PART II
CHAPTER VI
ARTICLES TO BE MADE IN THE WORKSHOP
Even if you are able to use tools quite well, you may still not know how to go to work to make some particular thing, so it is quite important to know how to lay out, put together, and finish different kinds of work.
The number of things you can make is legion. The number it is worth while for you to make is much smaller. Amateurs often say that the work they do themselves costs more (even counting their own labour as nothing) than to hire the work done, and it is one aim of this book to prevent that undesirable result, in some cases at least.
The number of things which you can make more cheaply than you can buy grows smaller every year. Many things can now be bought ready-made for less than you would have to pay for the materials. It is foolish to take the time and money to make many of the games and toys, for instance, sold so cheaply nowadays. A wheelbarrow is in itself a good thing to make, but it can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make one. It is true that some of these things you can make better, although not cheaper, than you can easily buy (a sled perhaps); but, as a rule, your time can be better spent than upon this class of objects, and you will find but few such given here.
Things like whistles, pea-shooters, and clappers, which are so familiar to every boy and require no more instruction to make than is handed down and around from boy to boy, are not given here, as a rule. A few other things which you might perhaps look for, such as tennis rackets and snow-shoes, are omitted, because they require more special knowledge and skill than most beginners can be expected to have. It is easy enough to see how to make a tennis racket, for instance, so far as the general idea is concerned; but simply bending a loop, fastening it to a stick, and lacing the loop, does not make a tennis racket. The holes for the stringing must be made in a particular way, the stringing must be done properly, and the whole affair must balance or "hang" right, or be of little use. It is better to buy such things.
You boys, and many of your elders, like to try all the new-fangled ideas as fast as they come out, and it is well that you do, but you (as a class) accept them "for keeps" only after they have stood the test of many trials. A large book could be filled with descriptions of the novelties which have appeared within my remembrance, but out of this number I can count on my fingers all that have come to stay. You will find all the novelties you can attend to (and more) in the magazines, etc., so I have been rather conservative in my selection, knowing that you will permanently accept but the best of the new ideas and come back in the end, year after year, to the same old things, with only such additions as have stood the test of actual use.
The objects included embrace a sufficient variety of types to form a basis of experience and practice, in different kinds of work and in various details, from which you can launch out into any of these new plans, or any experiments of your own which you may wish to try, and thus supply for yourselves the information lacking in many of the popular descriptions.
Before you make anything bulky measure your shop door or window to see that you can get it out after you have made it. This may seem a superfluous caution, but there have been many cases where people have spent much time in making things which could not be taken from the room in which they were made without tearing out the door or window casing. Even Robinson Crusoe, you know, built a boat so far from the water that he could not launch her.
Do not be deceived by all the complicated, new-fangled variations of familiar things which abound in the popular publications. Try to make everything as simple as you can. Look askance on contrivances that are all tangled up with springs, and levers, and complicated mechanism, and study them well before you begin to make them.
First figure the cost of the object you intend to make. This book is not to do your work for you, but to put you on the right track to do it yourselves, so read Estimating, page 54, and the whole of Part I had best be read before you begin to make the things described hereafter.
CHAPTER VII
A FEW TOYS
Fig. 144.
Wooden Swords, Knives, and Daggers.—Before beginning work, read Marking, Knife, Whittling, Paring, Rounding Sticks, Rasp, File, and Sandpaper, and look up any other references. The construction of those shown in Fig. 144 is too obvious to require special description. First cut the general outline as shown, then round or pare or shave to the thickness required. If you have a bow-saw or scroll-saw, it will save much time in shaping the outlines, or you can have them sawed at the mill. If you stain these weapons with various colours, as red, black, yellow, etc., and in various patterns, and shellac them neatly (see Finishing), you can turn out quite a formidable array of awe-inspiring weapons. They should be made of some straight-grained and easily whittled wood. Nothing is better than white pine.
Fig. 145.
To make a sword like that shown in Fig. 145, first select a piece of straight-grained wood (ash or any strong wood) about 2½' in length, 3/16" thick, and 1" wide. About 4" from one end make a mark. From this mark taper the edges to the other end. Do not taper the stick too gradually. Then draw a line along the centre of each side and taper from this centre line to the edges, leaving the edges about 1/16" thick. Next get out two pieces of wood 1/8" thick and 4" long (some dark-coloured wood can be used for contrast). Nail one of these pieces with brads on each side of the 4" space left for the handle. Next get a piece 4" long, ¼" thick, and ¾" wide (see Fig. 145). Mark it as shown, making the marks for the holes (3/16") so the outside edge of one will be just 1" from the outside edge of the other. Then bore these holes carefully (see Boring) and cut out the wood between them with a knife or chisel (being careful about splitting) and shape the outside as marked. Slip the blade through the hole in the guard you have just made up to the handle and nail the guard to the blade.
Fig. 146.
Wooden Snake.—This imitation reptile (Fig. 146) if well made will (when grasped at the middle) by a slight movement of the hand undulate and writhe in a very lifelike manner, as you may know, so do not be eager to terrify your feminine relatives, or those of other boys, too much.
Fig. 147.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Knife, Saw, and Rounding Sticks. The snake can be of any size—say from 2' to 6' long and from 1" to 2" in diam. Select a piece of straight-grained wood,—white pine or any wood easy to work. First see that the stick is square, then make it hexagonal (six-sided), then taper it to the general shape of the snake, and finally round and smooth it (Fig. 147). Remember not to use sandpaper in the smoothing, as the grit will dull the tools yet to be used. The head you must whittle or carve according to your ingenuity and skill. The mouth can be cut with a fine saw.
The snake having been shaped, mark pencil lines lengthways along the middle of the top and bottom (except at the head), and cut with a knife a little slit or groove merely wide enough to hold a fine cord (like fish-line). This can be done with a fine saw (as a back-saw), using the teeth only at one end of the saw blade, but much care is required and the stick must be firmly clamped or held in the vise. You will probably do it more easily with the knife. Mark equal spaces (Fig. 148) of ½" to 2", according to the diameter of the snake, from the neck to within a short distance of the end of the tail. If you make these marks as near together as ¾", the snake will look more natural, as the notches will not have to be so wide, but you will have to cut more of them. Number these sections so that you can finally put them together again in the right order. With the knife or chisel notch in to the centre from each side at each of the marks, or use the saw and knife or chisel, until the body of the snake is cut into sections (Fig. 148). Put the sections together again by sinking a fine strong cord in the longitudinal grooves in the top and bottom. Set the cord in place with glue (see Gluing), and fasten with little staples (which you can make of bent pins), or something of the sort, at the end of each section.
Fig. 148.
Set beads in the head for eyes. Sandpaper the whole with fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper). Paint in imitation of whatever kind of snake you prefer (see Painting), using red for the inside of the mouth.
Windmills.—These are made in a great variety of forms. A few patterns which can be readily constructed of wood are given below. Bear in mind to make them strong, as they are under very great strain in a violent wind, and, also, that the larger they are the stronger they must be; for little models, you know, are much stronger in proportion than large structures made after the same designs. Dimensions are given merely to help illustrate the principles of construction. The windmills will work just as well if made larger or smaller, within any reasonable limits. They should be made of straight-grained white pine, whitewood, or some wood easy to work.[19]
Fig. 149.
Fig. 150.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, and Paring, and look up any other references. In case of using heavy stock, see also Draw-knife, Spokeshave, and Plane. To make a very simple form (Fig. 149), take two sticks, say 8" x 1" x 1", and halve or notch (see Halving) each piece at the centre (Fig. 150), so that when put together they will form a cross with arms of equal length. Bore a hole through both pieces at the centre to loosely fit the pin upon which the vanes are to turn (see Boring). Upon the ends of each stick mark diagonal lines (Fig. 150) slanting in opposite directions, or so that, if you revolve the cross edgeways and look in turn upon each of the four ends, the lines will all slant the same way. This is essential, for the next operation is to shave each of the sticks down towards these lines until perhaps 1/8" thick (Fig. 150), and you can readily see that if these vanes are not turned the same way the windmill will not revolve. When this shaping is done fasten the sticks together with brads (see Nailing). The remaining part is very simple (Fig. 151), perhaps 1' long and ½" thick, with the broad vane made thin, as the only object of this is to act as a weather-vane to keep the windmill headed toward the wind, and if made thick and heavy the whole affair will not balance well.
Fig. 151.
The revolving cross you can now fasten with a nail or screw upon the end of the part last made (Fig. 151) so that it will revolve freely. Find the point at which the whole windmill will balance over your finger or a stick, and bore a vertical hole through the horizontal stick at this point. Through this hole loosely screw or nail the windmill on the end of a stick, slightly rounded to prevent friction (Fig. 151). Sandpaper the whole with rather fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper).
You can paint in one or more colours, if you wish (see Painting). The vanes can be painted in light and dark bands crossways, causing an appearance, when revolving, of concentric rings (like a target). By having two axles or spindles (Fig. 152) two sets of vanes can revolve at once, and, by slanting the vanes of the two sets in opposite ways, the two will revolve in contrary directions.
Fig. 152.
Fig. 153.
The weather-vane can be made of two pieces (Fig. 153).
A more elaborate affair (Fig. 154) is made on similar principles, but requires more care. The construction is obvious. Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Knife, Spokeshave, Drawshave, Rounding Sticks, and look up any other references. The general dimensions of the one illustrated are: length of main frame (in which spindle turns) 9", height of one end 4½", height of the other end 2½"; length of weather-vane (from main frame) 10", width at end 4½"; length of revolving fans 1', width at ends 2". The spindle is held in the main frame on a slant (Fig. 155) to lessen any tendency to slip out, so the hole through which it passes should have a corresponding slant (see Boring). The revolving fans or vanes are reduced to round pins at the small ends and fitted tightly into holes bored in the head of the spindle, all the vanes being turned to have the same slant. Care will be required to bore these holes so that the vanes will be equidistant and revolve in the same line.
Fig. 154.
Fig. 155.
The weather-vane is set in a slanting groove cut in the bottom of the main frame (Fig. 155), and fastened with a couple of nails or screws. You can cut this groove by making two saw-kerfs and paring out the wood between with a chisel. The bent nail or wire shown on the top of the spindle in Fig. 154 is to keep the latter from jumping out of the frame from a sudden change of wind. The vanes should all be shaved down until they are quite thin at the ends.
Set up and finish this windmill like the one just described.
Fig. 156.
Fig. 157.
Fig. 158.
A form which is good practice in whittling, and upon which you can also exercise your artistic faculties, is the "Happy Jack" shown in Fig. 156. Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, Rasp, and File, and look up any other references. Fourteen inches is a good height for the figure itself. The outline of body and head can be sawed from a ¾" board and the edges trimmed and rounded and the details cut with a knife, or rasp and file can be used for the edges. The arms are made of separate pieces. Bore holes in the outer ends of the arms to hold the paddles (see Boring). Also bore holes lengthways into the arms, from the ends next the body, and into these holes tightly drive the ends of a stiff metal rod long enough to also pass through the body at the shoulders (Fig. 156). Before actually driving this rod into both arms you must bore the hole through the body. The holes in the arms should be smaller than the rod, so that it may drive in tightly without danger of getting loose, but the hole in the body must be larger than the rod, that the latter may revolve easily in it. Bore in from the centre of each shoulder as carefully as you can, until the holes meet, rather than attempt to bore clear through from one side. Put in the rod and drive on the arms, but not quite up to the shoulders. In driving on the arms be sure to keep the holes for the paddles in the right positions, so that the paddles will be in line as shown—that is, so that when one points directly upwards the other will point directly downwards. Also bore a hole upwards between the legs for the rod upon which the figure turns, and screw or nail a piece of metal (Fig. 157), with a hole for this rod, on the bottom of the legs (Fig. 156). Fig. 158 shows a way to put on the hat. The paddles can be made from a shingle, which will save the labour of tapering the thickness towards the ends. The paddles must be set obliquely, or turned part way around, as in the case of any windmill. When set at the proper angles the man will spin around while the paddles are revolving. Sandpaper the whole (see Sandpaper), and paint in various colours (see Painting).
Fig. 159.
A set of boats to sail around in a circle is not hard to make (Fig. 159). Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and look up any other references.
Take two sticks from 2' to 4' in length, and from ¾" to 1¼" square, of any fairly strong wood. Halve these sticks at the middle (see Halving) and fasten them together in the form of a cross, strengthening the joint (weakened by the halving) by nailing or screwing on a piece of board above or below, as shown in Fig. 159.
Fig. 160.
Fig. 161.
The boats can be whittled from a piece of board on edge and fastened to the ends of the sticks by halving (Fig. 160), as well as nails or screws, or they can simply be flat pieces of board shaped as in Fig. 161 and screwed or nailed on top of the sticks. In the first case the halving had best be done before the sticks are fastened together. One mast with a simple leg-of-mutton sail will answer for each boat. A little experimenting will show you how much to haul in the sheet. Each boat must, of course, "come about" and "jibe" once in every rotation of the apparatus. Sandpaper with rather fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper), and paint as you wish (see Painting). The whole affair is balanced and pivoted on top of a pole in the same manner as the windmills just described, which see.
Fig. 162.
Fig. 163.
Fig. 164.
A steamer with screw propeller can be made from a piece of board on edge, shaped as shown in Fig. 162, a small windmill with short and broad fans (Fig. 163), serving for the screw. Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Knife, Spokeshave, and look up any other references. This boat must be made of a board so as to give a thin section (Fig. 164), in order that the screw may not be shielded from the wind, for this vessel must always head to windward or the screw will not revolve. To ensure this the fore and aft sail must always be kept set and the sheet close-hauled. This sail answers the purpose of the weather-vanes of the windmills just described. It can be made of tin or any sheet metal, or even of thin wood. The rest of the rigging and the smokestack you can arrange as you wish. The bottom of the rudder can be supported by a little strip extending aft from the keel. For the other details of the work, see the windmills already described.
Water-wheels.—An undershot wheel, turned by the water passing beneath (Fig. 165), can be easily made. It can be of any desired size, and of any wood readily worked.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, and look up any other references.
Fig. 165.
Fig. 166.
Fig. 167.
One like Fig. 166 can be made by simply nailing a set of small boards or paddles in a radial arrangement between two disks of wood. A dowel or broomstick will do for the shaft and should be fitted tightly in the hole bored through the wheel (see Boring), but should turn freely in the bearings at the side. It will make a rather neater job to shape the paddles as in Fig. 167, so that when put together the wheel will look like Fig. 166, but this is not at all necessary, and it will work just as well to make plain rectangular paddles and simply nail the disks on the outside edges (see Nailing). If you have no saw with which to get out the disks you can have them sawed at the mill, or you can work them out by describing the required circles and sawing a hexagon outside of the line with a common saw, when the circle can be finished with shave, hatchet, chisel, or knife (see Paring). Divide the circumference of each disk into as many parts as there are paddles and draw lines on the side to the centre, by which to nail the paddles in the right position. Start the nails on these lines and drive them nearly through before placing the paddles in position. Then nail one disk to the paddles, turn the wheel over and nail on the other disk. It is essential to a neat job that the paddles should all be of the same width. First make one edge straight. From this edge gauge the desired width on all the pieces (see Gauge) and saw or plane or trim, with knife, chisel, or shave, exactly to the line. If you make the paddles as shown in the cut, first square lines across at equal distances from one end (Fig. 167), and with a gauge set at a point equal to the thickness of the disks make lines parallel to each edge, and with the saw or saw and chisel, or even a knife, remove the pieces marked (see Paring).
Fig. 168.
Fig. 169.
The overshot wheel (Fig. 168) is harder to make, but is a livelier wheel. It is put together upon the same principle as the wheel just shown, except that the paddles, which do not project beyond the circumference of the disks, are not placed radially, but so that, with the addition of another set inserted to connect them, they form buckets.
Fig. 170.
To lay off the lines for the buckets, divide the circumference of each disk as before, and from the centre describe a small circle, as shown in Fig. 169. From the points on the circumference draw lines tangent to the small circle. These lines will give the positions for the bottoms of the buckets. To complete the buckets mark from the circumference equal distances on these lines, and from these last points draw lines as ab to the next points on the circumference. First, nail together with only the bottoms of the buckets (on the lines ca). Then fit in the other pieces, to complete the buckets, on the lines ab. The ends of these last pieces should properly be bevelled (see Bevelling) to make a fairly tight joint. The rest of the work is the same as for the undershot wheel. A larger form (but harder to make) is suggested in Fig. 170. See note under Windmills, above.
Totlet Town.
