CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS
His Life and His Work

THE LOTTO PORTRAIT OF COLUMBUS.

“MAKERS OF AMERICA”

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

His Life and His Work

BY
CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS, LL.D.

PRESIDENT OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY

NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1892

Copyright, 1892,
By Dodd, Mead and Co.
All rights reserved.

University Press:
John Wilson and Son, Cambridge.

TO
J. J. HAGERMAN,
Nobleman and Friend,
THIS VOLUME IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED
By the Author.

PREFACE.

In this little volume I have made an attempt to present in popular form the results of the latest researches in regard to the life and work of Columbus.

While constant use has been made of the original authorities, it has been my effort to interpret the conflicting statements with which these sources abound, in the spirit of modern criticism. The principal authorities used have been the Letters and the Journal of Columbus, the History of the Admiral purporting to be by his son Fernando, the histories of the time by Las Casas, Bernaldez, Oviedo, Peter Martyr, and Herrera, and the invaluable collection of documents by Navarrete. Of the greatest importance are the writings of Columbus and Las Casas.

As will appear in the course of the volume, the writings of the Admiral abound in passages that are contradictory or irreconcilable. In the interpretation of conflicting statements, assistance has been received from the numerous writings of Henry Harrisse. The researches of this acute critic in the manuscript records, as well as in the published writings of Italy and Spain, make his works indispensable to a correct understanding of the age of Columbus.

I have not, however, been able to adopt without reservation his views in regard to the work attributed to the son of the Admiral. The force of Harrisse’s reasoning is unquestionable; but, as it seems to me, there is internal evidence that the author of the book, whether Fernando or not, had unusual opportunities for knowledge in regard to the matters about which he wrote. While, therefore, I have used the work with great caution, I have not felt justified in rejecting it as altogether spurious.

The reader will not go far in the perusal of this volume without perceiving that I have endeavoured to emancipate myself from the thraldom of that uncritical admiration in which it has been fashionable to hold the Discoverer, ever since Washington Irving threw over the subject the romantic and bewitching charm of his literary skill. Irving revealed the spirit with which he wrote when he decried what he was pleased to call “that pernicious erudition which busies itself with undermining the pedestals of our national monuments.” Irving’s was not the spirit of modern scholarship. We should seek the truth at whatever hazard. While directed by this motive in the course of all my investigations into the life and work of Columbus, I have tried, on the one hand, to avoid the common error of bringing him to the bar of the present age for trial, and, on the other, not to shrink from judging him in accordance with those canons of justice which are applicable alike to all time.

