FOOTNOTES:
[I] Round-Table held in the Hall of Philosophy, at Chautauqua, August 16th, 1883, conducted by Rev. H. C. Farrar, of Troy, N. Y.
[Not required.]
[QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.]
ONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON “HISTORY OF GREECE,” VOLUME II, PARTS 10 AND 11—“THE ROMAN SUPREMACY, AND BYZANTINE HELLENISM.”
By A. M. MARTIN, General Secretary C. L. S. C.
1. Q. When is it generally said by historians that Hellas fell under the Roman rule? A. In 145 B. C., when Mummius captured Corinth.
2. Q. Strictly speaking, when did Hellas become a Roman province? A. During the reign of Augustus.
3. Q. Where was the principal theater of the Mithridatic war? A. Hellas, transplanted thither by the daring king of Pontus.
4. Q. Whom did the Romans finally find it necessary to send against him? A. Sulla.
5. Q. During this war what Hellenic city did Sulla capture after a long siege? A. Athens.
6. Q. What is the assertion of several modern historians in regard to the devastation of the land and the slaughter of the inhabitants during this war, which ended in 84 B. C.? A. They did their work so effectually that Asia never thereafter recovered from the Roman wounds.
7. Q. By what was the moral decay of the nation which began long before now followed? A. By a corresponding material ruin.
8. Q. By what was the Ægean Sea from the earliest times infested? A. By pirates, who boldly attacked the coasts, islands and harbors, seizing vessels and plundering property.
9. Q. In the year 78 B. C., what action did the Romans take against these pirates? A. They declared war against them, and entrusted the conduct of hostilities to Pompey.
10. Q. What was the result of Pompey’s expedition against them? A. Ten thousand of them were put to death, twenty thousand captured, and one hundred and twenty of their harbors and fortifications were destroyed.
11. Q. In the great struggle between Pompey and Cæsar for the supremacy of the world, whom did Hellas furnish with every possible assistance? A. Pompey.
12. Q. In the year 44 B. C., what Hellenic city did Cæsar rebuild that had been destroyed a hundred years before by Mummius? A. Corinth.
13. Q. In the Roman civil wars which followed the death of Cæsar, with whom did Athens ally herself? A. With Brutus and Cassius.
14. Q. After the defeat of Brutus and Cassius by Octavius and Anthony, followed by hostilities between the latter two, for whom did the greater part of Hellas declare? A. For Anthony.
15. Q. Shortly after Octavius assumed the name of Augustus to what did he reduce Hellas? A. To a Roman province.
16. Q. What is said of the jurisdiction of the Roman proconsul thereafter sent annually to rule Hellas? A. Many cities and countries continued still to be regarded as “freed and allied.” The subject territory was designated by the name of Achaia as if it did not remain an integral part of “free Hellas.”
17. Q. During the reign of Tiberias what did both Achaia and Macedonia become by reason of the harsh treatment received from the proconsuls? A. Cæsarean instead of public provinces.
18. Q. What was the course of Nero toward Hellas? A. In the year 66 he declared the country autonomous, and at the same time plundered Hellas, inflicting far greater misfortunes on it than those sustained through the invasion of Xerxes.
19. Q. When Vespasian ascended the throne what political change did he make? A. He reduced the country again to a Roman province.
20. Q. During the reign of Vespasian what action was taken in regard to the Greek philosophers? A. Nearly all the Greek philosophers were banished from Rome.
21. Q. How did Trajan prove to be one of the greatest benefactors of the Hellenic nation? A. He sent Maximus to Hellas as plenipotentiary and reorganizer of the free Hellenic cities, with instructions to honor the gods and ancient renown of the nation, and revere the sacred antiquity of the cities.
22. Q. What was Hadrian’s treatment of Hellas? A. He visited Athens five times; sought to ameliorate the condition of the people, and adorned Athens and other cities with temples and buildings.
23. Q. What political rights did he give the Hellenes? A. The rights of Roman citizenship.
24. Q. During the reigns of what two Roman emperors did Hellas pre-eminently flourish? A. The Emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius.
25. Q. Notwithstanding the benefits received from the Roman emperors what did Hellas continue to do? A. To wither and decline.
26. Q. During the latter part of the third century what destructive invasion of Hellas took place? A. The invasion of the Goths and other northern barbarians, who overran the country like a deluge, depopulating cities and destroying everything in their path.
27. Q. What relation does our author give Hellenism to Christianity? A. He makes it the first herald of Christianity.
28. Q. Who was the first Roman emperor that issued a decree in favor of Christianity? A. Constantine the Great.
29. Q. What discussions led Constantine to the convocation of the first General Council of the Christian Church, which assembled at Nice in A. D. 325? A. The discussions of Arianism, or opinions concerning the nature of the second person of the Trinity.
30. Q. Who was the most noted opponent of Arianism? A. Athanasius.
31. Q. What city did Constantine dedicate as the capital of his empire? A. Constantinople.
32. Q. During the general slaughter of the relatives of Constantine that took place after his death, what cousin of his escaped and was assigned to the city of Athens for his place of habitation? A. Julian.
