PICTURES FROM ENGLISH HISTORY.
In reading “Pictures from English History” the “Chronology,” (page 274) will be found indispensable. It gives a complete and concise summary of English history while the most prominent features of that history are fully displayed in the “Pictures.”
P. 12.—“Druid.” The origin of the word is obscure; the common derivation from the Greek word for oak, the best authorities consider fanciful, and give their preference to the derivation from the Celtic words for God and speaking. Many of their rites have been found to be similar to those of the Oriental religions, thus indicating that the religion was brought to Gaul at the time of an Asiatic invasion. Their centers in Gaul were along the Loire and in modern Brittany.
“Serpent’s egg.” The most remarkable of all the Druidical charms was the anguineum or snake’s egg. It was said to be produced from the saliva and frothy sweat of a number of serpents writhing in an entangled mass, and to be tossed up into the air as soon as it was formed. The fortunate Druid who managed as it fell to catch it in his sagum, or cloak, rode off at full speed on a horse that had been waiting for him, pursued by the serpents till they were stopped by the intervention of a running stream. Pliny declares that he had seen one. “It is,” he says, “about the size of a moderately large, round apple, and has a cartilaginous rind, studded with cavities like those on the arm of a polypus.”—Encyclopædia Britannica.
P. 13.—“Stonehenge,” stōnˈhĕnj. Hanging stones, the word means. About eight miles north of Salisbury (see map) there is a collection of about one hundred and forty large stones, ranging in weight from ten to seventy tons. Many of them are still in their original positions, showing that they were arranged in two ovals within two circles, and were surrounded by a bank of dirt fifteen feet high, and ten hundred and ten feet in circumference. Not all authorities agree that Stonehenge was a Druid temple, some asserting that it was an astronomical observatory, and others that it was a place for assemblies of the people.
“Kit’s Coty House.” A cromlech, as the primitive monuments of the Scandinavians and Celts were called. It is composed of three upright stones about eight feet square by two thick, which support an irregular stone roof eleven feet long by eight wide. The name is a contraction of Kitigern’s coty house; i. e., Kitigern’s house made from coits, the Celtic word for huge, flat stones. Kitigern was a leader of the Britains slain in a battle against Hengist and Horsa.
P. 14.—“Cassivellaunus,” casˈsi-ve-lauˌnus; “Chertsey,” chesˈse; “Hertfordshire,” harˈfurd-shire.
P. 15.—“Aulus Plautius,” auˈlus plauˈti-us. He was a Roman consul when, in A. D. 48, he was sent to Britain, where he remained four years.
“Ostorius Scapula,” os-toˈri-us scapˈula. He went to Britain about A. D. 50. Soon after sending Caractacus to Rome, Scapula died in the province.
“Caractacus,” ca-racˈta-cus.
P. 16.—“Suetonius,” swe-toˈni-us. It was during the reign of the Emperor Nero that Suetonius fought in Britain. Previous to this campaign he had carried war against the Moors. After returning from Britain he was made consul. “Boadicea,” bo-adˈi-ceˌa.
P. 17.—“Agricola” (37-93). Agricola had been trained in military service in Britain under Suetonius. Subsequently he had been governor of Aquitania, and consul at Rome. As governor of Britain he was very successful until the jealousy of the emperor, Domitian, caused his return. Tacitus, the historian, was his son-in-law, and wrote his life.
“Hadrian” (76-138). Roman emperor. His trip to Britain was made about 119.
“Severus.” Emperor of Rome from 193-211. It was 208 that he went to Britain where he carried on a campaign until his death at York.
“Carausius,” ca-rauˈsi-us. Maximian had given Carausius the command of a fleet which was to protect the coast of Gaul. Dissatisfied with him, the emperor ordered his execution. Carausius discovering this crossed to Gaul and proclaimed himself Augustus. When the Roman emperors found it impossible to subdue him they made him a colleague. He ruled Britain until he was slain in 293.
P. 18.—“Honorius,” ho-noˈri-us. Roman emperor from 395-423.
P. 21.—“Hengist,” hĕnˈgĭst. A Jutish prince who, with his brother, Horsa, landed with a fleet on the Isle of Thanet about 449. At this time the Britains needed assistance against the incursions of the Picts and Scots, and hired Hengist and his troops. After repelling the barbarians the Saxons concluded to conquer Britain for themselves. After years of war Hengist succeeded in driving the Britains from Kent. He then established his court at Canterbury, where he reigned about thirty years.
