APPENDIX TO CHAPTER XIV.
NOTE (p. 404).
For those more particularly interested, we append a full analysis of the slag, taken from Messrs Stead and Ribsdale's paper in the 'Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,' 1887, vol. i. p. 222:—
| Lime | 41.58 |
| Magnesia | 6.14 |
| Alumina | 2.57 |
| Peroxide of iron | 8.54 |
| Protoxide of iron | 13.62 |
| Protoxide of manganese | 3.79 |
| Protoxide of vanadium | 1.29 |
| Silica | 7.38 |
| Sulphur } | .23 |
| Calcium } | .31 |
| Sulphuric anhydride | .12 |
| Phosphoric acid | 14.36 |
| 99.93 |
CHAPTER XV.
POTASSIC MANURES.
Relative Importance.
In Chapter VI. we pointed out that of the three manurial ingredients potash was the one most abundantly occurring, and that, consequently, the necessity of adding it in the form of an artificial manure existed less frequently than in the case of nitrogen or phosphoric acid. It was further pointed out that, under the ordinary conditions of agriculture, a greater restoration to the soil of the potash removed in the crops was made in the straw used in farmyard manure than was the case with regard to the other two ingredients. Despite these facts, there are many cases where the addition of potassic manures is of the highest importance in increasing plant-growth. It will be well, therefore, to devote a little space to considering our different potassic manures and their respective action.
Scottish Soils supplied with Potash.
Potassic manures are not so valuable in this country since experience has shown that most Scottish soils are abundantly supplied with this manurial ingredient. Moreover, under the conditions of most European farming, there seems to be a steady gain to the soil of potash. In America, however, the action of potash as a manure seems to be more strikingly illustrated. Indeed, wherever forage crops or straw are sold off the farm in large quantities, or where beets, cabbages, carrots, potatoes, onions, &c., are also grown in large quantities, the necessity for potash manuring generally arises.
Sources of Potassic Manures.
The value of potash as a manure first came to be recognised from the favourable action of wood-ashes. Of course their favourable action is not due solely to potash, as they contain, in addition to the other ash ingredients of the plant, phosphates; and their value as a manure may also be said to depend not a little on their indirect action. They contain a certain percentage of caustic alkali, which promotes the decomposition of the nitrogenous matter of the soil. But making due allowance for these other valuable properties, the chief value of wood-ashes is undoubtedly due to the potash they contain. Hence the use of the commercial article called potash, which is a mixture of potassium carbonate and hydrate, and which is obtained from wood-ashes, was formerly common to a considerable extent as a manure, especially for clover. Barilla, a rich potassic manure prepared by burning certain strand plants, especially the saltwort, was also in the past largely exported from Sicily and Spain. Kelp, a product got by burning sea-weed in Scotland, is also a rich potassic manure. Since, however, the discovery of the Stassfurt mines, all potassic manures have come from these.
Stassfurt Potash Salts.
Huge salt deposits exist at Stassfurt in Germany. They have been formed by the evaporation of an inland sea. Salt was first discovered in these deposits in 1839, but for long the presence of potash salts was little suspected, and it was not until 1862 that the potash salts were worked. We have already, in the Appendix to Chapter VI., given a list of the chief potash minerals occurring in the Stassfurt deposits. These minerals are found in layers, the lowest layer consisting of almost pure salt; while immediately above this we have a layer of salt mixed with the mineral polyhallite (containing potassium sulphate) of about 100 feet thick. Above this last layer there is a layer of about 90 feet, containing kieserite (magnesium sulphate) mixed with potassium and magnesium chlorides; and above this again is a layer (90 feet) of carnallite, which furnishes the chief source of the potash salts used for manurial purposes.
At first the crude salts, as obtained direct from the deposits, were sold as manures under the name of Abraum salts. Now, however, they are purified. Of potash salts in 1888 some 25,000 tons were exported from Stassfurt for manurial purposes. Of these salts there may be mentioned, viz., kainit, an impure form of the sulphate, containing on an average about 12 per cent of potash, and the muriate and the sulphate—both salts, in a more or less pure form, being used. A word or two may be added on the effect of the two forms of potash—viz., as the sulphate and as the muriate.
Relative Merits of Sulphate and Muriate of Potash.