33. Q. By comparing the present with the past, to what conclusion did Julian arrive as to the cause of the decline of the empire? A. That Christianity was the cause of the decline, or was not adapted to prevent the demoralization of the empire; that the change of affairs resulted from the debasement of the ancient religion and life, and that the reformation of the world could only be accomplished through their reëstablishment.
34. Q. By what class of philosophers was Julian sustained in his views? A. By the Neapolitanists.
35. Q. After Julian was recognized as emperor what was his main object on entering Constantinople? A. The restoration of the ancient religion.
36. Q. What were some of the steps he took to accomplish this object? A. He restored the ancient temples and caused new ones to be erected to the gods; the games were celebrated with magnificence, and the schools of philosophy were especially protected.
37. Q. Who was the successor to Julian? A. Jovian.
38. Q. What was his course toward Christianity? A. He abolished the decrees enacted by Julian on behalf of idolatry, and seemed favorably inclined toward Christianity, but he died suddenly on his way to Constantinople.
39. Q. About this time what two names became prominent in theological controversies? A. Basil the Great and Gregory the theologian.
40. Q. What new invasion of the northern barbarians took place in the latter part of the fourth century? A. That of the Goths, who overran Thrace, Macedonia and Thessaly, ravaged the country, killed the inhabitants, and destroyed the cities that were not strongly fortified.
41. Q. To what did Theodosius first direct his attention after he became emperor? A. To the pacification of the Goths, and succeeded within the space of four years in rendering them if not fully submissive to his scepter, at least anxious to seek terms of peace.
42. Q. What did the solemn edict which Theodosius dictated in 380 proclaim? A. The Athanasian doctrine of the Trinity, branded all who denied it with the name of heretics, and handed over the churches in Constantinople to the exclusive use of the orthodox party.
43. Q. What synod did he convene at Constantinople a few months afterward, in the year 381? A. The second General Council of the Christian Church, which completed the theological system established by the Council of Nice.
44. Q. After the death of Theodosius, who were the nominal rulers of the Roman empire? A. Arcadius in the East, and Honorius in the West, both sons of Theodosius.
45. Q. Who, however, were the real rulers of the empire? A. Rufinus in the East and Stilicho in the West.
46. Q. How are each characterized? A. Stilicho was noted for his military virtues, but Rufinus became notorious only for his wickedness.
47. Q. Failing in his project of marrying his daughter Maria to Arcadius, how did Rufinus seek to revenge himself? A. By plotting the destruction of the empire itself.
48. Q. What barbarians is it said he called into the empire? A. The Huns, who laid waste many provinces in Asia; and Alaric, the daring general of the Goths, who invaded Hellas, plundering and destroying everything in his path.
49. Q. Who, called the greatest orator of Christianity, became archbishop of Constantinople near the close of the fourth century? A. John Chrysostom.
50. Q. After the death of Arcadius, who virtually assumed the government of the empire? A. Pulcheria, the daughter of Arcadius.
51. Q. What are we told as to the kind of life she led? A. That she embraced a life of celibacy, renounced all vanity in dress, interrupted by frequent fasts her simple and frugal diet, and devoted several hours of the day and night to the exercises of prayer and psalmody.
52. Q. How did her brother Theodosius, who was the nominal emperor, spend his time? A. His days in riding and hunting, and his evenings in modeling and copying sacred books.
53. Q. How long did Pulcheria continue to reign? A. For nearly forty years.
54. Q. What is said of the condition of Hellenism in the meantime? A. It continued to wither in Hellas, while the modern began to spread and strengthen itself in Constantinople.
55. Q. What is said of Hellenic literature from this time onward? A. It produced none of those works by which the memory of nations is honored and perpetuated.
56. Q. To what is its intellectual decline mainly due? A. To the incursions of the barbarians, by which society was shaken to its very foundations, and the genius and enterprise of the nation almost paralyzed.
57. Q. Under what leader did the Huns ravage without restraint and without mercy the suburbs of Constantinople and the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia? A. Attila, called the “Scourge of God.”
58. Q. With the dethronement of what emperor did all political relations between Rome and the Eastern Empire cease? A. Romulus Augustulus in 476.
59. Q. How did the emperors of the East continue to be styled? A. They continued to be styled emperors of the Romans, but legislation, government, and customs became thoroughly Hellenized.
60. Q. What was the mainspring of the success in life of Justinian who became emperor in 527? A. An unrestrained desire for great deeds and his wonderful good fortune in the choice of ministers.
61. Q. What military victories glorified the early years of his reign? A. Splendid victories over the Persians.
62. Q. What general began his career in this war? A. Belisarius, the general who imparted such eminent distinction to the reign of Justinian.
63. Q. What were Justinian’s most glorious and useful memorials? A. The composition of the celebrated collection of laws comprising the Institutes, the Digest or Pandects, and the Code.