“Cerdic.” In 495 a band of Saxons, under Cerdic, attempted the conquest of southern Britain. In 519 the crown of the West Saxons was put on Cerdic’s head, but the next year the battle of Mount Bradon checked the advance.
“Old Sarum.” A city two miles north of Salisbury, or New Sarum. It was deserted for the new site in the fifteenth century.
“Marlborough,” mawlˈbrŭh. A town of Wiltshire.
“Cirencester,” ciˈren-ces-ter. A town about fifteen miles south-east of Gloucester.
“Ceaulin,” ceuˈlin.
P. 22.—“Armorica,” ar-morˈi-ca. A name formerly given to the northwestern part of Gaul from the Loire to the Seine. The influx of Britons caused the country to be called Brittany.
“Osismii,” o-sisˈmi-i. A people of Gaul in the neighborhood of the modern Quimper and Brest. See map in The Chautauquan for March.
“Vannes,” vän; “Rennes,” ren; “Mantes,” mants. Towns of western France.
“Vortimer,” vorˈti-mer. His father, Vorˈti-gern, was the chief of the British kings when Hengist came to Britain. Being unable to cope with the Saxon leader, Vortigern was deposed, and his son made commander. Hengist and Horsa were three times defeated under his leadership, Horsa being slain in the last battle. Hengist then returned to his country until Vortimer’s death, when Vortigern was restored. On the return of Hengist the whole country was easily conquered.
P. 23.—“Ambrosius Aurelianus,” am-broˈsi-us au-reˈli-a-nus.
“Arthur.” As the legend runs Arthur was the son of Uter Pendragon. His high birth was concealed until he one day drew from the stone in which it was concealed a sword with the inscription: “Whoso pulleth this sword out of this stone is rightwise born king of England.” Several years after he was crowned, he received the enchanted Round Table which had belonged to his father, and formed about it that circle of knights whose brilliant exploits form so large a part of English legendary history. Arthur was finally wounded in battle, and carried away by the fairies, who were to restore him to the Celts upon his recovery.
“Jeffrey of Monmouth.” An old English chronicler of the first half of the twelfth century. He compiled a history of the Britains, professing to be a translation from an old Welsh manuscript. The historical value is doubted. It contains the legends of Arthur and his court, and Merlin’s “Prophecies.”
“Knights of the Round-Table.” This Round-Table had been made by Merlin for Uter Pendragon. It was circular, it was said to prevent jealousy about precedent. The number of knights which Arthur had is variously estimated as twelve, forty, and one hundred and fifty. These knights went into all countries seeking adventures. Their chief exploits occurred in search of the Holy Cup brought to Britain by Joseph of Arimathea.
“Uter,” uˈter. Pendragon (chief) was the follower of Ambrosius as leader of the Britons, and the father of King Arthur.
P. 24.—“Merlin.” The Prince of Enchanters. The legends represent Merlin as the son of a demon. His supernatural powers recommended him to King Vortigern as a counselor, a position which he afterward filled to Ambrosius, Uter Pendragon and Arthur. Merlin finally fell a victim to a charm which he had taught his mistress, Vivien. See Tennyson’s “Merlin and Vivien.”
“Lancelot,” lănˈce-lot. One of the chief knights of the Round-Table, called “the darling of the court.” He is often spoken of as Lancelot du Lac (of the lake), as he was educated at the court of Vivien, known as the Lady of the Lake. Lancelot was celebrated for his amours with Queen Guinevere, the wife of King Arthur, and the exploits which he undertook for her.
“Tristam.” A knight of the Round-Table. A nephew of the king of Cornwall. He had gone to Ireland, where, being wounded, he was healed by the Princess Iseult. Returning he told his uncle of her beauty. The latter sent for Iseult and married her, though she loved Tristam. Years after his own marriage, Tristam was again wounded, and was told that only Iseult could heal him. She was sent for, but his wife from jealousy, persuaded him that she was not coming, and he died. Matthew Arnold has a poem on this story.
P. 25.—“Aurochs,” auˈrochs. A species of wild ox, contemporary with the mammoths, but now only found in Lithuania and the forests of the Caucasus.
