British and Foreign Arms & Armour

by Charles Henry Ashdown

THE GREEKS

For the better understanding of the arms of the Greeks it is desirable to consider those of the two distinct ages into which their history naturally falls, viz. the Heroic and the Historic.

THE HEROIC AGE

This period is approximately 1000 years b.c., of the time of Homer, from whom we obtain all, or nearly all, of the particulars respecting arms and armour.

The Cuirass.—This was made of bronze, as was the whole of the defensive armour at that time. It was worn over a linen tunic, and apparently consisted of a breastplate guarded round the arms and neck with lames. That of Agamemnon is stated to have had ten bands of bronze, twelve of gold, twenty of tin, and six of bronze round the neck. We have mention of the defensive equipment of Menelaus which was pierced by the arrow of Pandarus. It first passed through the golden clasps of the waist-belt, then the breastplate, and finally through a coat of mail which was worn underneath. The cuirass was often very highly ornamented by repoussé work and also inlaid with gold.

The Helmet.—The most elaborate helms were those fitting lightly to the head and adorned with a crest which projected before and behind, and was also furnished with plumes. The simpler forms were of leather or bronze, fitting closely to the head, and without peak or plume.

PLATE II of Philip II.

A. F. Calvert

Fig. 31.—Greek greaves (front and back view).

The Greaves covered the legs from the knee to the instep, and from their form must have been constructed of bronze or some alloy possessing a large amount of pliability, inasmuch as they were in one piece, and yet nearly met behind the legs, where they were fastened with clasps. Homer frequently alludes to the excellent way in which these defences were made, whereby they in no way hindered the wearer ([Fig. 31]). It is conjectured that the bronze used in the construction of the greaves resembled in some respects the hardened brass or “latten” of the mediæval ages, and that they were carefully moulded to the limbs of the wearer.

The Shield, by far the most important part of the defence, was either round or oval in form and made of bronze, protected at the back with hide, and at times covered with it. Strengthening discs of metal, bosses, and rings of metal were also added (Figs. [32], [33]). It appears to have been of very great weight, even Ajax on one occasion being embarrassed by the weight of his own shield, which we are told was of bronze backed by seven tough bulls’ hides. They reached from the neck to the ankle, and were often elaborately decorated. A guige appears to have been fitted at times, which passed over the right shoulder.

Fig. 32.—Greek shield.

Fig. 33.—Greek shield (front and back).

Fig. 34.—Greek sword in scabbard.

The Sword.—Homer applies the terms “long, large, sharp, trenchant, and two-edged” to the sword, and it is evident that it was of the same description as that characteristic of the Bronze Age ([Fig. 34]). It was ornamented with studs of gold or silver, and the sword-belt was apparently worn over the shoulder.

Fig. 35.—Greek bow.

The Lance or Javelin.—This was by far the most important weapon in the Grecian armoury, and plays the chief part in all Homeric combats, which commence by the spear being poised in the hand and hurled as a javelin. It decided the contest as a rule, and it was only upon its failing to do so that the combatants had recourse to the sword. The lance was made of ash—long, tough, and ponderous; the head was of bronze and unbarbed.

The Bow.—Only one description of a bow is given to us—that of Pandarus, which is said to be of ibex horn, strung with sinews ([Fig. 35]). The arrow-head is of iron; the only mention of that metal in the warrior’s equipment, and the arrows were kept in a quiver fitted with a lid. The sling appears to have been relegated to the lowest order of combatants, who occupied the rear of the army, and sent their missiles over the heads of those in front. The great chiefs and the spearmen did not disdain to use the stone upon occasion, and we have graphic descriptions of the huge rocky pieces the combatants hurled at one another.

THE HISTORIC AGE

The equipment described by Homer had not particularly altered in the Iron Age except in certain details and modifications necessitated by the changed order of combat. The heavily-armed soldier, having already a tunic as a just-au-corps, put on greaves, cuirass, sword (hung upon the left side by a belt passing over the right shoulder); the large round shield, supported in the same manner, helmet, and spear, or two spears, as occasion required. Men thus equipped were termed Hoplites, the term “hopla” more especially denoting the defensive armour, the shield and breastplate, or cuirass. The mode of combat by the Greek phalanx necessitated the adoption of a long and heavy spear; the ranks were sixteen deep, and each rank consisted of the men standing close together with shield touching shield, while the spears or pikes, each 24 feet in length, reached 18 feet in front of the nearest rank when couched. As a space of about 2 feet was allowed between each rank, the spears of the five files behind him projected in advance of each front-rank man.

The sword continued to be of the leaf-like form which prevailed in the Bronze Age, and was longer than the Roman sword of the following era. At the same time a sword was in use which was the prototype of the subsequent weapon: it had a long, straight blade slightly tapering from the hilt to the point, where it was cut to an acute angle for thrusting. A central ridge traversed both sides of the blade, and it was double-edged. Upon these swords and their scabbards a wealth of decoration was lavished by the Greeks. The great shield of the Heroic Age gave place to a round or oblong shield reaching only to the knee; it was concave to the body, and appears to have been decorated as a general rule: one invariable ornament was a flat band or border round the circumference. This shield was the true battle-shield of the heavily-armed hoplites. A much smaller and lighter one was used by the cavalry and the light infantry, being made of hide with the hair on. A cross-piece was affixed at the back for a handle, and a cord was looped round the inside of the shield, which afforded a grasp for the hand.