Play Village.—It is capital fun for several young people to design and build a miniature village, and it is certainly an instructive and quite inexpensive pastime. Such a village, planned and made recently by a family group of half a dozen youngsters, and facetiously named "Totlet Town," was constructed entirely of old boxes and packing-cases of all sizes up to three feet long, waste pieces of board, shingles, etc.; but when painted and arranged in a corner of the lawn, with dirt roads, and paths, small evergreen shade trees and hedges, well-sweeps, miniature fences, and other accessories, it made so pretty a picture as to be the admiration of all who saw it. If you have as good a time in making such a village as these young people did, the experiment will be a success. You can easily think up many additions to the suggestions here given.
Fig. 171.
The buildings were made by selecting boxes of the desired proportions, sawing out spaces for the doors, adding the roofs and any other alterations. The chimneys were made of blocks painted red. The doors were made of pieces of board and hinged with leather. Bay-windows and the like were made of blocks of the required shape nailed to the boxes. The windows and blinds were represented by painting. Some of the roofs were shingled with pieces of shingles. A suggestion for a light-house is shown in Fig. 171.
Considerable care in the use of the tools is called for to make these buildings neatly. Much of the effect depends, also, upon the care with which the painting is done (see Painting), and the taste used in the selection of the colours. Brighter colours are suitable for a little village of this sort than would be in good taste for real houses. White with green blinds is good, of course; or yellow can be used. The roofs should be painted. Red roofs are very effective.
Before beginning work, read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Withdrawing Nails, etc.
Fig. 172.
Dolls' House.—The house shown in Fig. 172 is quite easily made, and a shallow affair like this has the advantage of being more convenient than a deep one about arranging the contents.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, and look up any other references.
Pine and whitewood are suitable, or any wood can be used that is not hard to work.
It can be made of any desired size. Three or four feet wide and a little higher in the middle will probably be suitable for ordinary cases, and twelve or fifteen inches will be a good depth (from front to back).
The construction is plain. The roof and sides are to be cut from dressed stock of uniform width, and from ½" to 7/8" in thickness.
Carefully true one edge, if it is not already true, and get out the bottom board, then the upright sides, and then the roof. The bevels at the highest point of the roof and where the roof joins the sides you must mark with the bevel (taking the slant from your drawing), or you can find it by arranging two strips to cross at the desired angle and marking the bevel by them (see Bevelling). To saw these bevels requires much care. Draw lines by the square on both sides, as well as the angle on the edge, and putting each board in the vise saw carefully and steadily.
The three floors should be narrower than the outside of the house by just the thickness of the stock to be used for the back, and rectangular openings must be sawed from one of the back corners at the head of the stairs to allow the dolls to pass from one story to another. If the sides of the house are 14" wide, make these floors 13½" wide, and use ½" or 3/8" stock for the back. Also mark and saw out the windows. To do this, first bore a series of holes inside of the line (see Boring) and cut out whatever wood may be necessary until you make a slot in which to start the saw. Any roughness left from the holes can be trimmed with knife, chisel, or file (see Paring). Nail these parts together, just as in making a box, carefully sighting across the face to see that the front and back do not wind, or use winding-sticks (q. v.). Also test with the square to see that the sides are at right angles with the bottom. Get out stock for the back carefully (with the boards running up and down) so that the boards will be square at the bottom, and when these pieces are fitted in place to form the back they will ensure the house being square. The slant by which to cut the top of the back can be laid off by measurement from your working drawing or the back can be put in place and the lines marked directly from the under side of the roof. When fitted, nail the back securely in place, first cutting the windows as before. Then fit in the upright partitions, first cutting the doorways. The staircase can be made easily if you have, or can saw from the corner of a larger piece, a triangular strip which can be cut in short sections to use for the steps. Nail these to a thin strip of board (from the under side) and fasten the whole in position (Fig. 173). The chimney can be made of a block with a notch sawed to fit the roof, or it can be made of four pieces, box-fashion. Glass for the windows can be held in place by gluing strips of cloth or paper around the edges, or thin strips can be nailed around with fine brads. Thin strips can be nailed around the window openings on the outside, if you wish.
Fig. 173.
All the pieces should be neatly planed and scraped before putting together, and, when entirely put together, the whole should be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper. The parts coming on the inside had best be sandpapered before putting together, however, but be sure not to do this until all cutting with the tools has been done. Set all the nails carefully (see Nail-set). The whole can be painted in one or more colours (see Painting), and portieres, window drapery, etc., can be added according to your taste and the materials at command. The inside can be papered, if preferred.
A more thoroughly workmanlike way is to groove the bottom into the sides, the upright partitions into the floor boards, and to cut rabbets around on the back edge of the sides, roof, and bottom, into which to set the backboards. This involves a good deal more work and care in laying out the work (see Grooving). If you have the pieces got out at a mill it can be easily done, however.
Fig. 174.
It may be a convenience to screw castors on the bottom. A door (with a door-bell or knocker) can be added to the front of the hall, if thought best.
A house which can be closed is shown in Fig. 174. The construction is quite similar to the preceding. A strip must be fastened above and below the large doors, as shown, that they may open without striking either the roof or the floor on which the house stands. The little door, representing the entrance to the house when closed and shown in the closed half, can be made to open independently and can have a bell or knocker.
If this house is made quite deep (from front to back) it can easily be divided lengthways by a partition and made into a double house, the back side being made to open in the same way as the side here shown.
CHAPTER VIII
HOUSES FOR ANIMALS
The sizes and shapes of these houses and cages will depend upon the animals for which they are built and the places you have to put them. Frequently they can be built to advantage against the side of a building, or a fence, or in a corner, and boxes can be utilised in various ways.
Make the houses, cages, and runways as large as you can afford, for there is much more danger of the pets being cramped and crowded than of their having too much room.
Wire netting or wire cloth (held in place by staples) should be freely used, as ventilation is very important for the health and comfort of the animals. Special openings should always be made for cleaning the houses or cages in case all parts cannot be conveniently reached from the doors, for cleanliness is of the utmost importance in all such structures. The floors of the larger houses should always slant or have holes provided for drainage. Covering the floors with sheets of zinc will promote cleanliness. In the smaller cages removable pans or trays can often be used (Fig. 190). Houses and cages with wooden floors should always be raised from the ground on posts, blocks, or stones, to avoid dampness. Clean sand scattered over the floor and frequently renewed will contribute much to the cleanliness of the cages. The bedding should also be changed frequently.
In the case of those animals which use their teeth for gnawing, the corners and angles can be protected by tacking on strips of wire cloth, tin, or zinc, but there is no need to do this over the flat surfaces. In the case of cages or houses (and the runways) which have the ground for the floor and are to be inhabited by animals that will burrow or dig their way out, the wire netting should be continued underground to a considerable depth, or it can be carried down a little way and then bent to lie horizontally, forming a sort of wire floor, over which the dirt can be replaced, and the animals will be unable to tunnel their way out; but in all such cases care must be taken to proportion the mesh of the netting and the size of the wire to the strength and escaping powers of the animals.
Houses for animals often look pretty when made in imitation of real houses, but when you do this choose simple types of good proportions, and do not try to copy all the little details of the large houses. Avoid "gingerbread" work, and do not cover your houses with meaningless jig-sawed scroll work and rows of towers and pinnacles, and do not use all the colours of the rainbow in painting them.
For houses, hutches, boxes, cages, etc., which are to be kept out of doors or in some outbuilding, ordinary machine-planed stock of fair quality is sufficiently good, and planing and smoothing by hand is usually a waste of labour; but if you wish to make a small cage or box to be kept in the house, and to be nicely finished or painted, good clear stock should be used, and the final smoothing done by hand.
In case you wish to make several cages or boxes of the same pattern, as, for example, like Fig. 178, it is much less work to go through the process with two or more at a time than to make each separately.
A house for pets should not be built, as is sometimes done, on a platform or base projecting beyond the base of the house, as this tends to collect and retain moisture and dampness, but should be clear of any platform, like an ordinary dwelling-house, so that the rain will be shed directly upon the ground.
When two or more boards are required for each side of the roof it is usually better to lay them up and down, as in Fig. 187, rather than horizontally or lengthways, because a roof laid in this way is better about shedding the water, which tends to collect in the cracks if the boards are laid horizontally. For the rougher structures the hinges can be screwed flat upon the outside (as shown in Fig. 179), but for nice work they should be fitted in the usual way. (See Hinges.)
Before beginning work upon these cages and houses, read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, and look up any other references.
Fig. 175.
Fig. 176.
Cheap and serviceable cages and houses can be built by simply driving posts or stakes into the ground and fastening wire cloth or netting to them, much as you would build a fence. This wire-fenced enclosure can be covered with a wooden roof if desired. A runway and playground can easily be made in this way.
A more portable arrangement can be made by putting together wooden frames covered with wire. Very simple forms are shown in Fig. 175. By putting together four or more of such frames a cage can readily be made which can be covered with a wooden roof or with wire (Fig. 176). If these frames are fastened with screws or screw-eyes and hooks, the whole can quickly be taken apart if desired.
Fig. 177.
A very simple cage can be easily made, on the principle of the common chicken coop, with a few boards or slats and a little wire netting (Fig. 177), but a house of this sort is not especially desirable except for economy of materials and labour. The construction is too simple to require description.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.
A much better form is that with upright sides, or with one slanting side. Figs. 178 and 179 show an excellent arrangement, easily made. It can be made any desired size or proportions and is suitable for quite a variety of animals. If small, ½" stock will be thick enough, but if large, 7/8" stock should be used. The construction is similar to that of a common box (see Box-making, page 219). One corner of each end should be sawed off slantingly (Fig. 178), and a rectangular piece cut from the opposite corner, as shown, before the box is nailed together. The bevelling of the edges of the top and front boards can be done after the box is put together (see Bevelling). For making the door, see Doors, in [Part V]. The hinged board at the bottom gives access for cleaning. If for indoors, and to be finished or painted, clear stock should be selected and the outside carefully smoothed. (See Plane, Scraper, Sandpaper, Finishing, and Painting.)
Fig. 180.
For something more like a house, the design shown in Fig. 180 is good and of simple construction. This can be made of any size from that of a small box to a small house. For the latter, see Part III. (House-building for Beginners).
Fig. 181.
To make a little house of this pattern first get out the bottom of the required dimensions, and then the ends, which are alike and to be nailed to the ends of the bottom. Take pains to be accurate in getting out the pieces, or the house will be askew when put together. The construction of the sides is plain. The door can be made as in Fig. 180 (see Doors), or the sides can be entirely of wire and the door placed at the end (Fig. 181). The roof is simply nailed down in place, one side being got out as much wider than the other as the thickness of the stock, so that one will lap over the edge of the other at the ridge. If the angle formed at the top is not a right angle, however, the edge of the narrower roof-board must be bevelled according to the angle (see Bevelling).
A house of this sort can be made with one end closed, while the other remains open (Fig. 182). This is a good arrangement for many animals. First get out the floor, then the pieces for the closed end, cutting out the doorway and a window, if one is desired. These openings can be cut as shown on page 122. Next get out the framework for the open end and fasten it in position. A door can be fitted wherever desired and the roof put on, as just shown.
Fig. 182.
Fig. 183.
A house or cage, chiefly open-work, with two sleeping-boxes or nests (Fig. 183) is similar in general construction. This is suitable for indoors (as in an outbuilding). If to be left exposed to the weather, a solid roof can be added, or it can be covered with canvas or something of the sort when necessary. The construction is similar to that of those already described. This cage can be used for pigeons and other pets, and can be made of any size, according to circumstances. For the door, see Doors and Hinges, in [Part V]. The box attachments can best be made at the same time, just alike (see Box-making, page 219), and fastened to the sides of the house, the doorways having been cut in the sides before the house was put together. If these boxes or nests cannot be readily reached for cleaning, they should be hinged to the main house, or have special openings with lids or doors, so that they can be kept clean. The ridge-pole is simply a strip of board placed horizontally between the upper ends of the rafters.
Fig. 184.
Rabbit Hutch.—A simple rabbit-house, or hutch, can be made by putting together a good-sized box, partitioning off one end, to be closed by a door, and leaving the rest open, except for the necessary wire sides (Fig. 184).
Fig. 185.
This is made just like a box (see Box-making, page 219), the other details being similar to those already shown. A sliding-door (Fig. 185) can be inserted, if desired, to cover the hole between the closed and open parts. The hutch should be raised from the ground to avoid dampness, and proper arrangements for cleanliness made, as referred to above.
A more elaborate hutch (Fig. 186) can be constructed in a similar manner to the houses already shown. Access to the open part can be had by means of the doors or lids on top. For the doors, see Doors and Hinges. The slides for the door at the end can be made by cutting a rabbet at the edge of a square stick, as shown, or the rabbet can be formed by using strips of different widths, letting the wider lap over the narrower so as to form the rabbet. Both doors can be made to swing in the usual way, of course, if preferred. Where the two sides of the roof meet at the top, the edges must be bevelled (see Bevelling).
Fig. 186.
Kennel.—There are many kinds of dog-houses, and the style and size must, of course, depend upon the dog and the situation.
Fig. 187.
A good kennel (Fig. 187) for a small dog can be made very much as you would make a box (see Box-making, page 219). If for a very small dog the ends, sides, floor, and sides of the roof can each be made of one piece, but ordinarily these parts will each be made of two or more pieces. Matched boards are suitable. First get out the bottom, then the sides and ends. If you use boards with square edges you must of course use pieces of different widths, so that the cracks between them will not meet at the corners, or put posts at the corners. This is the best way to do with matched boards, if the house is at all large. Nail these parts together. It will be easiest to cut the slant at the top of each end—the gable—so that the sides of the roof will meet in a right angle. This looks well and saves the need of bevelling the edges of the roof-boards. An opening for the doorway should be cut in one of the ends before the roof is nailed on. If you do not use matched boards, a strip should be nailed on the inside at each side of the doorway, to keep the boards together. The roof-boards for one side should be as much longer than those for the other as the thickness of the stock. The same applies to the width of the saddle-boards which cover the extreme top. If the roof is not made of matched boards, battens should be nailed over the cracks as shown in Part III.
Fig. 188.
For a large dog a kennel should be built more like a real house and not so much like a box. A structure with a frame (Fig. 188) can be built of any size suitable for a kennel, and will be more durable than the preceding form.
For the frame, small joists, or strips of plank of any size from 1½" × 2" to 2" × 3" can be used. First get out the sills or bottom pieces of the framework, nailing them together at the corners to form a rectangular frame, as shown in Fig. 189.
Fig. 189.
Fig. 189a.
Then get out the corner posts and fasten them in place, and on top of them fasten the plates (a second horizontal frame like that at the bottom); and see that all this framework is rectangular and free from winding. The sills and plates can be halved at the corners (see Halving), but this is not really necessary in so small a house, as the boarding adds strength to the joints. The frame can be temporarily held in place until the boarding is put on by nailing on as many diagonal strips (Fig. 189) as may be required. Two rafters at each end should next be put in place, their ends having been cut at an angle of 45° (see Mitreing) and the upper ends being nailed to a strip of board which serves for a ridge-pole. An intermediate rafter on each side will add stiffness to the roof. The floor should next be laid, as it will be inconvenient in so small a house to do this after the sides are put on. The sides and ends should be boarded with sheathing or matched boards laid vertically, cutting out the doorway and a small window in the back gable for ventilation. The roof can next be laid with the boards running horizontally, or lengthwise, as this house is to be shingled. The shingles can be dipped in creosote stain or paint to good advantage before laying. After the roof has been shingled the saddle-boards can be put on and the house will be ready for painting (see Painting). Another form of doorway is shown in Fig. 189a. For the various details of a framed structure of this sort, see Part III. (House-building for Beginners).
The author of House and Pet Dogs gives the following suggestion:
"The best device is an ordinary single kennel forty-eight inches by thirty-three inches, with an A roof, but with a detached bottom of the same size as the outside ground measurement of the kennel. This bottom is hinged by two stout strap-iron hinges to the side of the kennel, and is provided with two wooden axles, to which are fitted four wooden wheels, say four inches in diameter. When closed it looks like any other kennel on wheels. It can be easily moved by one person from damp spots, etc.; and by turning the kennel back upon its hinges the bedding can be daily sunned and aired and the kennel washed and purified without trouble. The wheels also serve to keep the bottom clear of the ground, and allow of a free circulation of air beneath."
Squirrel House.—The small squirrel house, or cage, shown in Fig. 190, is made like a box (see Box-making, page 219), with the exception of the roof. The construction is similar to that of the houses already described.
Fig. 190.
Fig. 191.