P. 26.—“Sagas.” The name given to the Scandinavian historical and mythological tales.
“Edda.” A book containing Scandinavian poetry and mythology. There are two Eddas. The earliest is in thirty-nine poems containing mythology. The second is a collection of the myths of the gods, with instructions in the types and meters of the pagan poetry for the benefit of young poets. It is chiefly in prose.
P. 27.—“Tarpeian Rock,” tar-peiˈan. A part of the Capitoline hill. It is said that once while the Sabines were warring against the Romans, Tarpeia, the daughter of the governor of the citadel on the Capitoline offered to open the gates to the enemy if they would give her “what they wore on their arms,” meaning their bracelets. They promised, but on entering crushed her with their shields. She was buried on the hill, and her name is still preserved in the name of the rock.
“Jupiter Sator.” After the Sabines had gained possession of the city through the treachery of Tarpeia, a battle was fought, in which the Sabines were prevailing when Romulus vowed a temple to Jupiter, and the god gave him the victory.
P. 31.—“Eulogius,” eu-loˈgi-us.
“Oswald.” He became king of Northumbria about 635. The Welsh had shortly before this allied themselves under their king Cadwallon, or Cædwalla, with the king of Mercia, had defeated the Northumbrians and had slain their king. At the time of Oswald’s succession the Welsh were still in the north, and he attacked them. The cross being set up as a standard Oswald held it till the hollow in which it was to stand was filled in by his soldiers. Throwing himself on his knees he called on his army to pray. Cadwallon was slain on “Heaven’s field,” as this battle ground was called, and Oswald for nine years held the chief power. He was finally slain by Penda.
“Maserfelth,” maˈser-felth.
“Penda.” He became king of Mercia early in the seventh century. His life was spent in fighting for the old religion of the country. In 655 he met Oswin, or Oswi, the king of Northumbria, and was defeated in a battle, in which Green says “the cause of the older gods was lost forever.”
“Offa.” King of Mercia from 758 to 796. Charlemagne, his contemporary, called him “the most powerful of the Christian kings of the West.”
P. 32.—“Iona,” or Icolmkill. An island of the Hebrides, where Columba founded a monastery. Columba (521-597) was born in Ireland and trained in the monasteries. Trouble with a priest led to his being driven from the country. He went to Iona, where he founded a community which grew very rapidly and sent out many missionaries. Columba attained a great reputation, and built, it is said, 300 churches.
“Wilfred.” (634?-709.) “The life of Wilfrith (or Wilfred), of York, was a mere series of flights to Rome and returns to England, of wonderful successes in pleading the right of Rome to the obedience of the Church of Northumbria, and of as wonderful defeats.”—Green.
“Biscop.” “Benedict Biscop worked toward the same end in a quieter fashion, coming backward and forward across the sea with books and relics and cunning masons and painters to rear a great church and monastery at Wearmouth, whose brethren owed allegiance to the Roman See.”—Green.
“Cædmon,” kĕdˈmon. The father of English song. He died in 680. According to traditions he was a swineherd to the monks of Whiteby. One night an angel appeared to him and commanded him to sing. Awakening, the words of a poem on creation came to him. He was admitted to the monastery as a member, after this. Milton is said to have taken the idea of “Paradise Lost” from this poem.
“Adhelm,” adˈhelm.
“Jarrow.” A town of Durham on the Tyne, where Biscop had founded a monastery, and where Bede was buried.
P. 33.—“Ethelwulf,” ĕthˈel-wŏolf; “Osburga,” osˈbur-ga.
P. 38.—“Hastings.” A Scandinavian viking born about 812. He joined a band of marauding Northmen, of whom he soon gained entire control. Leading his band against France he devasted the banks of the Loire, went thence to Spain where he pillaged Lisbon and burned Seville. Afterward he went to Tuscany, and by stratagem captured Rome. Having made another successful invasion of France, Hastings sailed to England, but was repulsed by King Alfred. Soon after he left his roving life to settle in Denmark, where his identity is lost.
P. 41.—“Dunstan,” dŭnˈstan; “Athelstane,” ĕthˈel-stăn.
“Glastonbury,” glasˈton-bury. A town of Somerset, near Bath.
P. 42.—“Crediton,” credˈi-ton. A town of Devonshire.
P. 43.—“Elgiva,” el-giˈva.
P. 44.—“Cambria.” The ancient Latin name for Wales.
“Sterlingshire.” A central county of Scotland. Bannockburn is within its limits.
