier-reef) as a good specimen of an abruptly-sided island, surrounded by a reef of the fringing class.
Figure 2.—HOGOLEU, or ROUG, in the Caroline Archipelago; taken from the atlas of the voyage of the Astrolabe, compiled from the surveys of Captains Duperrey and D’Urville; the depth of the immense lagoon-like space within the reef is not known.
Figure 3.—RAIATEA, in the Society Archipelago; from the map given in the quarto edition of “Cook’s First Voyage;” it is probably not accurate.
Figure 4.—BOW, or HEYOU ATOLL (or lagoon-island), in the Low Archipelago, from the survey by Captain Beechey, R.N.; the lagoon is choked up with reefs, but the average greatest depth of about twenty fathoms, is given from the published account of the voyage.
Figure 5.—BOLABOLA, in the Society Archipelago, from the survey of Captain Duperrey in the Coquille: the soundings in this and the following figures have been altered from French feet to English fathoms; height of highest point of the island 4,026 feet.
Figure 6.—MAURUA, in the Society Archipelago; from the survey by Captain Duperrey in the Coquille: height of land about eight hundred feet.
Figure 7.—POUYNIPÈTE, or SENIAVINE, in the Caroline Archipelago; from the survey by Admiral Lutké.
Figure 8.—GAMBIER ISLANDS, in the southern part of the Low Archipelago; from the survey by Captain Beechey; height of highest island, 1,246 feet; the islands are surrounded by extensive and irregular reefs; the reef on the southern side is submerged.
Figure 9.—PEROS BANHOS ATOLL (or lagoon-island), in the Chagos group in the Indian Ocean; from the survey by Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Powell; not nearly all the small submerged reefs in the lagoon are represented; the annular reef on the southern side is submerged.
Figure 10.—KEELING, or COCOS ATOLL (or lagoon-island), in the Indian Ocean; from the survey by Captain Fitzroy; the lagoon south of the dotted line is very shallow, and is left almost bare at low water; the part north of the line is choked up with irregular reefs. The annular reef on the north-west side is broken, and blends into a shoal sandbank, on which the sea breaks.
PLATE II.—GREAT CHAGOS BANK, NEW CALEDONIA, MENCHIKOFF ATOLL, ETC.
Plate 2
Figure 1.—GREAT CHAGOS BANK, in the Indian Ocean; taken from the survey by Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Powell; the parts which are shaded, with the exception of two or three islets on the western and northern sides, do not rise to the surface, but are submerged from four to ten fathoms; the banks bounded by the dotted lines lie from fifteen to twenty fathoms beneath the surface, and are formed of sand; the central space is of mud, and from thirty to fifty fathoms deep.
Figure 2.—A vertical section, on the same scale, in an eastern and western line across the Great Chagos Bank, given for the sake of exhibiting more clearly its structure.
Figure 3.—MENCHIKOFF ATOLL (or lagoon-island), in the Marshall Archipelago, Northern Pacific Ocean; from Krusenstern’s “Atlas of the Pacific;” originally surveyed by Captain Hagemeister; the depth within the lagoons is unknown.
Figure 4.—MAHLOS MAHDOO ATOLL, together with Horsburgh atoll, in the Maldiva Archipelago; from the survey by Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Powell; the white spaces in the middle of the separate small reefs, both on the margin and in the middle part, are meant to represent little lagoons; but it was found not possible to distinguish them clearly from the small islets, which have been formed on these same small reefs; many of the smaller reefs could not be introduced; the nautical mark (dot over a dash) over the figures 250 and 200, between Mahlos Mahdoo and Horsburgh atoll and Powell’s island, signifies that soundings were not obtained at these depths.
Figure 5.—NEW CALEDONIA, in the western part of the Pacific; from Krusenstern’s “Atlas,” compiled from several surveys; I have slightly altered the northern point of the reef, in accordance with the “Atlas of the Voyage of the Astrolabe.” In Krusenstern’s “Atlas,” the reef is represented by a single line with crosses; I have for the sake of uniformity added an interior line.
Figure 6.—MALDIVA ARCHIPELAGO, in the Indian Ocean; from the survey by Captain Moresby and Lieutenant Powell.
PLATE III.—MAP SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL-REEFS AND ACTIVE VOLCANOES.
Plate 3 Shewing the Distribution of the Different Kinds of Coral Reefs, Together with the Position of the Active Volcanoes in the Map.
The principles, on which this map was coloured, are explained in the beginning of Chapter VI.; and the authorities for each particular spot are detailed in the Appendix to “Coral Reefs.” The names not printed in upper case in the Index refer to the Appendix.
THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS.
INTRODUCTION.