Fig. 36.—Greek helmet with cheek-guards.

Fig. 37.—Greek helmet.

Fig. 38.—Greek helmets of the Bœotian shape.

Fig. 39.—Helm, breastplate, and backplate from Cumæ. (Tower of London.)

The helms all appear with characteristic neck-guards and pendent guards for the face, which were free to move upon simple attachments at the side; the front is shown to be protected by a more or less ornamental visor or nasal. The crest, of which three distinct varieties are shown, assumed many modifications of those varieties, but the general arrangement was to lengthen it so as to extend from the front portion of the helmet to the neck-guard, and the upper portion spreading like a fan. The body of the helm in nearly every instance was made the ground for elaborate decoration. To the crest was added at times one or two plumes, the whole producing a striking military effect (Figs. [36] and [37]). The true Greek war-helm, however, had very little exterior ornamentation, but was in every respect a most serviceable and business-like headpiece. It was known as the Bœotian helm ([Fig. 38]), and the general shape may be gathered from an examination of the Italian “barbuta” of the fourteenth century, its lineal descendant. A fine helmet of this character is preserved in Case 24 at the Tower of London; it is of bronze, and was excavated at Cumæ, an ancient Greek colony near Naples. It is shown in [Fig. 39]. Fitting closely to the head and neck, the lower part reached to the shoulders; in front two openings for the eyes, with a drooping nasal between and a narrow vertical opening opposite the chin and neck, gave a general protection which was most effectual, and only exposed the absolute minimum to chance of injury. Its efficacy was soon recognised, and it was eagerly assumed by the hoplites and the leading Greek warriors. The greaves now appear without straps behind, and were retained in their place solely by the elasticity of the metal; they are represented as adhering closely to the limb, and were probably moulded from casts taken direct from the wearer. About 400 b.c. the heavy bronze cuirass of the Greek soldier, which had been transmitted from the Heroic Period, gave way to a lighter but equally efficacious defence, made of linen crossed many times in folds and glued together, such as we have seen used by the Egyptians, and, in fact, by nearly all Asiatic races. The mounted soldiers wore a shorter cuirass than the hoplites; it was moulded to the figure, and from the lower edge pendent straps of leather were affixed for the protection of the lower part of the body and the thighs. These “lambrequins,” as they were termed, were very numerous, and at times ornamented with metal plaques; they were longer than the Roman lambrequins of a subsequent period by reason of the Greek cuirass terminating at the waist (Figs. [40] and [41]). The javelin or throwing-spear of the light-armed troops was furnished with a strap to aid in propelling it. A pair of Greek greaves are preserved in Case 24, Tower of London, which are probably of the Heroic Age, as they are furnished with rings for the attachment of fastening straps. From the same case we have examples of the bronze cuirass, backplate, and breastplate, with a bronze attachment at one shoulder for fastening the two together. An outline of the chief muscles and prominences upon the human form are crudely imitated in repoussé work, and indications exist upon the backplate of the fastenings by which it was attached to the front ([Fig. 39]). The bronze belt or zone which was worn by many warriors below the cuirass is also exemplified and shown in [Fig. 42]. The fastenings in front show a considerable amount of artistic skill. To this zone were attached the lower defences for body and limbs.

Figs. 40 and 41.—Greek cuirasses.

Fig. 42.—Spear-head, dagger and sheath, and bronze belt from Cumæ. (Tower of London.)

PLATE III*

German Shield, Sixteenth Century, by Desiderius Colman

A. F. Calvert

The shape of the spear-head is similar to that shown in [Fig. 42]. It has a central ridge strengthening the blade, and is furnished with a hollow socket for receiving the head of the shaft.

Fig. 43.—Greek parazonium.

Fig. 44.—Greek quiver bow-case.

Fig. 45.—Greek quiver.

Fig. 46.—Greek bow in case.

The Greek dagger was termed the “parazonium,” and was common to all the troops ([Fig. 43]): it was broad in the blade and came to an acute point, the general shape of the blade being of a leaf-like outline similar to the sword. This shape was subsequently adopted by the Romans. A dagger and sheath from Cumæ differs in form from the foregoing ([Fig. 42]), and partakes more of the character of the anelace of the mediæval period. The holes are shown for rivets by which the wooden or bone handle was fastened, and the sheath, which is very plain, terminates in a small knob. The dagger had a small shoulder-strap of its own, by which it was suspended at the right side in a sloping position much higher than the waist.

The bow was of the short form, and made of the same materials as those used in the Heroic Age. A quiver was in general use by the Greek archers, which contained both bow and arrows, as in [Fig. 44], which is shown with its accompanying strap. This, however, was not always the case, as quivers are shown for arrows alone, as in [Fig. 45], and also bow-cases which are not adapted for arrows as well ([Fig. 46]).