“Argyle.” A western county of Scotland, including several islands near the coast. Its hills are famous for their picturesque beauty. The columns and cave of Staffa are within its limits.
P. 46.—“Elfrida,” elˈfri-da. The second wife of Edgar. The story of the wooing of Elfrida tells that Edgar having heard of her great beauty, sent his minister and friend to ascertain if the reports were true. The minister was so captivated with her charms that he misrepresented her beauty to the king and married her himself. When Edgar discovered the deceit, he promptly killed his friend and married Elfrida.
P. 48.—“Canute,” ka-nūtˈ. The second king of Denmark of that name. He was the son of King Sweyn, of Denmark, and came over with him to England. Sweyn failed to establish his power, but left the succession to Canute, who, after obtaining forces from his native land, completed the conquest.
P. 51.—“St. John.” (1801-1875.) An English author and traveler. He has written several volumes of histories, travels and philosophy.
“Beau Ideal.” A model of beauty; ideal perfection.
P. 53.—“Sobriquet,” sŏbˈre-kāˌ. A nickname. The word is sometimes incorrectly spelt soubriquet.
“Falaise,” fă-laisz. A town of Normandy, France.
“Palgrave.” (1788-1861.) An English author.
P. 54.—“Thierry,” tyārˌreˈ. Jacques Nicholas Augustin (1795-1856). A French historian. He established a reputation as one of the most original historians of his times by a history of the conquest of England by the Normans. Several other volumes, mainly French histories, were written by him.
P. 59.—“Pizarro,” pe-zārˈo. (1475?-1541.) A Spanish adventurer. Early in the sixteenth century he assisted in the settlement of Darien. Being anxious to explore the western coast of Peru for gold, he obtained supplies of men and arms several times from the governor of Darien, but the force was insufficient to accomplish his purpose. Pizarro at last went to Spain and obtained from Charles V. the right to conquest and discovery in Peru. The expedition was successful, but a quarrel with Almagro, his partner, led to a civil war, in which Pizarro was slain. His descendants bearing the title of Marquis of the Conquest are still to be found in Trujillo, Spain.
P. 61.—“Malmesbury,” mämzˈber-ĭ, William of. (1095?-1143.) He was the librarian of the monastery of Malmesbury, and the author of several valuable historical works.
“Guizot,” geˌzoˈ. (1787-1874.) A French statesman and historian.
“Lisieux,” leˈze-uhˌ. A city of Normandy, formerly the seat of a bishopric, but in 1801 the diocese was abolished.
“Peter the Hermit.” (1050-1115.) He had tried several pursuits, but finally became a hermit. In 1093 he made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The condition of things there led to his preaching the Crusades. He led the first band of Crusaders, and afterward was associated with Godfrey of Bouillon. After the capture of Jerusalem he returned to Europe where he founded an abbey in which he passed the rest of his life.
P. 65.—“Godfrey of Bouillon,” booˈyonˌ. (1060?-1100.) In the struggle of Henry IV., of Germany, with Pope Gregory VII., Godfrey had aided Henry, and was the first to scale the walls of Rome at its capture. This violation of the sacred city burdened his conscience, and he went on the First Crusade, of which he became the virtual leader. In 1099 Godfrey captured Jerusalem after a siege of thirty-eight days. He took the title of duke, though offered a crown. On his death his brother succeeded him, assuming the title of Baldwin I., King of Jerusalem.
“Count of Vermandois,” vĕrˌmŏnˈdwaˌ. Brother of the French king, Philip I.
“Bohemond,” bōˈhe-mŏnd. (1060?-1111.) The eldest son of Robert Guiscard. Being expelled from his father’s throne he took a prominent part in the Crusades, and was made prince of Antioch. Returning to Europe he married the daughter of the king of France, and marched against Alexis, the emperor of Constantinople. He was unsuccessful, and concluded peace. His death occurred soon after.
“Tancred,” tănkˈred. (1078-1112.) A cousin of Bohemond. He acted a distinguished part in the war against the Turks, attaining distinction at the sieges of Nicæa and Antioch, and at the storming of Jerusalem. He assisted Bohemond, and after the latter returned to Europe, Tancred defended Antioch. After the defeat of Bohemond, Tancred defeated the Saracens and drove the Sultan from Syria.