It can be made of 7/8" or ¾" stock. The dimensions of the bottom can be made to agree with those of any baking-pan you may have, as shown. The slide in the roof can be made of zinc or tin. That in the side can be of either zinc or wood. After the wire cloth has been nailed on a strip of wood can be nailed around the front edge as a moulding. The little sleeping-box in the upper corner can be readily reached from the slide in the roof and connects with the floor of the house by a little door and a flight of steps (Fig. 191). The latter can be made as shown in Fig. 173. The most difficult part of this house to make nicely is the joining of the roof-boards. These must be bevelled at the ridge and the tops of the ends must also be bevelled where they join the roof (see Bevelling). For other details, see the houses already described.
A more elaborate affair, shown below, can be made quite large and will give room for a whole family of squirrels. This house is, however, considerably more difficult to make than the others shown in this chapter, and if you have not already acquired some skill as a workman you had best be content with a simpler design.
Four or five feet by about three feet will not be too large for the ground dimensions of the main part of the house. Regular sills can first be nailed together for the bottom of the main house and ell in the way shown in Fig. 189. These sills can be from 1½" × 2" to 2" × 3". Perhaps an easier way is that shown in Fig. 192, in which three cross cleats or sills are laid and the floor nailed directly to these. When the lengthways boards shown in Fig. 192 are nailed to the floor boards and the sills the bottom will be sufficiently stiff for a squirrel house. The sides and ends of the ell can be made of boards nailed together like a box, the openings for the doors, windows, etc., being first cut out; but the main part of the house should have posts at the corners to which the boarding at the ends is to be nailed. Rafters should also be put in at each gable. Plain sheathing will look better for the outside of this house than that with beads. After the outside has been boarded and the upper floors put in, the roofs and the cupola can be added. If the cupola is too difficult it can be omitted, as it is a luxury to which the average squirrel is unaccustomed.
Fig. 192.
The stairs, the openings in the floors, the doorways, the sleeping-box, the revolving wire cage, the tree, and the swing in the cupola, are shown in Fig. 192. The stairs can be made as shown in Fig. 192; strips nailed vertically at the outside corners of the house, as in a real house, will give a more finished appearance. The window casings can be made by nailing strips on the outside. The glass can be held in place by strips, or small rabbets can be cut as in a window sash. For the shingling of the roof, see Part III. (House-building for Beginners). Each door can be made of a single piece of board, cleated (see Doors). For any other details, see the houses just described and also Part III. (House-building for Beginners), and Painting.
Fig. 193.
Several cages of various sizes can readily be built together, as shown in Fig. 193, which is merely a suggestion, for, of course, the shape, size, arrangement, and number of compartments must depend on the number and kinds of animals and the situation. Various combinations will suggest themselves as occasion calls for them.
If you have such creatures as frogs, turtles, lizards, etc., a water-tank should be provided. This can easily be made by taking a tightly made flat box and caulking the cracks, or pouring hot tar or pitch into them and also tarring or painting the whole surface of the outside. A board can be fitted slantingly from the bottom to the edge, at one or both ends, to form an incline by which the users of this miniature pond can crawl in and out of the water. The box must, of course, be sunk in the ground inside of the cage.
For larger houses, as for hens, etc., see, also, the principles of construction of somewhat larger structures in Part III. (House-building for Beginners).
Travelling Cage.—A small box (Fig. 194) in which to carry a kitten, a squirrel, a bird, or any small animal, when travelling, is often very useful and much better than the bags and baskets so often used for the purpose.
Fig. 194.
All that is necessary is to make a small box of ½" stock (see Box-making, page 219), with one side open (to be covered with wire cloth or netting), and the opposite side made in two parts, the upper of which is hinged to serve as a door or lid. Strips of moulding can be nailed on with brads along the edges where the wire is fastened, the door can be fastened with hook and screw-eye or catch, and a handle fastened upon the top. It is a good plan to round the edges of a box which is to be carried around. If this box is neatly got out and put together and carefully smoothed and finished it will look well and serve for many years.
CHAPTER IX
IMPLEMENTS FOR OUTDOOR SPORTS AND ATHLETICS
Fig. 195.
Fig. 196.
Stilts.—There is very little to say about the manufacture of stilts. The construction is obvious (Figs. 195 and 196), the size and arrangement depending on your own size and skill. The handles can either be long, or reach up as high as the hand, or short and strapped to the legs.
Tilt or See-Saw.—One of small size is shown in Fig. 197. The exact proportions given are not necessary, provided you make it strong and so that it will not tip over.
Fig. 197.
Fig. 198.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Nailing, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 199.
Fig. 200.
First make the standard (Fig. 198) of any sound plank 1¼" to 2" thick and 12" or more in width. Get out the pieces to the dimensions before beginning to put together, the ends of the braces H being cut at a mitre (see Mitring). Square the line EF across the plank B at the middle (Fig. 199). Drive three or four stout wire nails (3" to 4" long, according to the thickness of the plank) nearly through the plank on this line. Stand the piece A on end under these nails and drive them through firmly into it (Fig. 200), keeping the two boards at right angles. Bore holes with a ¼" bit (see Boring) in each end of the pieces H, as shown, taking pains not to get them too near the edge. Screw these braces in place with screws from 2¼" to 3¼" long (according to the thickness of the plank), keeping the piece A at right angles with the plank B (see Screws). Screw this frame on the cross-pieces C and D, as shown. Nails can be used throughout, but screws are better. With plane, draw-knife, or spoke-shave (see Part V. for these tools), round the top edge of A.
Fig. 201.
The tilting-plank should be of spruce, ash, hard pine, or any strong wood, and had best be from 1½" to 2" thick, according to the length, which can be 12' or 14'. It should of course be planed. Next get out a few cleats 7/8" square, or thicker, and screw them on the under side of the tilting-plank at the middle (Fig. 201, which shows the under side of the plank), so that the spaces between them will be a little wider than the thickness of the upright piece A—just enough to allow the plank to tilt freely. Nail strips on the edge, to keep the plank from slipping off sideways, shaving a little from the edges of A at the top if necessary. Finally run over the edges with a plane (see Plane), and sandpaper the plank to prevent slivers.
Simply paint or oil and varnish (see Painting or Finishing).
A larger and more elaborate affair, adjustable to different heights, is shown in Fig. 202.
Fig. 202.
Fig. 203.
Fig. 204.
First get out the main pieces to the dimensions (Figs. 203, 204, 205). The upright pieces should be mortised into the planks on which they rest (Fig. 206) (see Mortising). Gauge a line lengthways along the centre of each side of the uprights (see Gauge) and mark points (say 6" apart) on these lines for holes for the iron rod on which the tilting-plank rests, taking pains to place them alike on the two uprights. Then bore ¾" or ½" holes (see Boring), according to the size of rod you can get. Next fit the cross bar at the top. This can simply be nailed down or fitted between the uprights (Fig. 207), or made with a shoulder (Fig. 208), which will add to the stiffness of the frame. The rest of the construction of the standard is plain, and similar to that just described.
Fig. 205.
Fig. 206.
Fig. 207.
Fig. 208.
Iron rods can be used for braces, if you wish (Fig. 209).
The tilting-plank should be 16' or 18' long, and of 2" plank. A thread with nut on one end of the iron rod on which the plank rests will keep the rod from slipping out of place. The plank can be fastened to the rod by iron straps or even staples, or a box-like bearing can be quickly made (Fig. 210). Washers can be placed between the plank and the uprights if necessary. Smooth the edges with a plane (see Plane) and sandpaper the plank. Simply paint or oil and varnish (see Painting and Finishing).
Fig. 209.
Fig. 210.
Skis.—To make as perfect skis as possible they should be of rift stock, that is, split out instead of sawed; but this may seldom be practicable for you and is not really necessary. Good straight-grained sawed stock will answer, but be sure that you get clear, strong stock—air-dried if possible. Always avoid kiln-dried stock for anything which is to be put to sudden and violent strain, if you can get that which has been naturally seasoned (see Chapter III.).
Ash is very good (white ash the best); spruce, light and strong; oak, strong but heavy. Any strong and elastic wood will do, if not too heavy. If you can get stock which is naturally sprung in a good curve upward and is satisfactory in other respects, take it, for a convex curve upward underneath the foot gives spring and elasticity and helps prevent the skis from becoming hollowed too much by the weight of the body. This curve is not necessary, but the better ones are purposely so made. Skis are sometimes used in very rude forms—as two strips of wood with the front ends shaved down and bent up at an angle. Small ones can even be made of staves from barrels, but these are very unsatisfactory.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Draw-knife, Plane, Spokeshave, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 211.
Fig. 212.
Fig. 213.
Fig. 214.
First get out the pieces of the required size. The length for a man is usually about 8' and the width about 4", though they are used even as long as 12' or 13'. From 5' to 8' long and from 3½" to 4" wide will probably be right for you, but the dimensions depend on your size, of course. Next taper the forward ends, as shown in Fig. 211. You can mark both edges alike by drawing the curve free-hand or with a spline (see Spline) on a piece of stiff paper, from which you can cut out a pattern for drawing the curve on the wood. Next make the pieces thinner towards the ends (Fig. 212), noticing that the forward end is thinner than the after end and is shaved down more quickly so that the stock may be thin where the toe bends up. This requires great care unless the grain is very straight, for a little hasty slashing will make too deep a cut (see Paring, etc.). Good forms are shown in Figs. 213 and 214, the former showing sections at the middle and the latter nearer the ends, but as the toe is approached the top should become flat for ease in bending. This shaping can best be done by the draw-knife, spoke-shave, or plane.
Fig. 215.
Fig. 216.
Fig. 217.
Bend the points of the toes upwards about 6" above the horizontal line to ensure their riding clear of obstructions, but there is no gain in curling them up a foot. For the process of bending, see Bending Wood. Then turning the skis over, gauge (see Gauge) parallel lines for the grooves on the bottom. Work the grooves out with the gouge or with the saw and chisel (see Gouge and Grooving) unless you chance to have the plane designed for this purpose.[20] Make these grooves shallower as they approach the toe, leaving no groove where the toe bends up.
Fig. 218.
Balance the skis lengthways on a stick or your finger and put stout leather straps just forward of the balancing point. These can be riveted or even screwed to the edges of the skis (Fig. 215), but a better way is to put them through slots cut in the wood (Fig. 216). Gauge accurately for the slots, marking on both edges, and bore in from both sides (see Boring). The slots must then be cleaned out with chisel and file (see Mortising). An easier way and fully as strong is to cut grooves (Fig. 217) with saw and chisel and cover them with thin strips securely screwed on (Fig. 218). Some use a second lighter strap to go above the heel. This can be screwed to the edges if you use it. Strips screwed across under the instep (Figs. 219 and 220), or behind the heel (Fig. 221), to prevent the foot sliding back are sometimes used.[21] For racing the Norwegian skis are turned up at the rear end also.
Fig. 219.
Fig. 220.
Fig. 221.
Fig. 222.
The pole, like the skis, must be of light, strong stuff, and can be round or eight-sided (see Rounding Sticks). To shape the tapering end make the stick uniformly eight-sided for the whole length first and then plane each side down at the end to get the taper. The hole in the disk must not be quite so large as the diameter of the pole, so that it cannot slip up farther than the tapering part (Fig. 222). Many dispense with the disk.
Finally smooth skis and pole with scraper (see Scraper) or glass, and sandpaper (see Sandpaper), and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see Finishing). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see Finishing), and the bottoms can also be rubbed with wax or tallow, if you wish.
Toboggan.—This is now commonly made of narrow strips, in principle much like several skis placed side by side—an easier form to make than the older pattern, formed of one or two wide pieces, as originally made by the Indians.
White oak and hickory are probably the best woods. Ash, maple, birch, basswood, or any hard wood which can be bent and has elasticity can be used. As in the case of the ski, to make the best possible the pieces should be rift, or split out, rather than sawed, to ensure straight grain; but, as this may be out of the question for you, be sure to select the straightest-grained clear stock you can find, for, besides the bending of the ends, there is great strain put upon it in coasting. For the same reason use air-dried stock and avoid kiln-dried if possible.
Probably the best and most scientific way to fasten the parts of a toboggan together is the old way adopted by the Indians of binding or lashing with thongs. This gives great elasticity and allows the toboggan to adjust itself to the inequalities of the surface to a greater degree than is possible with the tightly fastened joints now in use. You can try this way instead of that given below, if you prefer, but be sure to cut little grooves in the bottom for the thongs or cords to fit in, or they will be quickly worn through.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 223.
The size can vary from 3' long by 1' wide to 10' or 12' long by 20" to 22" wide; 4' long by 15" or 16" wide is good for a single toboggan; 8' long by 18" is a good size for three or more persons. You will probably find the stock most readily in the form of 12' boards. One-half inch in the rough will be thick enough, though you may have to take inch (rough) or 7/8" (planed) boards. Let us make an 8' toboggan (Fig. 223). Have the stock planed and sawed in strips about 10' long, 2½" wide, and not less than ¼" nor more than 3/8" in thickness. If they are tapered a little in thickness for 12" or 15" at the forward end they can be bent more easily, but do not shave them down too much (see Plane and Drawshave). Smooth the bottom surfaces of the strips with plane and scraper (see Scraper). It is hardly necessary to plane the upper surfaces by hand, as the planer will leave them fairly smooth, though they will look a little nicer smoothed by hand. Plane the edges. Next get out eight cross-bars or cleats 18" long × 3/8" thick and from 1½" to 3" wide. If wide they can be tapered at the edges, and if narrow, the edges should be rounded (Fig. 224). Get out also two or three cleats 18" long, ¼" thick, and 1¼" wide, and one piece 18" long and about ¾" × 7/8" (half of a hardwood broomstick will do).
Fig. 224.
The long strips must now be bent at the forward end (see Bending Wood). After they are bent take the eight cleats and, laying one across the strips as it is to go, mark points for three holes at each strip (Fig. 224). Bore 3/16" or ¼" holes in the cross strips and countersink them very carefully (see Boring and Countersink), so that the heads of the screws will be very slightly lower than the surface—sunk barely enough to prevent any corners or edges from sticking above the surface. Take great care not to countersink too deeply, for the long strips are so thin that the screws may come through on the under side. Mark and bore the other seven cleats by this first one.
Now take one cleat, to be put on at the rear end 8' from the beginning of the curve. Screw one end of this cleat in place (see Screws), test with the square, and screw the other end. Then put in the intermediate screws, driving them all firmly home, and saw off the ends of the long strips just beyond this cleat. Square lines across every foot to the curve at the front, and screw on the other cleats. The length of the screws (which can be quite stout) should be such that they will almost, but not quite, go through to the under side of the toboggan. Be careful about this or the points will have to be filed off. Then screw the smaller cleats on the inside of the curve. Screw the remaining (stouter) cleat on the outside of the curve at the place where the curve is to end, and then saw off the projecting ends of the strips by this cleat. By thongs, belt-lacing, or strong cord at the ends of the cleat last put on fasten the curve (which will naturally tend to straighten somewhat) in the required position to the cleat beneath (Fig. 225).
Fig. 225.
Side hand-rails can be fastened at each side on top of the cross-cleats (Fig. 223). A common way is to make every other cross-cleat thicker (say 7/8") and fasten the side bars to these with large and stout screw-eyes, or notches can be cut on the under side of these thicker cleats before they are screwed on, and by passing thongs or cord through these notches the side-bars can be lashed in place. The side bars you can plane round or eight-sided (see Rounding Sticks) out of strips of any strong wood.
Sandpaper the bottom and finish with plenty of raw linseed oil, or with oil, shellac, and varnish, in successive coats (see Finishing). If open-grained wood is used it can be filled to good advantage with a coat of good wood-filler well rubbed in (see Finishing), and the bottom can be waxed or rubbed with tallow, if you wish.
Fig. 226.
If you are willing to put in the labour you can bevel or slope off one side of each of the long strips (except the two outer ones) so as to leave the strip thickest in the middle (Fig. 226). Unless you are willing to take pains enough to do it nicely (which will take some time), it will be best not to attempt it at all, or to have it done at a mill. If you have a good hill you can go well enough with the flat strips and it is not important to round them unless you are scoring fractions of a second against time. Another way is to curve the cross-cleats slightly (Fig. 226), leaving the long strips flat.
Some toboggans are made with low runners about an inch high.
Fig. 227.
You can, as you may know, patch up a sort of toboggan of barrel-staves, with which, though not a very workmanlike arrangement, you can have a lot of fun at no expense. You can get a high speed with this simple contrivance (Fig. 227) on a steep hill. It is not good, however, unless the pitch is steep. You can even get a good deal of sport from this apparatus in the summer on a very steep grassy knoll.
Wooden Guns and Pistols.—A gun on the principle of that shown in Fig. 228, the projectile power being furnished by elastic (rubber) cord, is easily made.