The object of this volume is to describe from my own observation and the works of others, the principal kinds of coral-reefs, more especially those occurring in the open ocean, and to explain the origin of their peculiar forms. I do not here treat of the polypifers, which construct these vast works, except so far as relates to their distribution, and to the conditions favourable to their vigorous growth. Without any distinct intention to classify coral-reefs, most voyagers have spoken of them under the following heads: “lagoon-islands,” or “atolls,” “barrier” or “encircling reefs,” and “fringing” or “shore-reefs.” The lagoon-islands have received much the most attention; and it is not surprising, for every one must be struck with astonishment, when he first beholds one of these vast rings of coral-rock, often many leagues in diameter, here and there surmounted by a low verdant island with dazzling white shores, bathed on the outside by the foaming breakers of the ocean, and on the inside surrounding a calm expanse of water, which from reflection, is of a bright but pale green colour. The naturalist will feel this astonishment more deeply after having examined the soft and almost gelatinous bodies of these apparently insignificant creatures, and when he knows that the solid reef increases only on the outer edge, which day and night is lashed by the breakers of an ocean never at rest. Well did François Pyrard de Laval, in the year 1605, exclaim, “C’est une merueille de voir chacun de ces atollons, enuironné d’un grand banc de pierre tout autour, n’y ayant point d’artifice humain.” The accompanying sketch of Whitsunday island, in the South Pacific, taken from Captain Beechey’s admirable “Voyage,” although excellent of its kind, gives but a faint idea of the singular aspect of one of these lagoon-islands.
Whitsunday Island is of small size, and the whole circle has been converted into land, which is a comparatively rare circumstance. As the reef of a lagoon-island generally supports many separate small islands, the word “island,” applied to the whole, is often the cause of confusion; hence I have invariably used in this volume the term “atoll,” which is the name given to these circular groups of coral-islets by their inhabitants in the Indian Ocean, and is synonymous with “lagoon-island.”
Barrier-reefs, when encircling small islands, have been comparatively little noticed by voyagers; but they well deserve attention. In their structure they are little less marvellous than atolls, and they give a singular and most picturesque character to the scenery of the islands they surround. In the accompanying sketch, taken from the “Voyage of the ‘Coquille’,” the reef is seen from within, from one of the high peaks of the island of Bolabola.[[1]] Here, as in Whitsunday Island, the whole of that part of the reef which is visible is converted into land. This is a circumstance of rare occurrence; more usually a snow-white line of great breakers, with here and there an islet crowned by cocoa-nut trees, separates the smooth waters of the lagoon-like channel from the waves of the open sea. The barrier-reefs of Australia and of New Caledonia, owing to their enormous dimensions, have excited much attention: in structure and form they resemble those encircling many of the smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean.
[1] I have taken the liberty of simplifying the foreground, and leaving out a mountainous island in the far distance.
With respect to fringing, or shore-reefs, there is little in their structure which needs explanation; and their name expresses their comparatively small extension. They differ from barrier-reefs in not lying so far from the shore, and in not having within a broad channel of deep water. Reefs also occur around submerged banks of sediment and of worn-down rock; and others are scattered quite irregularly where the sea is very shallow; these in most respects are allied to those of the fringing class, but they are of comparatively little interest.
I have given a separate chapter to each of the above classes, and have described some one reef or island, on which I possessed most information, as typical; and have afterwards compared it with others of a like kind. Although this classification is useful from being obvious, and from including most of the coral-reefs existing in the open sea, it admits of a more fundamental division into barrier and atoll-formed reefs on the one hand, where there is a great apparent difficulty with respect to the foundation on which they must first have grown; and into fringing-reefs on the other, where, owing to the nature of the slope of the adjoining land, there is no such difficulty. The two blue tints and the red colour (replaced by numbers in this edition.) on the map ([Plate III.]), represent this main division, as explained in the beginning of the last chapter. In the Appendix, every existing coral-reef, except some on the coast of Brazil not included in the map, is briefly described in geographical order, as far as I possessed information; and any particular spot may be found by consulting the Index.
Several theories have been advanced to explain the origin of atolls or lagoon-islands, but scarcely one to account for barrier-reefs. From the limited depths at which reef-building polypifers can flourish, taken into consideration with certain other circumstances, we are compelled to conclude, as it will be seen, that both in atolls and barrier-reefs, the foundation on which the coral was primarily attached, has subsided; and that during this downward movement, the reefs have grown upwards. This conclusion, it will be further seen, explains most satisfactorily the outline and general form of atolls and barrier-reefs, and likewise certain peculiarities in their structure. The distribution, also, of the different kinds of coral-reefs, and their position with relation to the areas of recent elevation, and to the points subject to volcanic eruptions, fully accord with this theory of their origin.[[2]]
[2] A brief account of my views on coral formations, now published in my Journal of Researches, was read May 31st, 1837, before the Geological Society, and an abstract has appeared in the Proceedings.