C. K. A.

Cornell University,
March 10, 1892.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Pages
Chapter I. Early Years. [1446–1484][1–33]
Genoa, [1].—Place of Birth, [2].—Time of Birth, [4].—Family, [6].—Early Studies, [7].—Early Maritime Experience, [9].—Piratical Expeditions, [10].—Voyage to Africa, [11].—Voyage to Iceland, [12].—Experience as Bookseller and Mapmaker, [14].—Removal to Portugal, [16].—Marriage, [17].—Children, [19].—Commercial Speculation, [21].—Extent of his Experience, [21].—Theory of the Sphericity of the Earth, [23].—Progress of the Idea, [25].—Cardinal d’Ailly’s Imago Mundi, [27].—Causes of Delay, [27].—Discoveries by the Norsemen, [28].—Toscanelli’s Letters, [29].—General Approaches to the Discovery, [32].
Chapter II. Attempts to secure Assistance. [1484–1492][34–73]
Necessity of Assistance, [34].—Improbability that he applied to Genoa and Venice, [35].—Applications to Portugal, England, and France, [36].—Attitude of Portugal, [37].—Departure of Columbus for Spain, [41].—Course after reaching Spain, [43].—Condition of Spain, [44].—Inquisition, [44].—Plague, [45].—Debasement of the Coin, [45].—War against the Moors, [46].—Support of Columbus, [47].—First Encouragement, [48].—Audience at Salamanca, [49].—Nature of the Discussion, [52].—Friendliness of Deza, [53].—Result, [53].—Delays, [53].—Occupations of the Court, [54].—Thought of going elsewhere, [55].—Summons to a New Conference, [56].—Stipends of Money, [57].—Visit to Portugal, [57].—Visit to Medina Celi, [58].—Opinions of Scientific Men, [60].—Disgust of Columbus, [61].—Visit to La Rabida, [62].—Service of Perez, [63].—Favourable Inclination of the Court, [64].—Inadmissible Terms demanded, [65].—Story of the Jewels, [67].—Successful Representations, [67].—Columbus secures his Commission, [68].—Misfortune of these Extraordinary Powers, [70].—Survey of Sources of Assistance, [72].
Chapter III. The First Voyage. [Aug. 3, 1492—March 15, 1493][74–128]
Crew for the First Voyage, [74].—The Vessels, [76].—Setting sail, [77].—Columbus’s Diary and Letters, [77].—Repairs of the “Pinta,” [79].—Traditions of the Islanders, [80].—On the Voyage, [82].—Report of Land, [84].—Indications, [84].—Probable Truth concerning a Mutinous Spirit, [85].—Columbus reports a Light, [86].—Discovery of Land, October 12, [87].—The Place of Landing, [88].—Cronau’s Investigations, [89].—Riding Rocks, [91].—The People, [92].—Explorations, [93].—Cuba, [94].—San Domingo, [94].—Shipwreck, [95].—La Navidad, [96].—Spirit of the Natives, [97].—Sail for Home, [98].—Spirit of the Discoverer, [98].—Quest for Gold, [99].—Slender Foundation of Promises, [100].—Attitude of Columbus toward his Crew and toward the Natives, [100].—Testimony of Las Casas, [104].—Final Departure, [105].—The Caribs, [106].—Salt-pits, [107].—Return of the “Pinta,” [107].—Last of the Bahamas, [108].—Furious Storms, [108].—Precautions, [109].—Pilgrimages promised, [110].—The Azores, [110].—Lisbon, [111].—Couriers sent to announce Discoveries, [111].—Claims of Portugal, [112].—Treaty of 1479, [112].—Treatment by the King of Portugal, [114].—Reaches Palos, March 15, 1493, [115].—Arrival of the “Pinta,” [115].—Sad end of Pinzon, [116].—Reception of Columbus at Barcelona, [118].—Renewal of Authority, [120].—Unwarranted Promises, [121].—Resolves to retake Jerusalem, [121].—Hostility of Old Nobility, [121].—Announcement to the Pope, [122].—Bull of Demarcation, [123].—Preparation for a Second Voyage, [124].—Policy of Confiscation, [125].—Diplomatic Controversy with Portugal, [126].—Triumph of Spain, [128].—Removal of Line of Demarcation, [128].
Chapter IV. The Second Voyage. [Sept. 25, 1493-June 11, 1496][129–170]
Character of the Crew, [129].—The Grand Canary, [130].—The Caribbees, [130].—Warlike Character of the Natives, [131].—Sailing for La Navidad, [133].—Gloomy Forebodings, [135].—Total Loss of the Colony, [135].—Causes of the Disaster, [136].—The Domain of Caonabo, [137].—Final Conflict, [138].—Visit to the Admiral’s Ship by the Cacique, [138].—Treachery, [139].—Founding of Isabella, [140].—Defective Character of the Colonists, [140].—Illness of Columbus, [141].—General Purpose, [141].—The Expedition of Ojeda, [141].—Report of Columbus, [142].—Dishonest Contractors, [143].—Proposal of Columbus concerning Slaves, [144].—Mining Hopes, [147].—Peculiarities of the Natives, [148].—Prevailing Distresses, [151].—Columbus visits Cuba, [152].—Oath of Sailors, [154].—Other Discoveries, [155].—Illness of the Admiral, [155].—Margarite, [156].—General Condition of the Colony, [158].—Capture of Caonabo, [158].—Enforcement of Tribute, [160].—Repartimientos, [161].—Desperate Situation, [162].—Mutiny, [164].—Father Boyle, [165].—The Adelantado, [165].—Investigation of Agnado, [167].—Decision of the Admiral to return, [169].
Chapter V. The Third Voyage. [May 30, 1498-October 1500][171–204]
Arrival Home, [171].—Reception by the Monarchs, [172].—Delay in fitting out the Third Expedition, [174].—Sailing of the Fleet, [177].—Discovery of the Mainland, [178].—Geographical Delusions, [180].—Condition of Affairs at San Domingo, [183].—Bartholomew’s Expedition to Xaragua, [185].—Desperate Situation, [187].—Roldan’s Revolt, [188].—Temporary Agreement, [191].—Return of Ojeda, [193].—Cargo of Slaves, [194].—Charges against Columbus, [199].—Arrival of Bobadilla, [200].—Bobadilla assumes Authority, [201].—Charges against Columbus, [202].—Arrest of Columbus, [203].—Columbus sent Home in Chains, [204].
Chapter VI. The Fourth Voyage. [May 9, 1502-Nov. 7, 1504][205–234]
Reception by the Public, [205].—Attitude of the Monarchs, [206].—Speech of the Queen, [207].—The Letter of Columbus, [210].—Character of the Settlers, [211].—Gradual Opening of the Islands to other Navigators, [212].—General Maritime Activity, [213].—Policy of Ferdinand, [215].—Appointment of Ovando, [215].—Character of the Fourth Crew, [216].—The Crusade, [218].—Activity of the Portuguese, [218].—Sets sail on Fourth Voyage, [219].—Tries to land at San Domingo, [220].—Successive Storms, [221].—Desires of the Admiral, [223].—Reaches the Mainland, [225].—At Darien, [226].—Gold of Varagua, [226].—Attacked by Natives, [227].—Failure to found a Colony, [227].—Two Vessels reach Jamaica, [228].—Wreck of the Vessels, [229].—Starvation impending, [229].—Letter to the King, [230].—Departure of Mendez, [231].—Strategy of Columbus, [232].—Attitude of Ovando, [233].—A Year of Delays, [234].—Return to San Domingo and Spain, [234].
Chapter VII. Last Days.—Death, Character. [1504–1506][235–257]
Columbus at Seville, [235].—His Letters, [236].—His Complaints, [237].—Americus Vespucius, [237].—Columbus’s Last Will, [238].—Death, at Valladolid, [239].—Uncertainty as to Place of Burial, [239].—Removal to Seville, [239].—Removal to San Domingo, [239].—Controversy as to Place of the Remains at present, [240].—Tradition, [240].—Removal in 1796, [241].—Discoveries in 1877, [241].—The Inscriptions, [242].—The Casket Plate, [242].—Formal Inspection, [244].—Charge of Forgery, [245].—Basis of the Charge, [246].—Investigations of Cronau in 1891, [246].—Conclusion reached, [247].—Personal Appearance of the Admiral, [248].—The Portraits, [249].—The Lotto Portrait, [250].—Final Estimate of Columbus’s Character, [251].—His Attitude toward the Moral Ideas of his Age, [252].—His Attitude toward Slavery, [253].—His Beginning of the Spanish Policy, [254].—His Powers and his Responsibilities, [255].—His Purposes, [256].—Results, [257].
INDEX[259]