Fig. 228.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square,, Saw, Spokeshave, Knife, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
First saw the outline of the gun from a straight-grained pine or whitewood board. This can be quickly and cheaply done at any wood-working mill. The gun can then be finally shaped with the spoke-shave and knife. The rasp and file can be used (see Rasp and File.). Much of the shaping can be done with the draw-knife (see Draw-knife), and, in fact, the whole can be whittled out with a knife if other tools are wanting.
Fig. 229.
Fig. 230.
The most difficult parts of the work are the groove for the arrow and the arrangement of the trigger. Much care is needed to cut an accurate groove with a gouge (see Gouge), and, unless you are skilled, you can get a truer result by having this done by a carpenter or at a mill. A mortise (see Mortising) must be cut for the trigger long enough to allow it sufficient play (Fig. 229). The arrangement of the trigger is shown in Fig. 229. The elastic underneath the barrel (at the lower end of the trigger) must be sufficiently powerful (combined with its additional leverage) to balance the elastic which propels the arrow, so that the trigger will remain in position and hold the upper elastic drawn, until the pressure of the finger on the trigger releases it.
Fig. 231.
Fig. 232.
Fig. 233.
The barrel of the gun is sometimes built of three pieces (Fig. 230, showing section) of thinner stock, which obviates the grooving but makes more work otherwise. The groove can be left open on top (Fig. 230) or covered with a thin strip (Figs. 231 and 232). In the latter case a depression must be made in the barrel, so that when the strip is put on there will be a long slot in which the string can play back and forth (Fig. 232). With this arrangement you can make a notch (Fig. 233) to hold the cord when drawn. The trigger can be of wood or wire, pivoted on a screw or nail, so that when pulled the string will be pushed up and released (Fig. 233).
A tube is sometimes fastened to the barrel, as in a real gun, and a plunger is sometimes fitted to the tube to start the arrows, or bullets in case they are used (Fig. 234).
Fig. 234.
Fig. 235.
Fig. 236.
The ends of the elastic cord can be fastened to screw-eyes at the muzzle. A piece of leather thong or cord inserted at the middle of the upper elastic cord will wear better than the rubber at that point.
Another form of trigger is shown in Fig. 235, which can also be made of stiff wire (Fig. 236).
Fig. 237.
To finish the gun nicely, it should be scraped (see Scraper) and sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper). It can then be finished with oil and shellac or varnish (see Shellac, Varnish, Finishing).
These same methods of construction can, of course, be applied to a pistol.
Fig. 238.
A bow-gun or crossbow (Fig. 237) can be made on the same principle, using a bow instead of the elastic, and inserting it in a hole made through an enlargement of the under side of the barrel (Fig. 238).
Sleds.—Common sleds can be bought so cheaply that it is hardly worth while, as a rule, to make them. Many are so poorly made, however, and will stand so little rough usage, that a few suggestions may be of value if you should wish to make a really serviceable one yourself.
Take the dimensions from any sled which suits you. Avoid making your sled too high, however, as one ten or twelve inches high will coast no better than a low sled, and requires much more bracing to be strong.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 239.
The runners and cross-pieces should be of straight-grained oak, maple, ash, or other strong wood; 7/8" stock will do. Mark the runners carefully on the wood, according to your working-drawing (Fig. 239), and before sawing them out bore the holes for the rope (see Boring). Saw out the runners, or have them sawed by machine, and see that the curves are the same on each.
Fig. 240.
Get out three cross-pieces (Fig. 240) about 2" wide, and from 7/8" to 1¼" thick, with a shoulder at each end as shown. Mark and cut the mortises (see Mortising) in the runners (Fig. 239).
Put these parts together, forming the frame of the sled (Fig. 241), driving a pin through each mortise and tenon and adding the L irons shown in Figs. 241 and 242.
The seat may be thinner than the runners, and is to be fitted between them and to be screwed to the cross-pieces (see Screws). The thickness of the stock for the seat must be borne in mind when laying out the mortises in the runners.
Fig. 241.
Fig. 242.
Machine-planed stock is, of course, as smooth as is necessary for a sled, but smoothing by hand (see Plane, Scraper, and Sandpaper) will give a nicer surface. The runners can be shod at the blacksmith's with half-round irons, or round steel can be used with iron at the ends. In case of steel spring irons the runners can be slightly grooved on the edge, so far as may be necessary to keep the irons in place. The irons can be ½" to 5/8" in diameter.
Finish with paint (see Painting) or with oil, shellac, and varnish (see Finishing).
A "double-runner," "bob," or "traverse" sled can be built to good advantage. The sleds can be made as just described, or ready-made ones can be used. See that they are well put together, of the same width, and securely braced, as the strain upon them is great. The length of the double-runner is a matter of choice, of course. As to the height and width, however, if the coasting is straight, smooth, and comparatively safe there is no objection to a high seat, with a comfortable foot-board on each side for the passengers' feet, if you wish. But if you are going to coast on long, rough hills, with sudden curves and pitches to be taken in uncertainty and at whirlwind speed—the kind of coasting for real fun and exhilaration—avoid the luxurious top-heavy double-runners frequently seen. Make the sleds rather broad (18" is not too wide for the "track" of a 16' sled; which is a very long sled, however), and keep the height of the top-board down to about 10" or less.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 243.
The seat-board can be from 8' to 16' long, and about 12" to 14" wide. Board thickness is sufficient for a short seat, but if long a 1¼" plank should be used. If you have in mind to make a very long sled you should consider, before beginning, that you must either use a quite thick plank to get the necessary stiffness, which will add to the weight of the double-runner, or the plank must be stiffened or "trussed" with rods beneath like a bridge, which will add to the expense and labour. It should be of strong, elastic, straight-grained wood, free from bad knots or defects, as the strain upon it is great. It should not be too yielding and springy, however, or it may sag inconveniently. Clear hard Southern pine or ash is good. A plank of stiff spruce of good quality will do. The rear end can be rounded, as shown (Fig. 243).
Machine-planing is sufficient for the sides of the seat-plank, but the edges should be planed carefully (see Plane), and the angles slightly rounded off with the plane, spoke-shave, or rasp and file (see Spokeshave, Rasp, and File) to prevent splinters.
Fig. 244.
Fig. 245.
To enable the front sled to turn properly, get out two pieces of 2" plank, as shown in Fig. 244, about 3" wide and as long as the width of the sled, one being tapered toward the ends on the under side. The tapering is important, as it diminishes the friction when the front sled is turned. Screw one of these pieces firmly across the top of the front sled and the other across the lower side of the seat-board (see Screws), a hole being bored through the centre of each cross-piece (as well as through the seat-board and the top of the front sled) for the king-bolt upon which the front sled turns. Find these centres accurately and bore carefully with a bit 1/16" larger than the king-bolt (see Boring). The front sled should turn very freely and easily, and have plenty of play, but the bolt should not fit loosely enough to make the double-runner rickety.
A washer can be inserted between the cross-pieces. Sometimes a thick rubber washer is used to lessen the shock (Fig. 245).
Fig. 246.
To give the ends of the rear sled freedom to play up and down (without turning sideways) in passing over the inequities of the surface the arrangement shown in Fig. 243 (and enlarged in Fig. 246) is good. Do not make this of 7/8" stock. Pieces of plank should be used, the dimensions being so arranged that the seat-board will be equally raised from the front and rear sleds. The pins at the ends of the cross-piece should be not less than 1" in diameter (1¼" is better) and should be carefully cut (see Paring and Rounding Sticks). The best way is to have them turned to fit the holes in the rocker-shaped pieces. The latter should be long enough (about 1') to prevent danger of the wood breaking apart near the hole and to allow for screwing firmly to the seat-board.
Fig. 247.
Another way, sometimes adopted, is to use two cross-cleats with two bolts (queen-bolts) and thick rubber washers (Fig. 247), the bolts being loose enough in the holes to allow the necessary amount of play. Ropes or chain can be fastened from the rear sled to the seat-board, to prevent too much dropping of the former.
Fig. 248.
Many arrangements for steering have been invented. A cleat at the forward end of the seat-board to brace the feet against, the sled being guided by the ropes held in the hand (Fig. 248), is a simple way, though requiring more strength and steadiness of arm, when the coast is rough or dangerous, than is possessed by many steersmen. The brace for the feet should be bolted to the seat-board or strongly screwed from above and beneath. Another equally simple way is to screw the brace for the feet upon the forward sled (Fig. 243), cutting a shallow gain in the tops of the runners to hold it more securely. In this way of steering the arms can reinforce the legs, or the steering can be done by the legs alone. It is a very effective method, which gives a high degree of control of the forward sled without cumbersome tackle and leaves the seat-board free of obstructions.[22]
Fig. 252.
Fig. 253.
In case of a high double-runner, running foot-boards along each side can be added. A simple way to fasten these is by means of pieces of strap-iron bent as shown in Fig. 252 and screwed to the under side of the seat-board, with the foot-boards fastened to the projecting arms (Fig. 253). The dimensions to which the irons should be bent depend upon the height and size of the double-runner, but you should take pains that the space between the edge of the seat-board and the foot-board is such that the feet cannot become caught.
The problem of contriving a perfectly successful brake for a double-runner has not yet been solved. Like all other apparatus for emergencies it should be as simple as possible. Unless it is sure to work it will be worse than not to have one, as you will come to rely on it. The steersman is usually the one who first realises the need of braking, and when practicable he is the one upon whom it naturally devolves. If he steers with the hands he can brake with the foot against a lever as shown below, but if he steers with the feet it is pretty risky business trying to brake also with the foot and, unless you can contrive some way by which he can safely and quickly brake by hand (not an easy thing to do), the brake had best be worked by the rider at the rear. This has some obvious disadvantages. A few ideas are given below, but are not recommended as thoroughly satisfactory.
Fig. 254.
Fig. 255.
The simple and primitive way, so often used in the country by drivers of heavily loaded sleds, of dropping a chain under the runner is an effective method of braking, provided you have some sure method of dropping the chain under the runners. Fig. 254 shows a method which can be worked from either the forward or rear end of the double-runner. In the plan, or top view (Fig. 254), the details of the arrangement (being beneath the seat) would ordinarily be represented by dotted lines, but in this case, on account of the small size of the drawing, they are shown by full lines, as they would look if the seat-board were transparent. A way of holding up the middle of the chain is shown in Fig. 255. A small block a, perhaps 3" long, is screwed to the under side of the seat and the chain is held against it by the pivoted bar b (which is pivoted to the seat-board by a bolt and is kept in position by the spring), and on the under side of which a piece of metal is screwed at one end, which prevents the chain from dropping. The end of the bar b is connected by a wire with the lever in front. When the lever is pushed by the steersman's foot the bar b is pulled away from the block a and the chain falls by its own weight under the runners of the rear sled, which quickly brings the double-runner to a standstill. Fig. 256 shows the bar held in position by the spring. Fig. 257 shows the position of the bar after the lever has been pressed, with the open space which allows the chain to drop. The same apparatus can be worked from the rear end of the double-runner by simply having the wire to be pulled led back (Fig. 258), where it can be worked directly by the hand or you can contrive a lever to be raised.
Fig. 256.
Fig. 257.
Fig. 258.
A method of braking sometimes used is by means of a crooked lever formed from an iron rod, one end of which is pulled up by the hand while the lower part has one or more prongs which dig into the surface and stop the sled. Fig. 259 shows a form sometimes used, and Fig. 260 a top view showing position of the handle and prongs when not in use. Any blacksmith can arrange this apparatus, which is attached to the rear sled. A similar arrangement can be contrived to work by the steersman's foot if desired. One prong, attached to the under side of the seat-board, can be arranged as suggested (side view) in Fig. 260a.
Fig. 259.
Fig. 260.
Fig. 260a.
The double-runner should be thoroughly oiled, and a coat of shellac, followed after a day or two by a coat of varnish, will add much to its durability as well as to its appearance. Lubricate the working parts with soap or tallow.
If you have a gong, it should be worked by someone other than the steersman.
The rear sled is sometimes arranged to swivel like the front sled and to be steered by a second steersman, somewhat after the fashion of a long hook-and-ladder truck. This gives good command of the double-runner on curves.
Gymnastic Apparatus.—It will, in most cases, be out of the question for you to attempt to put up any building roomy enough for a "gym," but sometimes a number of you can club together and get the use of some vacant room in which satisfactory apparatus can be fitted at moderate expense. Some of it may be rather primitive compared with the mechanism of a modern college gymnasium, but will answer the purpose so far as getting up muscle is concerned. Most of you can find a place for one or more pieces of apparatus, either indoors or out. Much outdoor apparatus can be supported on posts driven into the ground, or even by fastening to trees. The outdoor apparatus is usually easier and cheaper to make, but has the obvious disadvantages of not being usable in bad weather or winter, to any great extent, and will not last so long on account of exposure to the weather. If, however, you fix things the right way and take the movable parts indoors during the bad weather, such a "gym" will last until it is outgrown, or until the next generation grows up to build a new one. If indoors have the room well ventilated. Often the second story of a barn makes a capital gymnasium. The few simple pieces of apparatus given here will be treated independently, as it is of course impossible to tell how you will be obliged to arrange them. You can vary the designs or proportions to suit the circumstances.
White ash, hickory, oak, hard pine, and for some purposes fir, spruce, and white pine, are suitable for gymnastic apparatus. For everything which is to stand violent strain or wrenching, as the horizontal bars, vaulting poles, and such things, use air-dried stock, if possible, avoiding kiln-dried, as the latter is more brittle and inelastic, and often utterly unfit for such uses (see Chapter III.). Of course for such parts only the toughest woods should be used, as white ash, hickory, oak, spruce.
Parallel Bars.—A useful form (and not beyond the skill of an amateur) is shown in Fig. 261. The height must, of course, depend upon the gymnast, and can range from 3' 6" to 5' 6", the width inside (between the bars) from 14" to 19", and the length from 6' to 8'.
Fig. 261.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The base of the apparatus can be simply made of 2" × 6" planks, as shown in Fig. 261, and fastened by screws (see Screws), or, as shown in Fig. 262, the pieces can be halved at their intersections (see Halving), in which case thicker stock may be used. For a small pair of bars the planks for the base can be somewhat lighter.
Fig. 262.
The upright posts should be of strong wood not less than 2" × 4" (unless for a very small pair of bars) and should be mortised at top and bottom, as shown in Figs. 263 and 264 (see Mortising). These joints should be pinned.
The bars themselves should be of the best white ash (hickory, oak, hard pine can be used), not less than 2" × 3" (unless for a small pair of bars). The arrangement and object of the iron braces is plain.
Fig. 263.
Fig. 264.
After the apparatus is all fitted together, take off the bars and carefully round the top edges for the entire length (see Rounding Sticks). The ends which project beyond the posts can also be rounded on the under side (i.e., made elliptical in section, as shown), if desired.
Machine-planing is sufficient for this apparatus, except for the bars themselves, which should be carefully smoothed by hand (see Plane, Scraper, Sandpaper), although, of course, the whole will appear more nicely finished if smoothed by hand. The square edges should be "broken" (i.e., slightly bevelled or rounded) so as not to be too sharp in case of contact with them.
The whole apparatus can be simply oiled thoroughly, or can be given in addition one or more coats of shellac or varnish (see Finishing), but a coat of oil is sufficient for the bars themselves, as they will be polished by use.
This arrangement has the advantage of being portable, but of course the base can be omitted, if desired, and the posts fastened directly to the floor. If mortises cannot be cut in the floor, blocks can be screwed to the floor around the base of each post so as to form a socket into which the post will fit.
Parallel bars can be readily made for outdoor use by simply setting four upright posts (not less than 3" × 4") firmly in the ground, at the same distances apart as specified for the movable bars described above, and fastening the bars to the tops of the posts by mortise and tenon, as already shown (Fig. 263). The posts should reach 3' or more below ground, both on account of the frost and to give increased steadiness, and the earth should be thoroughly tamped down around them with a sharp-pointed bar or stick. This apparatus should be thoroughly oiled and can be varnished (see Finishing). The posts should be of good thickness at the ground, but can be tapered toward the top, on the outside, to the thickness of the bars.
Horizontal Bar.—A design suitable for the amateur wood-worker is shown in Fig. 265.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
First make the upright posts or guides. These are somewhat like a trough in shape, side boards about 6" wide being screwed (see Screws) on the sides of a 2" × 3" joist. Fig. 266 shows sections in the middle and at each end, blocks being inserted at the ends for strength. The joist can be of any strong wood. The side boards, which serve as guides for the bar, had best be of hard wood. Hard pine, oak, maple, ash, or any strong wood can be used. You will require two of the joists and four side boards, all sawed squarely off the exact height of the room.[23]
The usual way would be to get out the pieces a little too long and, after they are fastened together, to saw off the ends so as to give the required length. Gauge lines on each side of the upright pieces (see Gauge) and intersect these lines at regular distances by others squared across and around three sides of the uprights, thus determining the places for the holes for the pins which hold the bar in position. These can be bored from each side with a 3/8" bit (see Boring).