64. Q. To whom was the work entrusted? A. To ten law-teachers, over whom the famous Tribonian presided.
65. Q. What are of special importance as among other memorable events which signalized the reign of Justinian? A. The successful wars which he waged against the Vandals in Africa and the Goths in Italy, and his expeditions to Sicily and Spain.
66. Q. Among the many edifices erected during the reign of Justinian which is the most famous? A. That of St. Sophia.
67. Q. To what epoch does the reign of Justinian partly belong? A. To the Roman epoch of the Eastern Empire.
68. Q. What does the reign of Heraklius from 610 to 641 form? A. An integral part of mediæval Hellenism.
69. Q. By what was Heraklius invited to ascend the throne, and how long did his posterity continue to reign over the empire of the East? A. The voice of the clergy, the senate, and the people invited him to ascend the throne, and his posterity till the fourth generation continued to reign over the empire of the East.
70. Q. In 627, after many brilliant actions, what defeat did Heraklius inflict upon the Persians? A. So severe a defeat that their empire was nearly crushed.
71. Q. Almost at the same time what unexpected and more terrible opponent arose in the Arabian peninsula whose conflict with Hellenism continues to the present day? A. Mohammedanism.
72. Q. What did the Mohammedans of Arabia wrest from the empire? A. Syria, Egypt, and Northern Africa.
73. Q. What was the Mohammedan religion called, and to what two dogmas was it limited? A. Islam, meaning devotion; its dogmas were the belief in a future life, and the unity of God.
74. Q. In what words was the latter expressed? A. “There is only one God, and Mohammed is the apostle of God.”
75. Q. Who was the next emperor of real historic value after the death of Heraklius? A. Constantine IV., surnamed Poganatus, or the Bearded.
76. Q. For what was the reign of Constantine especially memorable? A. For the first siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans.
77. Q. How long did this siege last? A. For seven years, but was not carried on uninterruptedly throughout this time.
78. Q. What was the result of the siege? A. The Mohammedans were finally forced to relinquish the fruitless enterprise in 675.
79. Q. What formidable weapon did the Byzantines employ during this siege, the composition of which is now unknown? A. The Greek fire.
80. Q. What declarations of an œcumenical council he convoked at Constantinople in 680 did Constantine sanction by a royal edict, and thus reëstablish religious union in the empire? A. That the church has always recognized in Christ two natures, united but not confounded—two wills, distinct, but not antagonistic.
81. Q. When did the next siege of Constantinople by the Mohammedans take place? A. In the year 717, during the reign of Leo III.
82. Q. What was the result? A. In the following year the Arabs were driven away, having suffered a loss of twenty-five hundred ships and more than five hundred thousand warriors.
83. Q. What decrees did Leo III. issue in 726 and 730? A. A decree forbidding the worship of images, and another banishing them entirely from the churches.
84. Q. How did these decrees divide the nation? A. Into two intensely hostile parties, of iconoclasts or image-breakers, and image-worshipers, by whose contests it was long distracted.
85. Q. What action did Leo V. take in regard to image-worship? A. He not only banished the images from the churches, but also destroyed the songs and prayers addressed to them.
86. Q. What further order was made in regard to their worship by Theophilus who became emperor in 829? A. He forbade the word “holy” to be inscribed on the images, and also that they should be honored by prayers, kissing, or lighted tapers.
87. Q. After the death of Theophilus what action did the empress Theodora, into whose hands the positive power of the government passed, take in regard to the images? A. She herself worshiped images. The pictures were again hung in the churches, and the monastic order more than ever became potent both in society and government.
88. Q. During the reign of Alexius what storm suddenly burst from the west? A. The so-called First Crusade.
89. Q. Who was the Pope at this time? A. Urban II.
90. Q. By whom were the crusades first incited? A. Peter the Hermit.
91. Q. When did Jerusalem fall into the hands of the crusaders? A. July 15, 1099.
92. Q. Who were the leaders of the second crusade? A. Conrad III., king of Germany, and Louis VII., king of France.
93. Q. What was the ostensible intention of the crusaders? A. To free Eastern Christianity from the oppression of the Turks.
94. Q. What does our author say was their ultimate object? A. The capture of Constantinople and the abolition of the Byzantine empire.
95. Q. What was the result of the second crusade? A. It was wholly inglorious, being relieved by no heroic deeds whatever.
96. Q. What took place in Syria during 1187? A. The Christian authority was overthrown in Syria, and Jerusalem was captured by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt.
97. Q. What occurred to Constantinople during the fourth crusade, in the year 1204? A. After a siege of five months it fell into the hands of the crusaders.
98. Q. When and by whom was Constantinople recovered? A. In 1261, under the leadership of Michael Palœologus.
99. Q. When was Constantinople again attacked by the Turks? A. In 1453, under the famous Mohammed II.
100. Q. What was the result of the final decisive engagement? A. The city fell before overwhelming numbers, and passed under Turkish rule.