It is a well-known fact that muriate of potash, far from having a beneficial effect on certain crops, is actually harmful. Of these, sugar-beets, potatoes, and tobacco may be mentioned. In the case of beets it seems to have an effect in lessening the percentage of crystallisable sugar, while potatoes are rendered waxy. With regard to the tobacco-plant, it seems to impair the value of the leaf from the smoker's point of view. That this deleterious action is due to the form in which the potash is present, and not to the potash itself, seems to be pretty clear, since potash in the form of sulphate has not this deleterious effect on these plants. Another objection which has been urged against muriate of potash is that, when applied as a manure, it is apt to give rise to the formation of calcium chloride,—a compound which is distinctly hurtful to many plants. A similar charge cannot be brought against sulphate of potash, since gypsum, which is the chief compound it is likely to give rise to, is of much value, as we have already pointed out, as an indirect manure. On the whole, therefore, sulphate of potash seems to be the safest form in which to add potash. Unfortunately, however, most of the commercial sulphates are very impure, and contain generally considerable quantities of muriate. In favour of the muriate, it may be said that it is the more concentrated manure, and that it diffuses better in the soil than the sulphate—a point of great importance. It has, moreover, been used without any bad effect for clover, corn, grass, and some root crops.
Application of Potash Manures.
The extreme tenacity with which the soil-particles fix potash salts, when applied as manures, is a point which ought to be borne in mind in their application. This, as we have just noticed, is greater in the case of the sulphate than in the case of muriate, and it has been observed that certain other fertilisers seem to exercise a considerable influence in hindering their fixation. Among these may be mentioned bone-meal and farmyard manure. Nitrate of soda also seems to increase the diffusibility of potash salts. Conversely, potash salts seem to help to fix ammonia.
For the above reasons potash manures ought to be applied to the soil a considerable period before they are likely to be used by the crop. There is little risk of any serious loss taking place owing to rain. Autumn application is generally recommended. Even in very light soils it has been proved in the Norfolk experiments that autumn application has an immense advantage over spring application. It has been found that where potash is applied as sulphate, little sulphuric acid is absorbed by the plant.
Soils and Crops suited for Potash Manures.
Of soils best suited for potash manures, it has been found that light soils, and those largely charged with peaty organic matter (such as the moorland soils of Germany), are most benefited; while on heavy clayey soils the percentage of potash which these latter contain is already sufficiently abundant for the needs of plants. At Flitcham the value of potash on chalk soils has been strikingly demonstrated. Of crops, it is now pretty generally acknowledged that those of the leguminous order are most benefited by potash. Especially in the case of clover has potash always proved itself a manure worth applying.
Rate of Application.
Potash is best applied in small quantities. From 1 to 2 cwt. of the muriate or sulphate is a common amount, and from 6 to 8 cwt. of kainit.
CHAPTER XVI.
MINOR ARTIFICIAL MANURES.
In addition to the manures which have been discussed in previous chapters, there are a number of minor manures which are used to a very much smaller extent—dried blood, hoofs, horns, &c.