Fig. 265.
Fig. 266.
Another way sometimes adopted when you have one or two stout timbers on hand or already in position for the posts is to screw two upright cleats of plank to the inner side of each timber, thus forming the groove for the bar, as shown in section in Fig. 267.
Fig. 267.
The uprights can now be fastened in place, taking care to have them exactly vertical and in line with each other. The distance apart will depend on the length of the bar. The uprights can of course be mortised into the floor, or the wood-work above, if the conditions admit, but it will usually answer every purpose to hold each end in place by four cleats firmly screwed to the floor or ceiling. It is usually simpler to have these uprights extend to the ceiling, but this is not necessary, and in some cases it may be advisable to brace them to the floor only, by wooden or iron braces, in some of the ways already shown, or they can be guyed with wire rope and turnbuckles.
Fig. 268.
Fig. 269.
The bar you had best have made or buy already made, in which case you can arrange the dimensions and position of the uprights to fit the bar. It can be from 5' in length to perhaps 6' 9" (6' is a good length), and should be not less than 1¾" in diameter, nor over 2". It should be of the best clear, straight-grained white ash or hickory (air-dried, not kiln-dried). One having a steel rod for a core is the best. The ends can be left square and bound with a square ferrule or band of iron of the right size to slip easily up and down in the grooves of the upright guides (Fig. 268). Any blacksmith can arrange this, as well as the pins to hold the bar. This apparatus can be finished in the same way as the parallel bars just described.
A suggestion for a post for outdoor apparatus is given in Fig. 269. The post should be set in the ground at least 3' and the earth well tamped down around it with a pointed bar or stick. The lower ends of the braces can themselves be set in the ground or abut against heavier posts set in the ground. This apparatus should be protected from the weather as in the cases described above.
Vaulting Apparatus.—You can buy iron standards or bases, and of course the whole apparatus, for high jumping and pole vaulting, but it is a simple matter to make a pair of uprights that will answer the purpose satisfactorily (Fig. 270).
Fig. 270.
Fig. 271.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Take two straight sticks 10' or 12' long and about 2½" square. Taper each piece with the plane until about 1½" square at one end. Make each base of two pieces of board about 4" wide and perhaps 3' long, as shown in Fig. 270, or halve two pieces of plank (see Halving). Mortise the larger ends of the posts into these bases as shown in Fig. 271 (see Mortising).
Before fastening the posts to the standards, mark a line along the middle of one side of each post. On this line lay off feet and inches from the bottom and carefully bore a quarter-inch hole through the posts at each of these points (except, of course, those near the ground) for the pins which are to support the cross-bar or cord (see Boring). Then fit the posts in the mortises and brace them by three braces each. The ends of the braces can be cut at a mitre and screwed in place, or the blacksmith will make iron braces for a small sum (Fig. 271). Finish like the other apparatus already described.
Vaulting poles should be round, very straight-grained, from air-dried (not kiln-dried) stock of light, strong wood, as spruce, free from knots or any cross-grained, weak spots. The thickness should of course depend on the length, but should not be less than 1¼" for an 8' pole (which is quite short), and the pole should taper toward each end (see Rounding Sticks).
Spring-Board.—A form not difficult to make is shown in Fig. 272. The framework can be made of any strong wood, but the spring-board itself should be of the best quality of clear, straight-grained white ash.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 272.
First make the base or framework. Get out two pieces of 2" × 3" plank for the outside pieces (to stand on edge) and screw blocks of the same plank at each end to raise the pieces from the ground as shown. Place these pieces so that they spread apart slightly at the forward end (Fig. 272), being about 22" apart at the rear end. Fit a cross-tie to connect these stringers at about 2' from the forward end.
Another cross-bar, resting on the stringers, is placed nearer the rear end, and about 1' from the rear end a piece of 3" × 4" joist is fitted between the stringers and held in place by a bolt passed through it and the stringers. This should be loose enough to allow the block to turn.
The spring-board can be made of five strips of 7/8" stock, 4" wide and 6' long, screwed to a cleat at the forward end, and securely bolted to the block at the rear end.
This apparatus can be finished as in the cases described above.
Vaulting-Horse.—A simple affair (Fig. 273) can be easily arranged by making a box, perhaps 5' long and 8" or 10" square, which can be supported by flaring legs of joist as shown in the illustrations.
Fig. 273.
Fig. 274.
First make the box (see Box-making, in Part II.). The corners and edges should be rounded (Fig. 274), and the whole padded and covered with such materials as you may have at hand or can afford for the purpose. Laying out and sawing the bevels for the tops of the legs is the hardest part of the job. Transfer the bevels carefully from your working drawing to the wood, and saw as exactly to the lines as you can. See also Scribing. Unless you have had much experience some paring will probably be required to make all the legs fit. To make the horse stand evenly see Scribing, Winding-sticks, etc. The other general directions given for the apparatus described above will suffice for this horse.
Fig. 275.
A horse for outdoors (Fig. 275) can be simply made of a log, perhaps 1' in diameter, smoothed and with the ends rounded, and mounted (by mortising) upon posts set in the ground (see Mortising). The top can be covered with rubber, as indicated in the illustration.
The posts should be set at least 3' in the ground, and the earth well tamped around them with a pointed bar or stick.
The apparatus can be finished as in the cases given above.
Giant Swing.—This piece of apparatus is excellent for outdoors, and affords considerable sport (Fig. 276).
Fig. 276.
Fig. 277.
Fig. 278.
You must have a pole or mast from 15' to 25' long and from 6" to 10" in diameter at the lower end. At the smaller end there should be an iron ring or ferrule. This can be heated and driven on, when it will shrink so as to fit tightly and save the end from splitting. The upper end of the pole should first be squarely sawed off (see Saw). The swing ropes, of which you can have two or four (as you wish), can be fastened by hooks to a pivot set into the top of the post (see Boring), the latter being firmly set up in the ground. The blacksmith can quickly fix a pivot with hooks or pins and with a washer, to which you can fasten the ropes (Fig. 277). The lower ends of the ropes can be fastened at the proper height to sticks for handles. Loops can also be made in which to rest one leg if you wish. Of course you must have plenty of room for swinging around. In setting up the pole dig a hole 3' or 4' deep and after placing the pole tamp the earth compactly down around it with a pointed bar or stick.
A cheaper way, but hardly as good, is to drive a 1" or ¾" rod in the top of the pole, and get out a stout piece of hard wood, 3" or 4" square and 1½' or 2' long, with a hole in the middle to fit the rod, and smaller holes near each end for fastening the ropes by a knot (Fig. 278). A washer can be put under the wooden bar, or the top of the pole may be slightly rounded.
Other Apparatus.—There are, of course, other useful forms of apparatus involving more or less wood-work, such as hanging poles, fixed upright and slanting poles or bars, and various contrivances which you can readily arrange without more special instruction than has been given.
Ladders are of course good, but it is usually as well for the amateur to buy these. A suggestion for a framework for hanging rings, trapeze, poles, rope ladders, and the like, with fixed ladders and horizontal bar, is given in Fig. 279.
Fig. 279.
Do not make such framework too light. Fasten the joints with bolts rather than screws or nails, and suspend the hanging apparatus from eye-bolts passing through the timber and with washers under the nuts. The dimensions for such framework must depend upon the circumstances. The suggestions about the construction of the other pieces of apparatus given above will assist you in designing and constructing something to suit the circumstances.
CHAPTER X
FURNITURE
Some article of furniture is frequently one of the first objects upon which the beginner (particularly the amateur of mature years) tries his hand; and boys, as well as their elders, sometimes confidently undertake pieces of cabinet-work which would tax to the utmost the skill of an experienced cabinet-maker, only to be discouraged by the unsatisfactory result.
Do not be beguiled by the captivating sketches and descriptions in the popular magazines and papers which tell you how someone, at an expense of perhaps only $2.98, easily made a roomful of desirable furniture out of packing-cases, old bedsteads, barrels, soap-boxes, broomsticks, and the like, with only the household hammer, saw, and screw-driver, and a liberal supply of putty, coloured varnish, and the occasional help of the "village carpenter."
That sort of work does very well for your feminine relatives if they wish to amuse themselves in such ways or to contrive makeshifts to save the expense of furniture made in the usual way. You can very well help them in such work, or do it for them, and some very neat, cheap, and serviceable things can be made of such materials (particularly with the use of cloth)—but that is not the way for you to begin your cabinet-making. Learn to do good, plain, simple, useful work in the simplest, most straightforward, practical, workmanlike way. When you can do that, if you wish to exercise your ingenuity in patching up useful articles from discarded ones you will know how to do it properly.
Be sure to begin with simple articles, avoiding attempts at elaborate decoration. Do not spend your time in making a useless object merely because you think it is pretty. Think first whether your design is suited for the purpose intended. If you start to make a case for your books, select or make your design accordingly, and do not be misled, by the multitude of overelaborated articles with which the market is flooded, into making a parlour bric-à-brac cabinet, all built up of turning, and jig-sawing, and machine-made carvings, too complicated and fragile for practical use, with the result that the books continue to be stored on a closet shelf or on the floor.
Next look to the block-form or general proportions of the object. The importance of this is often wholly overlooked by the average amateur,—sometimes because he is too engrossed in trying to make the details pretty,—but it is essential in making a handsome piece of furniture. No amount of exquisite carving, inlaying, or decoration of any kind (however beautiful in itself) will make an ill-shaped, badly proportioned article a thing of beauty; while a well-shaped and well-proportioned object will be pleasing to the eye even if free from decoration of any kind.
Of course, no rule can be given for designing a handsome piece of furniture any more than for painting a beautiful picture, but when you have sketched out the general shape and proportions and think you have done as well as you can, there is one thing it is well to bear in mind—that the average amateur is much more likely to spoil the appearance of his work by adding too much so-called ornamentation than by leaving the work too plain. When you become proficient enough to add carving, or other form of decoration, to your work, by all means use any skill you may have in such ways, but even then remember not to use such ornamentation too freely. Avoid "gingerbread" work, meaningless jig-sawed decorations, and machine-made carvings, turned out by the gross.
Look at some of your great-grandmother's furniture (if you are fortunate enough to be able to do so) and think how long it has lasted, and compare it with the cheap modern furniture after the latter has been in use for a few years. How much of the latter would be in existence now if it had been made when the ancestral articles were? The durability of the old things is partly due to the quality of the wood and its seasoning. The use of whole pieces (instead of scraps of all kinds of stuff glued up with cheap glue), the way the articles were put together, and the generally honest work put into them had much to do with it.
Bear in mind in undertaking a piece of cabinet-work that you must hold yourself to a higher standard in the matter of accuracy of detail, in order to produce a really satisfactory result, than is necessary for much of the other work often done by amateurs. Many slight inaccuracies, which are of little consequence in the rougher kinds of work, become such gaping and conspicuous defects in cabinet-work as to detract much from the satisfaction that should be taken in home-made articles. Remember, then, that while it is easy to make your furniture strong, it is by no means easy to produce close, accurate joints, smooth, true surfaces, square, clean-cut edges, and a good, smooth finish. Choose, therefore, simple forms, easily put together, for your early attempts; for it is much better to make a modest and unpretentious article well than to make an elaborate one badly.
First and foremost, when you come to the actual work, use thoroughly seasoned wood. This is essential to making permanently satisfactory furniture, as you will learn after you have spent much time in making an article out of half-seasoned stock, only to see the ruin of your carefully executed work begin as soon as the finish is dry, or even before.
Although it is very easy to tell you to use nothing but properly seasoned stock, you will doubtless sometimes be deceived, however, as it is by no means an easy matter for the beginner to determine; but you can at least try your best to get wood in suitable condition, for it will be time well spent. (Read the remarks on seasoning in Chapter III.)
Be content with the more easily worked woods in your early attempts. Do not buy highly figured, heavy, and hard San Domingo mahogany (no matter how beautiful) for your first table or bookcase—nor even quartered oak, nor mottled walnut burl, nor wavy maple—but begin with plain, straight-grained material, easy to work.
White pine is often considered rather cheap and common in appearance, but it is suitable for many things in the way of furniture. It is one of the best woods to "stand," or hold its shape, and if not desired of the natural colour (which, is, however, suitable and attractive for some objects) it can be painted. It can also be stained, but is not to be compared with whitewood in this respect.
Whitewood is, like pine, easy to work, durable, can be obtained in wide boards, can be painted, and takes a stain exceedingly well.
Black walnut is good to work and is well suited for furniture, though its sombre hue is not always desirable.
Cherry, when soft and straight-grained, is easy to work and is often (when highly figured or wavy) one of the most beautiful woods. It is easy to finish.
Mahogany is a wood of great beauty and durability, and holds its shape exceedingly well, but the beginner should confine himself at first to the lighter, softer, straight-grained varieties, which can be easily obtained. You can then try the more highly figured and harder kinds, which will tax your skill in smoothing them.
Oak in its softer, straight-grained forms is well suited to the work of the beginner. It is durable, and an article made of oak will stand more abuse without serious defacement than most of the other woods used for furniture. When quarter-sawed it is more difficult to smooth than plain, straight-grained oak, but as you acquire skill you will find quartered oak one of the most satisfactory woods. Oak can be stained if desired.
Many other kinds of wood are sometimes used, as sycamore, ash, birch, beech, maple, rosewood, butternut, ebony, etc., but these woods you can try for yourself, if you wish, as you progress in skill, and thus learn their peculiar characteristics.
An important point, not always realised by the amateur, is that the stock for good furniture should be planed true, that is, free from winding. Buy stock that is as true as you can find (see Chapter III.) and have it planed to be as true as possible. Have as much of this truing done by machine as you can afford, for it is not worth while to spend an hour in working down a surface by hand (see Truing Surfaces, in [Part V].) when a machine will do it in five minutes. There are, of course, cases in which this accuracy is not essential,—and judgment must be used, as in all intelligent work,—but, as a rule, it is highly important that the surfaces should be reasonably true if you wish to do your work as it should be done. The pieces, when fitted, should come together easily and naturally, and not require to be sprung or twisted or bent in order to be able to put the article together.
Your furniture should always be hand-planed and scraped, for, though the slight hollows and ridges left by the planing-machine may not be noticeable while the wood is in its natural state, as soon as the surface is finished and begins to have a lustre these inequalities become conspicuous. This applies to any small irregularities of the surface. You cannot get the surface too smooth. You will be surprised at first to see how noticeable slight defects in the surface become in the finished work.
Curved edges occur often in furniture. Many of these curves can be cut with a turning-saw or a keyhole-and compass-saw, but the easiest way (and the most accurate, until you have acquired considerable skill with the saw) is to have them cut at a mill by a jig-saw or band-saw at but slight expense. Have a piece of waste wood put on the under side to prevent the burr, or ragged edge, left by the sawing. These curves can be smoothed with the spoke-shave alone, or spoke-shave and file, or file alone, according to the conditions, as you will soon learn by experience, the final finishing of the surface being given with fine sandpaper.
Put the different parts of your article of furniture completely together once (without glue or nails) to see that everything fits right, that the joints close properly, and that the whole job is as it should be, before putting together permanently.
This often seems to the amateur a needless precaution (and it occasionally is), but, although it takes some time, it is the practice with skilled workmen and therefore a precaution which should not be neglected by the beginner. You will discover the importance of this when you carelessly assume that all the parts of a writing-desk, for instance, will come together properly, or that you can easily correct errors as you go along, only to find, when you have the work nearly put together that something is wrong. In the effort to mend the trouble you will be apt to loosen the parts already fastened, or will have to take the whole apart, which, when glue or nails are used, is particularly discouraging, and apt to damage the quality of the work.
Be particular to clamp the parts of your work together thoroughly when using glue and to allow time enough before removing the clamps (see Clamps and Gluing).
Care should be taken in putting your work together to get it "square," that is, to prove the accuracy of the right angles. In some cases this is of course essential to having the work come together at all. In others, the appearance will be much injured if the article tips to one side or is slanting or twisted. In all cases it is essential to the proper closing up of the joints. It will not do to assume, as the beginner often naturally does, that because the parts of the work seem to be accurately made that the whole, when put together, will, therefore, be square. It must be tested. You will be surprised to see how much "out of square" and how winding the result of your most careful work will sometimes be if you do not test it as you put the parts together. In addition to the obvious way of applying the square (see Square) to the angles, using the large steel square when you can: there are many cases in which measuring diagonals is a good test, altering the angles of the work until the two opposite diagonals are equal, when the work will, of course, be rectangular. This is a good way for large "case" work, using a stick, or fitting two adjustable sticks, after the manner described on page 167, between the angles, when the latter can be altered until the diagonals are equal.