P. 67.—“Brabanion.” Soldiers from Brabant, one of the divisions of the Netherlands.
P. 68.—“Angevins,” änˈjāˌvŏnˌ. The inhabitants of Anjou.
P. 69.—“Ely.” The fens of Ely were a portion of the section known now as the “Bedford Level,” a district in eastern England, which was formerly a vast morass, but which in the seventeenth century was reclaimed by the Earl of Bedford.
“Baldwin de Rivier,” deh reˈveerˈ; “Lenoir,” le-noreˈ.
P. 73.—“Hauberk,” hâuˈbërk. A coat of mail used in the middle ages, being a jacket or tunic, with wide sleeves reaching a little below the elbow, and with short trousers terminating at the knee.—Fairholt.
“De la Chesnage,” deh lä chĕsˈnazhˌ.
P. 76.—“Brito,” brĭtˈo; “Fitzurse,” fitsˈurs.
P. 86.—“Real,” rēˈal. A Spanish and Mexican silver coin worth about 12½ cents.
“Lists.” A place enclosed for combats.
“Pursuivants,” pürˈswe-vănt. A follower or attendant.
P. 87.—“Brian de Bois Guilbert,” bre-ŏnˈ deh bwä gĕlˌbêrˈ. A brave but voluptuous commander of the Knights Templar in Scott’s Ivanhoe.
“Front de Bœuf,” frōn deh bŭf; “Richard de Malvoisin,” deh mălˈvwäˌsănˌ; “Grantmesnil,” grantˈmāsˌnelˌ; “Vipont,” veˈpŏnˌ.
“St. John of Jerusalem.” A religious and military order which originated in the middle of the eleventh century. A chapel and hostelries had been built at Jerusalem near the Holy Sepulchre. The fraternity who cared for them showed such courage during the siege of Jerusalem that many knights and princes attached themselves to the hospitallers, and in 1113 the order was approved as “Brothers Hospitallers of St. John in Jerusalem.” To monastic vows were added those of bearing arms in defense of Christianity. Many services were rendered to religion, but the order growing rich, degenerated. After the fall of Jerusalem it was established at Markab, and in 1291 removed to Cyprus. In 1530 the knights took Malta and retained it until its capture by Bonaparte in 1798. Since that time the order has existed only in name.
P. 88.—“La Reyne de la,” etc. The queen of love and beauty.
P. 89.—“Caracoled.” Wheeled about.
P. 92.—“Laissez Aller.” Go.
P. 93.—“Beau-scant.” The name of the Templars’ banner, which was half white, half black, to intimate, it is said, that they were candid and fair toward Christians, but black and terrible toward infidels.
“Desdichado.” Scott says of this knight: “His suit of armor was formed of steel richly inlaid with gold, and the device on his shield was a young oak tree pulled up by the roots, with the Spanish word Desdichado, signifying disinherited.”
P. 96.—“Chamfron,” chămˈfron. An ancient piece of armor for the head of a horse.
P. 99.—“St. Edmundsbury” or Bury St. Edmunds. A borough in Suffolkshire. It received its name from Edmund, the Saxon king and martyr.
P. 102.—“Ankerwyke,” anˈker-wike.
P. 103.—“Lewes,” luˈis.
“Mortimer.” The Earl of March. During the reign of Edward II. he became virtual sovereign of England, by favor of Queen Isabella. Through his instrumentality the king was imprisoned, and in 1326 murdered. Mortimer tried to gain control of the young prince, but was seized and hung in 1330.
P. 104.—“Llewelyn,” le-welˈin. Prince of Wales 1246. Was through life engaged in contests with the English, but finally submitted and resigned his territory 1277; revolted again and was killed by Mortimer 1282.
P. 105.—“Justiciar,” jus-tishˈe-ar. Judge.
“Marcher.” The border barons. The word march means border. It is used chiefly in the plural, and in the English history applied to the border territories between England and Scotland, and England and Wales.
P. 106.—“Glamorgan,” gla-morˈgan. The most southerly of the counties of Wales.
P. 107.—“Hugh Dispenser.” The son of Simon de Montfort.
P. 109.—“Mareschal,” märˈshal. The word is now written marshal. A military officer of high rank.
P. 111.—“De Bohun,” deh boˈhun; “Inchaffray,” inˈchaf-fray; “Ingelram de Umphraville,” inˈgel-ram deh umphˈre-ville.
P. 113.—“Ponthieu,” pōngˈte-ŭh.
“Houseled,” houzˈeld. An obsolete word, meaning that they had received the eucharist.