Among these one of the most valuable is dried blood. Fresh blood, containing 80 per cent of water, has from 2.5 to 3 per cent of nitrogen, about .25 per cent of phosphoric acid, and about .5 per cent of alkalies. When dried it forms a very concentrated and valuable nitrogenous manure, which has long been used in France. The commercial article contains, on an average, about 12 per cent of nitrogen, and slightly over 1 per cent of phosphoric acid. When mixed with the soil it ferments, and the nitrogen it contains is converted into ammonia. Although not so quick-acting a manure as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, it can by no means be described, as is done in ordinary agricultural text-books, as a slow-acting manure. Its nitrogen may be regarded as of equal value to that in Peruvian guano. It is peculiarly suited for horticulture, and is chiefly used in this country as a manure for hops. It has also been used with beneficial results for wheat, grass, and turnips. As a manure it is best suited for sandy or loamy soils. Considerable quantities are exported to the sugar-growing colonies as a manure for sugar-cane. Manures are made from other animal refuse. It may be mentioned that lean flesh (containing 75 per cent of water) has about 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen,.5 per cent of alkalies, and .5 per cent of phosphoric acid; that is to say, a ton of lean flesh would contain about 70 lb. of nitrogen and 10 lb. of phosphoric acid. In air-dried flesh, according to Payen and Boussingault (containing 8-1/2 per cent of moisture), there is 13 per cent of nitrogen. Flesh, therefore, is, when properly composted, a valuable nitrogenous manure. Dried flesh is generally made into a manure called meat-meal guano, the composition of which we have already referred to in the chapter on Guano.[240]
Hoofs, horns, hair, bristles, and wool, wool-waste and the intestines of animals, have been used as manures. Hoofs and horns form a regular source of artificial nitrogenous manure; the latter being obtained as a bye-product in the manufacture of combs and other articles. They are in the form of a fine powder; and in order to increase their rate of action, which is very slow, they are often composted in America with horse-manure before use. They have also been composted with slaked lime. There can be no doubt that such treatment increases very considerably their value. Their percentage of nitrogen seems to vary very much according to the kind of animal from which they are derived. In nine samples of horn the nitrogen was found to vary from 7-1/2 to 14-1/4 per cent; giving an average of 11-1/3 per cent. The nitrogen seems rarely to exceed 15 per cent. The amount of phosphoric acid they contain has been found by various investigators to range from 6 to 10 per cent. S. W. Johnson found only from .08 to .15 per cent in buffalo-horn shavings. In France what is known as "torrefied" horn has been used. This is horn which has been subjected to the action of steam. The nitrogen in this material is considered to be more active than in ordinary horn. According to Way, horns have been used for the hop crop with good results. Ground hoof is very similar in composition to horn, and contains about 14 to 15 per cent of nitrogen. Considerable quantities are now used. It must be remembered, however, that horns, hoofs, hair, bristles, &c., although rich in nitrogen, possess a comparatively low manurial value. The home production of these articles may be estimated at 6000 to 7000 tons.
Scutch is the name given to a manure made from the waste products incidental to the manufacture of glue and the dressing of skins. It contains about 7 per cent of nitrogen, and is manufactured in London to the extent of several thousand tons annually.
Shoddy and Wool-waste.
Shoddy, which is a manure made from waste-wool products, is a material largely manufactured in this country, and which was formerly (it is now used to a considerably less extent) used to a large extent as a manure. Its annual production amounts to about 12,000 tons. There are three qualities,—the first containing 8 to 12 per cent of nitrogen; the second, 6 to 8 per cent; and the third, 5 to 8 per cent. Shoddy is by no means a very valuable manure. Woollen-waste products were formerly much richer in nitrogen than is now the case. This is due to the fact of the adulteration with cotton, now so prevalent in the manufacture of woollen goods. Pure woollen rags should contain 17 to 18 per cent of nitrogen. It has been strongly recommended to treat woollen waste with caustic alkali before being used as a manure, in order to render their nitrogen more quickly available; and there is a good deal to recommend this treatment. When wool-waste is applied as a manure, it should in every case be in autumn, so as to allow as long a period as possible to elapse before it is required for the plant's growth.
Leather has also been used as a manure. Its nitrogen may be stated at from 4 to 6 per cent; and it may safely be described as of all materials used as nitrogenous manures the least valuable. Leather is, from its very nature, admirably adapted to resist decomposition when applied to the soil, and unless it is reduced to a very fine condition, might be trusted to remain undecomposed for a long period. Torrefied leather, however, is probably of greater value. It is obtained in the same way as torrefied horn, already referred to—namely, by treatment with steam. The grease and fatty matters which so largely aid it in resisting decomposition being extracted, it is much better suited for manurial purposes than ordinary leather. Torrefied leather contains from 5 to 8 per cent of nitrogen.
Soot.
A manure which has long been used and highly esteemed is soot. Obtained in the usual way, it generally contains some 3 per cent of nitrogen, chiefly in the form of sulphate of ammonia, and small quantities of potash and phosphates. A varying proportion of the nitrogen is present in the form of ammonia salts; and this undoubtedly confers upon soot its manurial value. It has long been used as a top-dressing for young grain and grass, and has been applied at the rate of from 40 to 60 bushels per acre. It has an indirect value as a slug-destroyer.
Many of the above-mentioned manures, of comparatively low value, will probably be less used in the future than they have been in the past, owing to the more abundant supplies of nitrate of soda and ammonia salts which are now available. Many of these substances have probably been used in mixed manures.