At the same time that you are testing for squareness you must also look out for winding, by sighting across the front or back, using winding-sticks, if necessary.
When your work has a back fitted in, as in the case of a bookcase or cabinet, this will help you much in the final adjustment.
Do not attempt to put your case work together in an upright position, but upon horses horizontally, or flat upon its back or face.
It is well to use corner-blocks in the angles of your furniture, in places where they will not show (see Corner-blocks, in [Part V].).
After you begin to acquire some proficiency in your work, a little beading or chamfering can sometimes be used to good advantage, but it is well not to be too lavish with this kind of ornamentation.
Wall-cabinets and other articles to be hung on the wall can be neatly attached to the wall by brass mirror-plates screwed upon the back. These should usually be sunk into the wood so that the back will be smooth.
Your furniture can be finished with oil or wax alone, or with shellac or varnish, as described in [Part V]. In the case of articles to be hung against wall-paper or where any delicate fabric will be exposed, it is well to avoid finishing with oil alone unless the greatest care is used, for a very slight surplus of oil will quickly soil the paper. For the work of the amateur nothing is better than shellac.
When your work is made of parts which can be readily separated, such parts as are joined without glue or nails, it is best to take the work apart before finishing. Unhinge doors and take off locks, escutcheons, mirror-plates, handles, and the like. Take out removable shelves, backs, and all detachable parts. Finish all these parts separately and then put the work together again. You can finish the separate parts better and more easily, but of course this can only be done with such parts as are readily separable.
In some cases it is desirable to stain your furniture, but as a rule you cannot improve on the natural colouring, which deepens and mellows with age. If you wish mahogany-coloured furniture, use mahogany, or, if you cannot afford that, simply paint or stain some cheaper wood of the desired colour, but do not try to imitate the grain of the mahogany. There are two objections to these attempts at imitation. First, they are not honest; and, in the second place, the deception is usually a failure.
Finally, be simple and honest in all your designing, your construction (which above all things should be strong and durable), and your finishing. Do not put in your room an object which appears at a distance of ten feet to be a mahogany or black walnut centre-table, but which on closer examination turns out to be a pine washstand in disguise.
There are, as you know, hundreds of articles of household utility, other than those here given, which are suitable for the amateur to make, but it is hoped that the suggestions about those which are included in this chapter will be of service in the construction of other objects.
Fig. 280.Fig. 280.
Book-Rack.—A simple rack for books (Fig. 280) can be of any length desired, about six inches wide, and of half-inch stock (or slightly thinner), but the dimensions can be varied according to circumstances.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Be sure that the bottoms of the ends are accurately cut. The other edges can be rounded if you wish (see Spokeshave and File). The hinges should be sunk in the wood, so that they will not injure the books (see Hinges).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Desk-Rack.—An easily made arrangement to put on the back of a table or desk is shown in Fig. 281, and can be made of stock of from ½" to 7/8" thickness, according to the size of the rack.
Fig. 281.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 282.
Fig. 282a.
First make the two boxes (see Box-making, page 219), and then the shelf above them. This can be fastened to the tops of the boxes by screws from underneath. The edge can be slightly rounded. The rail or guard at the back and ends of the shelf should be made independently. The back and ends can be joined as shown in Fig. 282, and the whole then fastened to the shelf by screws (see Boring and Screws) from underneath before fastening the shelf to the boxes, or it can be dowelled on, as shown in Fig. 282a (see Dowelling).
Partitions can be fitted in the boxes, forming pigeon-holes or compartments, if desired. These partitions can be nailed in place or, to be more workmanlike, can be fitted in grooves (see Grooving and Shelves).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Hanging Book-Shelf.—A wall-shelf (Fig. 283) is useful and good practice for the amateur. It should not be made too deep (from front to back). Half-inch stock is heavy enough, if the shelf is not more than two feet long.
Fig. 283.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 284.
This shelf can be simply put together by nailing, setting the nails carefully (see Nailing and Nail-set). Carefully mark lines (using the square) by which to nail the pieces in their proper places. It is not worth while to use glue if the parts are put together in this way. A stronger and more workmanlike way is to groove the lower shelf into the sides and the sides into the upper shelf (see Grooving). In this case glue should be used and the work tightly clamped (see Gluing and Clamps). It will be much stronger to fit a back between the two shelves and the sides. This should properly be set in a rabbet cut around the space, as shown in Fig. 284 (see Rabbet).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Wall-Cabinet.—An open cabinet or hanging case for books, magazines, or other small articles (Fig. 285) can be of any desired proportions, but should not be very large. Half-inch stock is sufficiently thick.
Fig. 285.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
This case should have a back. Rabbets should be cut to receive the back, as in the case of the wall-shelf just shown (see Rabbet), the top and middle shelves being narrower than the lower shelf by the thickness of the back.
This case can simply be nailed together (see Nailing and Nail-set), but it will be better to groove the shelves into the sides (see Grooving).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Hanging Bookcase.—A simple and useful case for the wall (Fig. 286) can be made on much the same principle as the small case just shown. It is well not to make such cases very large, and, unless quite small, stock from ¾" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable.
Fig. 286.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 287.
Instead of a back, strips can be screwed on vertically (Fig. 286), being sunk so as to be flush with the back of the case (Fig. 287).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Wall-Shelves.—An easily made arrangement is suggested in Fig. 288. The design can easily be varied if you wish.
Fig. 288.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The construction is extremely simple, the shelves being merely screwed on from the back.
Get out the back and the shelves, and smooth them. Mark lines across the face of the former at the places for the shelves, bore holes through the back from the face for the screws (see Boring), and countersink the holes on the back (see Countersink). Screw the shelves in place (see Screws) to see that everything is right, then take apart and finish.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Pipe-Rack.—A modification of the shelf arrangement just described makes a good rack for pipes and other articles for smoking (Fig. 289).
Fig. 289.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 290.
This differs from the article just described only in the shape of the shelves, which have openings in the edge for holding pipes. These openings can be made either with a fine saw or by boring holes and cutting in to them from the edge (Fig. 290).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Fig. 291.
Wall-Shelves.—A quite simple form is shown in Fig. 291, having a small box with lid. A combination of this form with the design for a pipe-rack can easily be made if desired.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The construction is plain from the cases already described. The hinges should be sunk in the edge of the lid (see Hinges).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Wall-Cabinet.—The cabinet shown in Fig. 292 should be rather small, for if large it will look clumsy. It can be made of half-inch stock.
Fig. 292.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in Part V., and look up any other references.
The construction is quite similar to the preceding cases.
If you have no board wide enough for the back, two can be joined (see Jointing and Gluing).
The cupboard is simply a box without front or back (see Box-making, page 219) screwed to the back from behind (see Boring and Screws). The shelves at the sides of the cupboard and the bracket underneath it can be screwed from the back and from the inside of the cabinet, as in the preceding cases.
The door (see Doors) can be fitted and hung (see Hinges) after the whole has been put together.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Corner-Shelves or Cabinets.—A simple form of hanging corner-shelves is shown in Fig. 293. This can be of any size, of course, but such articles look clumsy if made very large. Half-inch stock is heavy enough unless the case is quite large, when ¾" or 7/8" thickness can be used.
Fig. 293.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 294.
One of the sides can be made wider than the other by the thickness of the stock, so as to lap over and secure a tight and strong joint at the back. The top board (with rounding front) can simply be nailed down on the sides (see Nailing and Nail-set), or, to be more workmanlike, a rabbet (Fig. 294) can be cut around the edge of the top on the under side into which to fit the sides, which can be screwed in place (see Rabbet, Boring, Countersink, and Screws). This rabbet should not come quite to the front edge of the top.
The shelves can be screwed in place from the back (see Screws), carefully marking lines with the square, for boring the holes, before putting the case together, and countersinking the holes upon the back.
This case (being fastened by screws) can be taken apart for finishing.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Fig. 295.
A standing cabinet like Fig. 295 can be made in the same manner as the hanging cabinet just shown, but can, of course, be larger. Stock from ¾" to 7/8" in thickness can be used. The rail at the top can be made and put on as directed for the desk-rack shown in Figs. 281 and 282.
Medicine-Cabinet.—Any small cabinet can be used for medicines by simply arranging the shelves in any convenient manner. A simple way is to have a series of horizontal grooves on the inside of each side, into which the shelves can be slipped at any desired distance apart. A design for an easily constructed medicine-cabinet for the wall is shown in Figs. 296 and 297.
Fig. 296.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
A good size for a small cabinet is to have the main box-part, the cabinet proper, about 15" wide, 20" high, and 7" deep. It can be made of ½" stock. The construction is like that of the other cases already shown. The joints should properly be grooved (see Grooving and Gluing), but the whole case can be nailed together, although the result will be inferior (see Nailing and Nail-set). The back should be set in a rabbet as in the cases already shown. The arrangement of the hinges is shown in the illustration (see Hinges).
The partitions can be of thin stock (¼" or 5/16"). The doors can have thick cleats, shaped as shown in Fig. 297 (enlarged in Fig. 297a), with holes bored down from the top for homœopathic phials. Care must be taken not to bore the holes through (see Boring). Stop boring before the spur comes through and clean out the bottoms of the holes with a gouge.
Fig. 297.
Fig. 297a.
Fig. 298.
A small drawer can be fitted to one of the small compartments, as in Fig. 297 (see Drawers). If the edges of the doors are made to lap slightly where they come together, rabbets being cut on opposite sides of the edges (Fig. 298), the joint will be tighter, but a little space must be allowed or the doors may bind. The rest of the details are like those of the cases already described.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in Part. V.
Bookcases.—A plain case (Fig. 299) can be made of any desired size. If quite small ¾" stock can be used, but ordinarily 7/8" thickness will be best. The method of construction is practically the same as in the cases already described.
Fig. 299.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The shelves can all be fastened in, if desired, but a good way is to groove the top and bottom shelves into the sides and make those between movable (see Shelves, in [Part V].).
Fig. 300.
The back can be fitted by simply cutting a rabbet on the back edge of each side for the entire length (see Rabbet), and making the shelves of such a width that they will not project beyond the rabbet. A narrow piece can be screwed from the back lengthways, above the upper shelf, as shown in Fig. 300. The rest of the back can then be screwed in place (see Boring and Screws). The back, being too wide to be made of one board, can very well (for a plain case of this sort) be of matched boards or sheathing.[24] Do not force the back too tightly into place,—that is, crossways of the boards. Allow a little play for the expansion and contraction.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Fig. 301.
A "knock-down" method of putting together with tenons and wooden pins (Fig. 301) is not very difficult, but requires care and accuracy. In the case of the bookcase just shown, the upper and lower shelves can be pinned through the sides, which will hold the case firmly, and the other shelves can be movable (see Shelves). A case fastened in this way can be readily taken apart. This method can be applied to other designs for bookcases and cabinets.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The general principle is that of the mortise and tenon (see Mortising). If you cut the mortises for the pins before cutting the tenons on the ends of the shelves you will avoid the liability of splitting the tenons. The pins should taper and the angles of the pins and tenons be very slightly bevelled, that is, the sharp edge taken off.
Fig. 302.
The ends of these shelves can be slightly "cut under" or bevelled inwards (see Fig. 302, which is exaggerated), on the same principle that the ends of floor boards and the like are sometimes slightly bevelled, to ensure a closely fitting joint.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
A good form for an open bookcase suitable for the beginner to make is shown in Fig. 303. This design is suitable for a low, or dwarf, bookcase of whatever length may be desired. If of quite small size it can be made of 7/8" stock throughout, but in most cases a thin plank (perhaps 1¼" to 1½" thick) had best be used for the ends.
A curtain can be added if desired.
Fig. 303.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The curves of the ends can be sawed by hand (see Turning-saw and Keyhole and Compass Saw), or better by band-saw and jig-saw at a mill, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see Spokeshave and File). The shelves (at least the upper and lower ones) should be grooved into the sides and glued (see Grooving and Gluing), although, as in the other cases already described, nails can be used, but the result will be inferior (see Nailing and Nail-set).
The plainness of the upright edges of the ends can be relieved by a little beading (Fig. 305), which you can do yourself or have moulded at the mill (see Beading).
Little brackets, screwed under the lower shelf at each end, as shown in Fig. 306, add to the stiffness of the case. A back can be fitted into rabbets as described above, but in this case it had best not come above the top shelf, a rabbet being cut on the under edge of the latter as well as in the sides. The bottom shelf can simply be made narrower and without a rabbet.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
The bookcase shown in Fig. 304 can be of any desired size and proportions. It can be of 7/8" stock, although the upright ends can well be of thin plank.
Fig. 304.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
This case can simply be nailed together (see Nailing and Nail-set), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the sides into the top and the bottom shelf into the sides (see Grooving). The second shelf from the top can be grooved into the sides, and the upright partition forming the cupboard can also be grooved in place. This process involves careful laying out and accurate cutting. The other shelves can be removable. The base-board can be bevelled or curved on the top edge (or moulded by machine) and can be mitred at the corners. It can be fastened with fine nails (see Nailing and Nail-set). The front piece can be glued as well as the mitred joints. A moulding can be nailed around the top as shown, being mitred at the corners.[25]
Fig. 305.
The other details of construction do not differ from those of the cases just given, except in the matter of making and fitting the door, for which see Doors in [Part V].
A common way of making the sides of such cases is to make the side itself of board thickness, and to face the front edge with a strip (which can be glued on) from 1¼" to 2" wide, according to the size of the case, in the way shown in Fig. 305 (see Gluing). This gives a wider edge to the side and the shelves can fit behind the facing strip.
Beading can be worked on this strip, as shown (see Beading).
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Desk and Bookcase.—Various combinations of book-shelves with a desk can be arranged. A useful form for a small one is shown in Fig. 306. The height is of course regulated by the necessary position of the desk-lid when dropped. The general principles of the construction are the same as those of the cases already shown.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The wing, or attachment at the side, can be grooved into the side of the main part.
Fig. 306.
The back should reach across from one part to the other, which will give stiffness to the whole.
The desk-lid, which should be set in perhaps 3/8" from the front edge of the case, can be prevented from dropping too far by chains fastened inside to the lid and the sides of the case. Various other arrangements can be bought for holding a desk-lid in the proper place.
The inside of the lid must of course be smooth. If panelled as in Fig. 306 the panel must be thick enough to be flush with the frame on the inside (see Doors). There will be more or less of a crack around this panel, but this is unavoidable. Lids of this sort are sometimes made with a smooth surface (without frame or panelling), but this requires some form of cleating to prevent warping (see Cleats).
The small brackets under the lower shelf will help to stiffen the case.
A few shelves can easily be arranged in the desk compartment. If you wish a number of pigeon-holes and compartments, a good way for the amateur to fit these is to make an independent case of pigeon-holes and compartments, without front or back, of thin wood (perhaps ¼"), and of such outside dimensions that it will just slip into the desk-space. This open box-like arrangement can be nailed together with fine brads.
The best way to make it is by fitting all the divisions into grooves, but to do this by hand requires more work and care than can be expected of the ordinary amateur. The grooving can be done by machine. A convenient arrangement is to have rows of parallel grooves into which the division boards can at any time be slipped to form compartments of any desired size.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Music-Case.—The construction of the form shown in Fig. 307 is like that of the examples already shown. The sides, top, and bottom should be of ¾" or 7/8" stock, but the shelves can be thinner.
Fig. 307.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
This case can be simply nailed together (see Nailing and Nail-set), but the more workmanlike way is to groove the bottom shelf into the sides and the sides into the top, as in the cases already shown (see Grooving).
A moulding at the top can be made as in the bookcase shown in Fig. 304.
For various ways of putting in the shelves, see Shelves, in [Part V].
The back can be thinner (¼") and should be fitted in a rabbet cut around, as already shown in the illustrations.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Plant-Stands.—The form shown in Fig. 308 is of quite simple construction and is useful to hold a large flower-pot. It should be made of 7/8" stock. The top can be from 8" to 12" square.
Fig. 308.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Simply make a box (see Box-making, page 219), without top and bottom, with the grain of the four sides running up and down. Before putting together saw the curves at the bottom. As the grain of the four pieces all runs up and down, these sides can be glued together without nailing (see Gluing). Screw four cleats around the inside of the top (Fig. 309) with holes bored in them for screws with which to fasten on the top from underneath (see Boring and Screws). Round the top edge as shown (see Spokeshave and File), and smooth the surfaces. Then, having shaped the edge of the top as shown in Fig. 308, fasten it in place and the stand is ready to finish.
Fig. 309.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
The form shown in Fig. 310 is made upon a similar principle, and can be of a larger size than would be satisfactory for the first pattern.