P. 114.—“Salet,” sălˈet. A light helmet used by foot soldiers.
P. 115.—“Froissart,” froisˈärt (1337-1410). A French chronicler. He had been destined for the priesthood, but became interested in preparing a history of the wars of his time. He went to England to collect materials, where he held a state position until he had attained his object; then he visited Scotland and Italy before returning to a clerical position in France. His life as country priest did not suit him and he joined the duke of Brabant. Having traveled through several countries, collected a volume of poems and observed the life of nearly all the courts of western Europe, Froissart devoted the rest of his days to completing his great work, “The chronicles of the wonderful adventures, great enterprises and feats of arm which happened during my time in France, England, Brittany, Scotland, Spain, Portugal, and elsewhere.”
“St. Denis.” A bishop of France in the third century who by legendary writers is confounded with Dionysius the Areopagite. The latter was an Athenian philosopher, who became a convert to St. Paul, and traveled through many countries preaching Christ. Arriving at Paris he resolved to stay there as a preacher. After several years of service he was executed. “He became the patron of the French monarchy, his name the war cry of the French armies. The famous oriflamme—the standard of France—was the banner consecrated upon his tomb.”
“Alençon,” ä-lĕnˈson.
P. 118.—“La Brayes,” lă brwa; “Reynault,” ráˈnōlˌ.
P. 119.—“Entrepot,” ŏng-tr-pō. A free port where goods are received and deposited.
“Vienne,” ve-enˈ.
P. 121.—“Gossip.” This word was formerly used in the sense of comrade, friend.
“Jehan d’Airs,” jāˈänˌdăr; “Jacques de Wisant,” zhäk deh veˈsŏnˌ.
P. 124.—“John Ball.” An English fanatical preacher in the reign of Richard II. executed at Coventry in 1381. He had been repeatedly excommunicated for preaching ‘errors and schisms and scandals against the pope, the archbishops, bishops and clergy,’ and when Wyckliffe began to preach he adopted some of the reformer’s doctrines, and engrafted them on his own. He joined Wat Tyler’s rebellion in 1381, and at Blackheath preached to a hundred thousand of the insurgents a violent democratic sermon on the text,
“When Adam delved and Eve span
Who was then the gentleman?”
P. 128.—“Good Parliament.” In the reign of Edward III., and so called from the severity with which it pursued the party of the duke of Lancaster.
P. 129.—“Peter’s Pence.” An annual tribute of one penny paid at the feast of St. Peter to the See of Rome. At one time it was collected from every family, but afterwards it was restricted to those who had the value of thirty pence in quick or live stock. This tax was collected in England from 740 till it was abolished by Henry VIII.
P. 137.—“Cinque Ports,” sink ports. The five English Channel ports of Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover, and Sandwich. These ports lying opposite to France received peculiar privileges in the days of early English history, on condition of providing in time of war a certain number of ships at their own expense.
P. 138.—“Chandos.” (Sir John.) An English soldier of the fourteenth century, whose valor and virtue have been greatly praised by the historians of the time. At Crecy, Poitiers and Auray he won honors, was made constable of Aquitane, and seneschal of Poitou. On his death the king of France exclaimed that he was the only warrior who could have made peace between him and the king of England.
“Du Guesclin,” dü gāˈklănˌ (1314?-1380). Constable of France, and its most famous warrior during his life.
“Saint George.” The patron saint of England. Was at once the Great Saint of the Greek Church and the patron of the chivalry of Europe. According to the legends he lived in the time of the emperor Diocletian. He performed many marvelous feats in defense of his religion, and suffered terrible persecution; when finally he was beheaded he was placed at the head of the martyrs. Mrs. Jameson says: “The particular veneration paid to him in England dates from the time of Richard I., who in the wars of Palestine placed himself and his army under the especial protection of St. George.”
“Derby,” earl of, afterward earl of Lancaster. A cousin of Edward III., who defended the English provinces in France against the French, winning a fine reputation as a warrior.
“Hawkwood.” Sir John. An English military adventurer of the fourteenth century. He fought for Gregory XI., and for the king of Naples, and won great renown for daring and skill.