Much care must be taken to so lay out and cut the slanting edges of the sides that the pieces will come together accurately. After the top has been fastened on, a little piece of moulding can be put around beneath the edge of the top as shown, provided you have the skill to do it neatly. The corners must be mitred, and the moulding fastened on with fine brads, which must be set (see Nailing and Nail-set).[26]
Fig. 310.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Tables.—A plain table, which although not especially ornamental is serviceable for many purposes, is shown in Fig. 311. It can be made of any size and proportions and the details can easily be varied.
Fig. 311.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The construction is too simple to require special description. The legs and the cleats at the top should be of plank thickness, the rest of 7/8" stock. The legs can be halved where they cross (see Halving), or for a rough job can be simply nailed (see Nailing). The cleats at the top of the legs should be nailed or screwed to the legs, and will act as cleats to the top, which is fastened to them. The boards forming the top can be simply laid with the edges touching, for a rough job; but where a good surface is required the joints should be glued (see Jointing and Gluing) and the surface smoothed afterwards.
Extra cleats can be put under the top if needed for stiffness, and additional lengthways stretchers can be added to connect the upper part of the legs.
The whole should be planed and sandpapered and can be shellaced or painted. The remaining details do not differ from those of the subjects already shown.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
A table of simple construction and neat appearance (Fig. 312) can be of any desired size and proportions.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 312.
The legs can be from 1½" to 2½" square, according to the size of the table. After being squared and cut to a length they should be tapered toward the bottom by planing down two opposite sides and then the other two. The tapering, however, should not extend to the tops of the legs, but to a point a little below the bottom of the rails, or cross-bars, which connect the legs. On the two inner sides of the legs mortises must be cut to receive tenons on the ends of the rails which connect the legs, as shown in Fig. 313 (see Mortising). These rails can be of 7/8" stock, the curves on the lower edge being cut with the turning-saw or compass and keyhole saw, and finished with spoke-shave and chisel or file. The curves can be omitted, of course, if preferred.
Fig. 313.
Do not try to put this table all together permanently at one operation. First put together two legs and the connecting piece, then the other two legs and the connecting piece, and finally join these two sides by the remaining rails. Glue the joints (see Gluing) and the parts should be securely clamped (see Clamps) until dry. Corner-blocks can be put in at the angles (see Corner-blocks).
Holes must be bored in the rails by which to fasten the top. If the rails are not too deep, vertical holes can be bored, countersinking deeply if necessary. Deep countersinking can be done by first boring a hole large enough to admit the head of the screw to the depth required, when the hole can be continued with a smaller bit. If the depth of the rail is too great for this process, the hole can be made by a species of counterboring, making first a larger hole in the side of the rail (on the inside), an inch or so from the top, and boring down into this hole from the top. A slanting cut can be made from below with the gouge to allow the screw to be slipped into the hole (Fig. 314). Another way is to screw cleats on the inside of the rail with a vertical hole through which the top can be screwed on (Fig. 315).
Fig. 314.
Fig. 315.
The top, if too wide for one board, should be glued up before being dressed off (see Jointing and Gluing), and the edge shaped and smoothed. Then, laying the top face downward on the horses or bench, place the frame upside down upon the top. When in the exact position mark a line around the inside of the frame, continue the holes in the frame a little way into the top, using a bit a trifle smaller than the screws, and then screw the frame securely to the top (see Boring and Screws), measuring carefully to see that you use screws which will not protrude through the top of the table. Depend entirely on the screws to hold the top on. Do not fasten a table-top on with glue (see Laying out the work, in Chapter IV.). If the table does not stand even, see Scribing and Winding-sticks. The final scraping (see Scraper) of the top can well be left until the table is put together, when the whole, after being scraped, can be carefully sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper).
The remaining details do not differ from those of the articles already shown.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Finishing, in [Part V].
An excellent centre-table for the amateur to make (Fig. 316) is useful for many purposes. About three feet square on top is a convenient size.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]. and look up any other references.
Fig. 316.
Get out four legs, from 1½" to 2" in diameter, according to the size of the table. They can be tapered slightly, as in the preceding case. Groove one side of each leg to receive the end of the cross-partition shown in the cut (see Grooving). These partitions can be ½" to ¾" thick. One of them can extend across (diagonally) from post to post. The other can be in two parts, reaching to the centre; or the partitions can be in four parts, meeting in the centre. This framework of legs and cross-partitions can be bound together at the top by cleats screwed on top (Fig. 317), holes being made in the cleats by which they can in turn be screwed to the top of the table. The lower shelf, or shelves (being made in four parts), can be fastened up from underneath, cleats, also, being used if necessary. The shelves can be of ½" stock. The upper shelves can be fitted after the rest is put together and can rest upon cleats underneath, to which they can be fastened. The shape of the top is shown in Fig. 317a.
Fig. 317.
Fig. 317a.
The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Small Stand.—A simple arrangement shown in Fig. 318 involves more difficulties than many of the other articles shown, but is not beyond the skill of the careful amateur. A good size is about 13" or 14" across the top and 17" or 18" high. Such a stand is useful to hold a flower-pot.
Fig. 318.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]. and look up any other references.
The top can be of ½" or 5/8" stock and the legs of 7/8" stock, the lower part tapering in thickness to 5/8" at the bottom. The curves can all be sawed at a mill for a small sum, and smoothed with spoke-shave and file (see Spokeshave and File). The underside of the top can be bevelled at the edge (Fig. 319). This can be done with the spoke-shave. The file can be used to good advantage in the rounding of the extreme edge, finishing with sandpaper, but not until after the top surface has been finally smoothed (see Spokeshave, File, and Sandpaper).
Fig. 319.
Fig. 320.
The curved frame under the top and connecting the legs is to be made in four pieces, the legs being fitted between them (Fig. 320). These curved pieces should be got out a little too long and the ends carefully sawed to make a tight joint with the legs. Be sure that all these parts fit accurately before you finally put them together. Screw them together, toeing screws into the legs. Use glue at the joints of the curved frame and the legs, but do not glue the frame to the top.
The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Small Table.—Fig. 321 shows a good form for a small stand suitable for various purposes, which, although not as easy to make as it looks, is not too hard for the amateur who has acquired some familiarity with his tools. It can be made of any desired height or proportions.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Get out the top as in the small stand last shown. The thickness can vary from ½" to 7/8" according to the size of the table. The legs should not be fastened directly to the top, but to a cleat framework to be screwed to the top (Fig. 322). This helps prevent the top from warping. The legs can be round or six-sided and should be tapered (see Rounding-sticks). A tenon or dowel should be made at the upper end of each leg to fit into a hole in the cleat framework.
Fig. 321.
Fig. 322.
Fig. 323.
Fig. 324.
The hexagonal shelf at the bottom can be of ½" stock and should be notched or grooved into the legs, the extreme angles of the shelf being cut off (Fig. 323). A fine screw toed from underneath through the shelf into the leg (Fig. 324) will strengthen the joint, and after the whole is fastened together, little brackets can be screwed with fine screws in the angle between the lower shelf and the leg. All the joints should be glued except where the cleats are fastened to the top, in which case screws alone should be used. Much care is required to make all these joints accurately, and to put the whole table together properly.
The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Footstool or Cricket.—A common low seat or cricket (Fig. 325) can be made of 5/8" or 7/8" stock and of any desired size.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 325.
The hardest part of this job is to cut the bevels where the sides meet the top and at the ends of the stretcher between the sides (see Bevelling). You will probably find it easier to lay out and cut the ends of the sides before they are tapered. The edges of the top can be slightly rounded.
After the parts are nailed together (see Nailing) set the nails (see Nail-set). The remaining details do not differ from those of the cases already described.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Fig. 326.
Out-Door Seat.—The construction of the plain chair shown in Fig. 326 is too obvious to require special description.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
This seat can be made of thin plank. The most difficult part is the bevelling of the joints (see Bevelling).
The remaining details do not differ from those in the preceding cases. For the painting see Painting, in [Part V].
Bookcase and Lounge.—"Combination" articles of furniture are, as a rule, frequently undesirable on the ground of taste, and often are not as convenient as to have the parts made separately. But the amateur may sometimes find it desirable to join two or more different pieces to fit some particular spot or for some special reason. Examples are given in the bookcase and desk (Fig. 306), in the combination for a corner (Fig. 328), and in Fig. 327. These are given as suggestive of the kind of combinations that can be suitably undertaken by the amateur, and many simple arrangements can readily be contrived when desired.
Fig. 327.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
The new principles involved in this design are merely in the combination. The bookcase and the cupboard (which can be open if desired) are similar to those already shown, and the lounge is simply a shelf or box-like arrangement connecting the two. The back of the lounge is merely a board fastened by screws. The appearance of the article depends much upon the upholstering. This should not be done until after the finishing of the wood-work.
The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Fig. 328.
Another combination, suitable for a corner, is shown in Fig. 328. The principles involved are the same as for the other articles already described and the construction is obvious.
Table and Settle, or Chair-Table.—This is an excellent form of table for the amateur to make and is useful for many purposes (Figs. 329 and 330). If of moderate size, it can be made of 7/8" stock, but if large, and to be subjected to rough usage, thin plank will be more suitable for the ends and top. Another good form of chair-table can be made on the same principle by making a narrower seat, or a heavy chair, and attaching a circular top by hinges to the back of the arms of the seat.
Fig. 329.
Fig. 330.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 331.
The framing of the lower part is similar to that of a box. Get out the upright ends and the front and back of the box part and fit them together as shown in Fig. 331, a rabbet (see Rabbet) or groove being cut to receive the bottom. The lid, which forms the seat, can be arranged as shown (see Hinges). The top, made like any table-top and fastened by screws to the deep cleats shown (see Screws), is pivoted to either side of the upright ends by pins when a seat is desired. When you wish to use the table and the top is lowered, it can be held in place by inserting pins in the other two holes also. The pins should not be less than ½" or ¾" in diameter. Care must be used in laying off the points for making these holes (see Boring).
The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Cabinet for Guns, Fishing-Rods, Etc.—A convenient form is shown in Fig. 332. The construction is similar to that of the bookcases and cabinets already shown. The stock for the case itself can be 7/8" in thickness, for the larger divisions ¾", and for the small partitions ½".
Fig. 332.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
If you make the doors with glass panels, as shown, these can be set in rabbets cut on the inside of the door frames and held in place by strips of "quarter-round" moulding. The doors can be fitted between the sides or can lap over the edges of the sides, as you prefer (see Doors). The drawers can be omitted if too difficult to make well (see Drawers), and small boxes of various sizes stored upon the shelves can be used as a substitute.
The remaining details are not different from those of the articles already shown.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Picture Frames.—These are often undertaken by the amateur, but making them well is much more difficult than it seems to the beginner.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, in [Part V]., and look up any other references.
Fig. 333.
If you buy the prepared mouldings so much in use, they will, in most cases, have to be mitred at the corners, which is an operation by no means easy for the beginner, particularly when the moulding is sprung or twisted, as is often the case. Those joints which do not close properly must be trimmed with the plane, for which purpose the mitre shooting-board is useful (see page 94), and all four joints should fit accurately before finally putting together, so that none will have to be sprung or twisted in order to close up. At the same time you must guard against winding by sighting across the face, and the angles must be tested with the square. The clamping together is important in such work. This can be done by laying the frame flat, nailing strips a short distance outside of each of the four corners, and driving in wedges between these strips and the frame until the joints are firmly held (Fig. 333). This can also be done by putting blocks at the corners and passing a doubled cord around, which, by inserting a stick, can be twisted until the frame is held tightly. But making mitred frames of moulding is not suitable work for the beginner and should be deferred until you have had some experience (see Mitring).
Fig. 334.
For a plain frame nothing is better than a joint with mortise and tenon (Fig. 334), the rabbet (see Rabbet) at the back being cut through to the ends of the shorter pieces (those having the tenons), but being stopped before reaching the ends of the longer pieces (those having the mortises), as shown. The latter should be got out too long, so as to overlap a little at the ends (Fig. 334). This enables you to take the frame apart more readily when fitting, and with less danger of injury to the work. The projecting ends can be sawed off after the frame has been glued together (see Mortising, Gluing, and Clamps). The final planing and smoothing of the front surface and the edges should be done after the frame is glued together, careful attention being paid to the direction of the grain (see Plane, Scraper, and Sandpaper).
After a frame of this kind is all done, an inner moulding with a row of beads, or some other simple form, can easily be fitted to the rabbet, if desired.
See end of introduction to this chapter for directions about smoothing, putting together, and finishing. See also Finishing, in [Part V].
CHAPTER XI
A FEW MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS
Wooden Chain.—White pine or any other easily whittled straight-grained wood can be used. Take a stick of any length and from 1" to 2" square. If very small the whittling is more difficult.
Fig. 335.
Fig. 336.
Fig. 337.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Knife, in [Part V].
Fig. 338.
Mark as shown (Fig. 335), and remove the wood at the corners, forming four rabbets, giving a section of the piece the shape of a Greek cross (Fig. 336). Next lay out the links, alternating as shown in Fig. 337, and allowing space enough so that they can have some play when cut. By notching in from the outside and finally cutting away the wood within the links, they can be separated. The whittling must be done carefully, of course, and wholly by cutting with a sharp knife. If you try to do it by prying or twisting with the blade, you will be likely to split the wood. Finally, round and smooth the links (Fig. 338), doing as much of this as you can before the links are separated. Use fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper). Leave the chain in the natural wood or oil and shellac (see Finishing).
Ball and Block.—White pine or any other easily whittled, straight-grained wood will do for this whittling exercise (Fig. 339).
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Knife, in [Part V].
Fig. 339.
First get out a cubical block, each edge of which may be, perhaps, 1½" or 2" long. Gauge a line around each side parallel to the edge and about ¼" from it (see Gauge). Cut straight in on these lines and then make slanting cuts to meet those first made. Remove the wood on the same general principle as in cutting a notch, gradually shaping the middle part into spherical form; while the cuts which are parallel with the sides finally meet and form four posts between the top and bottom. The wood must be removed by cuts, not by prying. Trim the ball to be as nearly spherical as you can. If you wish to make the ring or handle shown on top, additional length must be allowed in getting out the original block. The whole can be sandpapered with fine sandpaper (see Sandpaper) and finished with oil or shellac (see Finishing).
Box-making.—In laying out common boxes, bear in mind that the sides, top, and bottom usually lap over the ends,—the sides over the ends, and the top and bottom over the sides and ends (Fig. 340). Sometimes, however, to avoid joints showing on the front, the front and back are made to lap over the top (Fig. 341), occasionally the ends lap over the back (Fig. 342), and other arrangements are sometimes made. Do not rely on glue for these common square joints in box-work, but place your dependence on nails or screws.
Fig. 340.
Fig. 341.
Either lid or bottom or both can sometimes project slightly to good advantage (Fig. 343). In nice work, however, the bottom is more often set in so as not to show, either simply fitting in between the sides and ends or into a rabbet (see Rabbet) cut in the lower edge (Fig. 344, showing box bottom up).
Fig. 342.
Fig. 343.
The lid or cover can be hinged to the top edge of the back of the box, or a narrower lid can be used and hinged to a strip fastened at the back of the box (Fig. 345). Plain lids of this sort, for everything but rough or temporary work, should be cleated, either by end cleats, by framing, or simply by cleats on the under side (see Cleats and Doors).
Fig. 344.
Fig. 345.
Remember that the joints will be held more tightly (for a permanent box) if you "toe" the nails (see Nailing).
Mitring is a common way of making box-joints. It is, however, one of the poorest of all ways in point of strength, and unless done with much skill,—more skill than the average amateur usually acquires,—the joints are very liable to come apart, or at least gape open, and be weaker and look worse than the common, squarely fitted joint first shown.
Glue can be used and is a help. Mitred joints can, however, be strengthened by splines or keys or pieces let into saw-kerfs (see Mitring).
A mitred box is hard for an amateur to put together, particularly when it is to be glued. The whole process should be rehearsed before gluing. Everything must fit exactly before you begin to finally put the box together. If you get one corner out of place, all four will probably be thrown out of position before you get through puttering with them, and the glue become cold and the operation be spoiled. Only a skilful amateur can make a box with nicely fitted mitred joints that will hold permanently.
There are various other ways of making joints by machine (see Joints). The rabbeted joint shown in Fig. 346 can be made by hand very well, but so much quicker with a circular saw that you will save much time by having it done at a mill. It is a good, strong, neat joint and shows less wood at the end than the common way. When it is allowable to round what little end wood there is (Fig. 345) it makes the joint quite inconspicuous. Glue can also be used to advantage with this joint on account of the shoulder.
Dowelling the corners is a method sometimes used. It is easier than mitring, but by no means a strong joint, unless skilfully made. The principal advantage of dowelling is in cases where it is objectionable to have nails show. But, as a rule, there is not much gain in trying to conceal joints. Certainly not unless you can do the work in the best of style.
Fig. 346.
Learn first to make the common, plain joints accurately, and you can then attempt the more difficult ones with some chance of success. The joints can sometimes be reinforced to good advantage by triangular corner-pieces or posts, glued and screwed in place.
There is no better or more workmanlike way of putting boxes together than by some form of dovetailing (see Dovetailing), but this process is hardly one for the beginner to undertake, and should be postponed until he has acquired considerable skill, for, though the principle of laying out and cutting dovetails is easy to understand, much exactness is required in the execution.
Where the box does not open at the top but lower down, as in Fig. 347, the best way is not to make the two parts separately, but simply to put together a tight box and then saw it apart wherever you wish to have it open.
Be careful to gauge accurately the line by which to saw it open (see Gauge), and not to drive any nails too near this line. Any which you omit can easily be added after the sawing. Saw the box open very carefully on the line. Smooth the edges after the saw, but take pains not to plane away the wood too hastily, for a very little carelessness will spoil the joint and necessitate a general truing of the edges.
Fig. 347.
Fig. 348.
A good form for a plain chest is shown in Fig. 348. The construction is the same as in the other cases. The bottom can be fitted to a groove cut around on the inside and can be inserted when the box is put together, or for a rougher job can be simply nailed in place.
A simple form of tool-chest is shown in Fig. 349. This can be made of any size desired and of any wood. It is usually as well to make a good-sized chest, for the cost is but little more than to make a small one. Hard wood will be much more durable than soft. Stock from ¾" to 7/8" in thickness will be suitable.
Unless you have had considerable experience you had best be content with the simpler joints rather than to attempt dovetailing the corners, as shown in the cut. It is not necessary to cut a rabbet for the bottom, because of the base-board or moulding which is to be nailed around the bottom, and the latter can be nailed or screwed directly to the edge, before the moulding is put around. The rest of the construction of the chest is obvious and like the cases already shown. If the moulding around the lid is to be arranged as shown, it will be best to fit the lock first, as it will be easier to attach the hasp of the lock before the moulding has been added (see Locks and Hinges).
Fig. 349.
At about two or three inches from the top, fasten a ledge on the inside of the front and back. This can be about ¼" thick by ½" deep and is for the sliding-tray, shown in the cut, to rest upon. This tray can be of soft wood, from ¼" to 3/8" in thickness, and can be divided as you wish. It will often be advantageous to arrange the lid and the top tray so that tools can be fastened on the inside of the lid. Saws and various flat tools are often thus disposed of, being held in place by straps, blocks, and buttons. You can also arrange a rack around the inside of your chest for such tools as chisels, gouges, etc. When kept in trays, such tools should be separated by divisions. The various details of making such a chest do not differ from those of the articles just described in the preceding chapter on Furniture.
In nailing together rough boxes for packing or some temporary purpose, you do not need to devote much thought to the arrangement of the pieces with reference to the direction of the grain, so long as you put them together in a way that your common-sense tells you will be strong. Examination of a few packing-cases will show you all you need to know for such work. But when you make a better grade of box, to be glued, regard must be paid to the direction of the grain and the matter of expansion and contraction. In the majority of boxes and chests the grain of the sides and ends should run in the same way—horizontally or around the box, as shown in the illustrations.
This gives a strong edge all around at the top of the box and permits the use of glue (with some joints) where the sides and ends meet, as the parts glued will thus naturally tend to expand and contract alike. When the grain goes in opposite directions (i.e., at right angles), such joints, unless short, should not be glued. Where the top board is fastened to the sides and ends of the box, as in Fig. 347, it should not be glued, except in the case of a small box, and the grain should run lengthways, so that there will be as little change as possible due to the expansion and contraction (see Chapter IV. on Laying Out the Work, and [Appendix]).
When several boards are required to cover the top or bottom of a box, if you wish to have as few cracks as possible and to avoid the swelling and shrinking across the grain as much as you can, lay the boards lengthways of the box, but if you merely wish for strength, lay them crossways.
Care must be taken about testing the angles with the square, and guarding against winding (see Winding-sticks), in making nice boxes, as with all framed work. If the bottom and top are got out accurately they will, of course, assist in the matter of getting the box square, and for common work carefully fitting the bottom (or bottom and top) in place will be all the "squaring" required. In nice work where the joints are glued, waste pieces should be placed over the joints (across the grain of the sides) before applying the clamps, not merely to prevent the work being marred by the clamps, but also to distribute the pressure and ensure as close a joint as possible (see Clamps).
The final smoothing of the outside of a box should be done after it is permanently put together, allowing plenty of time, if glue is used in the joints, for it to dry before dressing off the surfaces. The inside must, of course, be smoothed before putting together.
The variety of forms in which boxes are made is too great for all to be specified, but the same general principles apply to nearly all forms of box-work. In the case of chests or large boxes, you will often see them with the sides and ends panelled, but this is rather an elaborate form for the beginner to attempt and had best be avoided by the inexperienced worker. A form which is not too hard for the amateur is shown, however, in Fig. 350, the sides and ends being fitted to grooves or rabbets cut in posts at each corner.
Fig. 350.
The work of getting out the stock for boxes and making the joints can be done so quickly and accurately (and usually cheaply) by a circular saw or other machine that much time is saved, when making nice boxes, by having the parts sawed at a mill. The remarks made at the end of the introduction to Chapter X. (on Furniture), in regard to getting out your work, putting together, smoothing, and finishing, apply equally to making the better class of boxes and chests, and the general details of the work do not differ from those of the articles shown in that chapter. See also, Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Nailing, Nail-set, Screws, Hinges, Locks, Scraper, Sandpaper, and Finishing, in [Part V].
Toy Boats.—A few suggestions about the wood-work of the hulls of toy boats may be useful to the beginner. The details of rigging and discussion of the merits of the various types and designs are matters which do not come within the scope of this book, and you can easily find information upon these points.
Making your boats yourself is half the fun, of course, and capital practice with tools as well as a valuable introduction to the building of model yachts, which you may undertake later, and to the general subject of boat-building and sailing. Making different types and sailing them is both interesting and instructive.
You will quite often see little boats fitted up as exact copies in miniature of real vessels, with all the complexity of fittings, rigging, and minor details found in the larger boats. These models are often interesting specimens of skill,—as pieces of handiwork,—but the time can usually be spent to better advantage in some other way. If you wish actually to sail your boats, leave out everything which is not essential to successful sailing.
Very little skill, and no instruction, is required to make the simpler forms of toy boats familiar to the small boy who lives near the water. Almost any scrap of shingle or piece of wood upon which a little mast can be raised will sail, as the small boy well knows. The difficulties begin when something more like a boat is attempted, and the first and greatest of all difficulties is that of the design, as you will discover later if you attempt scientific model yacht-building. But advanced model yacht-work requires much skill—more than can be expected of a beginner. At first, in beginning to make toy boats, copy any successful boat as nearly as you can.
After you get beyond making boats of shingles and scraps of board, you may very likely make something like Fig. 351, which is too simple to require special description; but when you begin to build regular boats you will find enough to tax your wood-working skill to the utmost. You had best begin with simple forms and not make your first attempts too large.
Fig. 351.
One way of making the hull (as of course you know) is to cut it from a solid block of wood of the required size. Another way is to build it up of layers of board laid on one another horizontally (Fig. 352).[27]
Fig. 352.
The greatest care must be taken in the selection of the wood. It should be free from knots, checks, and bad grain, and above all things must be thoroughly seasoned. Nothing is better than the best quality of clear white pine. Mahogany is excellent, but is more costly and harder to work.
Take a simple model of the fin-keel type (Fig. 353). First you must have the design or drawing giving the different plans or views. If the drawing is smaller than the actual size you wish to make the boat, it must, of course, be enlarged and a full-sized working drawing made.[28]
Fig. 353.
Before beginning work read carefully Marking, Rule, Square, Saw, Plane, Chisel, Gouge, Spokeshave, Paring, etc., and look up any other references.
Fig. 354.
To cut the hull from a solid block, first prepare the block of the right dimensions, and plane it, making sure that the sides are true and square with one another. The sheer plan must now be transferred to the sides of the block, either by copying it on the wood by the use of transfer paper placed between the drawing and the wood, by cutting out a pattern, or by fastening the drawing itself on one side of the wood and a reversed duplicate on the other side. In the same way transfer the half-breadth plan twice to the top of the block, on each side of a line drawn along the centre, reversing the pattern for one side, of course. Also continue the centre line down each end and along the bottom.
If the top and side outlines can be sawed to the lines marked with a band-saw or jig-saw, the expense will be but slight and considerable labour will be saved. Saw down on the lines 1—1, 2—2, 3—3, etc. (Fig. 354), nearly to the sheer line shown in Fig. 355. In your first attempts at making small boats it may be well to omit the deck sheer, leaving the top flat (Fig. 354), as this simplifies matters in the beginning. Also, saw off the superfluous wood shown by the shaded parts of Fig. 355. Now clamp or wedge the block, bottom up, firmly on the bench, in case you have no vise arrangement by which it can be properly held, and rough it out approximately to shape with a wide chisel (see Paring) or the draw-knife (see Draw-knife).
Fig. 355.
The operation of shaping and hollowing out is slow work and requires much care. A little haste may spoil the work of hours. As the bottom begins to approach the desired shape you must have something more than the eye by which to gauge your cutting, for a very little deviation from the true curve may spoil your boat. It is very important to get both sides of the boat alike. On card-board or stiff paper, mark a series of patterns of the different sections shown on the body plan. Cut out each of these patterns so as to save the part which is the reverse of the shape of the section of the boat, thus forming a series of templates, which you can apply to the hull at each section to test your cutting, until the templates just fit the wood at their respective sections, when the shape of the hull will, of course, agree with the plan.
The spoke-shave, and sometimes the plane, can be used to good advantage in the final shaping (see Spokeshave). Especial care is required not to slice off too much, and you will, of course, work, as a rule, from the centre (or amidships) towards the ends. The block can be held in the lap or between the knees for this shaping, but it is better for all kinds of crooked work to have the material firmly held by a vise or some other contrivance, so that not merely the hands of the worker are free, but the whole body as well.
Fig. 356.
This form of hull is simple to make, in that the curves of the outside are all convex. There are no concave surfaces and reversed curves. The surface can be finally shaped by the use of the rasp, followed by a file, and finally smoothed with scraper or glass (see Scraper). Do not use sandpaper until the hull is finished.
The inside must next be hollowed. Gauge a line around the upper side, ½" from the edge, except at the bow and stern, where a greater distance should be allowed (Fig. 356). The hull must now be held firmly in some way. If you cannot contrive to clamp it firmly without bruising the outside, you should arrange some blocks (padding them with cloth or leather) in such a way that it can be held securely. It is better to spend an hour in fastening the block firmly than to attempt to steady it with one hand and to cut with the other. In all the shaping of the boat, both hands should be free if possible. Grasp the blade of the tool with the left hand, or lay the hand across it, so as to exert a back-pressure on the tool. This gives great control of the tool (see Paring).
Fig. 357.
Bore one or more holes (according to the size of the boat) downward from the top (Fig. 356), being very careful not to bore too deeply, but to leave at least half an inch of wood below the hole (see Boring). Now run a groove with the gouge around the deck, inside of the line marked, and hollow out the inside with the gouge, cutting towards the middle. The holes bored will help in this process. Cut down straight from the line marked on the upper side until the thickness of the sides of the hull is reduced to perhaps ¼ of an inch (Fig. 357). The object of the increased thickness at the gunwale is to stiffen the sides and give a better bearing for nailing down the deck. Below this point make the thickness as uniform as you can, except for a narrow space at the very bottom where the keel is to be fastened, where it is often well to leave a thicker ridge (Fig. 357).
Fig. 358.
Extreme care is required in hollowing the inside. It is best not to attempt to make the sides thinner than one fourth of an inch, unless you are a pretty good workman with a fair degree of patience, for it is hard to repair the damage if you cut too deeply. Templates can be made for the inside. You can tell quite well whether you are making the thickness uniform by the sense of feeling, gauging the thickness between the thumb and finger. Do not try to cut away too much at the bow and stern, as it will weaken the boat, but leave a sufficient body of solid wood. Smooth the inside neatly with a flatter gouge (if you have it) than that with which you removed the bulk of the wood.
Next, with a thin strip or batten, mark the line for the sheer of the deck by the saw-kerfs already made and remove the wood carefully to this sheer line. The outside can now be thoroughly sandpapered, first with, perhaps, No. 1½, and finally with No. 00. Get the surface as smooth as possible (see Sandpaper). Next paint the outside and inside with two coats of white lead and oil (see Painting). It is a good plan to apply a coat of hot oil first.
Fig. 359.
Fig. 360.
Fig. 361.
Now to make this same simple model by the method of layers you will readily see that if you take a piece of board of a thickness equal to the distance between the water lines in the sheer plan (Fig. 353), and cut from it pieces of the shape of the water lines as shown in the half-breadth plan (Fig. 353), and also cut out the centres of the two upper pieces as shown in Figs. 358, 359, 360, and then fasten these pieces one upon another as shown in Fig. 361—you will see that you have built up the general form of the boat, and saved much of the labour of shaping and hollowing.
Before cutting out these layers, a centre line must be accurately marked along both sides and at the rounded ends, so that the layers can be put together in the correct positions. Also, for the same reason, mark the midship lines across each side and on the edges, as shown. In drawing the inside lines (for the part to be cut out), care must be taken to leave sufficient thickness at the sides to allow for the final shaping. The sawing of the layers had best be done at a mill with a band-saw and jig-or scroll-saw, but can be done by hand, of course.
The boards or planks must be accurately dressed so as to make as perfect joints as possible when put together. If not convenient to make the thickness of the boards agree with the water lines of the plan, you can easily draw in new water lines to agree with the thickness of the board you may have—say, ¾" or 7/8" apart. Glue must now be applied to the joints, and the pieces firmly clamped together between boards, or laid flat (bottom side upwards) and weights applied. It is best not to cut out and glue up more than two or three layers at a time, lest they become bent or sprung. Care must be used in applying the pressure to make it uniform and not cause the somewhat flexible sides to be sprung or twisted out of shape (see Gluing and Clamps). Do not delay this building-up operation needlessly. Do not leave the pieces lying around for a fortnight. Keep them all clamped up in the proper position, or under pressure, if you can, until the whole form is glued together, as such pieces spring out of shape very easily.
After the glue is thoroughly dry, complete the shaping of the outside and inside as in the case of the solid block, care being taken to pare off the projecting angles on the outside gradually, so as not to cut within the curve marked on the plan.
The fin (when flaring at the top and not too thin) can also be made of wood, glued and screwed on, the lead being screwed to the bottom with brass screws.[29] Be sure that the fin is in line with the centre line of the boat.
Unless the boat is quite small it is best to fit in two or three deck beams to connect the sides and support the deck (Fig. 357). These should be of thin stuff (perhaps 3/16" thick and ½" wide), set on edge and very slightly arched, the ends being fitted into gains cut in the sides, and nailed with fine brads. They can also be glued.
The deck should be of thin stuff (perhaps 1/8" planed). Mark carefully on the piece the deck outline and cut it approximately to shape, but well outside of the line. Fasten small blocks of wood to the under side of the deck wherever any attachments for the rigging are to be fastened. Paint the lower side, and when dry bore a row of holes with a very small brad-awl (see Awl) all around the edge, 1/8" inside of the line. Smear the top edge of the hull with thick white lead, or white lead putty, and nail the deck in place with very fine wire brads, perhaps ½" in length. Care must be used not to split the deck or drive the nails through the sides of the hull. Fine brass screws can be used if necessary. The overhanging edge of the deck can be trimmed down carefully with chisel, plane, or knife. The outside of the deck can now be painted.
The rudder can be fixed in a brass tube, the ends of which can be set in lead. The mast can also be stepped in a brass tube, or simply pass through the deck to the bottom, where it can be stepped in a smaller hole, which must be bored with care lest it go through.
When you come to making models of less simple form—those having hollows and reversed curves in their outside form, as the majority of boats do—the difficulty of shaping accurately is much increased and more care is required, but the principle of construction remains the same.
Fig. 362.
Suppose, for example, you are ambitious enough to undertake such forms as those which compete for the America's Cup, for instance, you will find it difficult to carry the process of building by horizontal layers below a certain point (Fig. 362) but the keel and lower part can be added by gluing (or gluing and screwing) a piece of board or plank on edge (or two pieces, if necessary) to the bottom. The lead can, in turn, be fastened to the lower edge of the keel by screws. Models of such yachts are not always the best forms for toy boats, however desirous you may be to reproduce in miniature these famous boats.