III.
Having given the ancient documents, all that now remains is that I should give a brief sketch of the most important modern literature on the Essenes. In doing this part of my task, as in the former, I shall try as much as it is possible to follow the chronological order.
1513–1577.—Accordingly De Rossi occupies the first position. In his erudite work, called Meor Enajim, i.e., The Light of the Eyes, which is a Cyclopœdia of Biblical literature and criticism, this profound critic gives us a brief notice of this brotherhood, in which he maintains that the Essenes are identical with the Greek sect called Baithusians in the Talmud, and Therapeutae by Philo. His account is as follows: “It has often appeared to me strange that the Talmud should say nothing whatever about that sect which obtained a good report among the nations. I therefore examined the works of our sages, to ascertain whether I could find in them any distinction made between the Sadducees and the Baithusians. And it appeared to me that though both alike denied the traditional law (התורה שעל פה), yet the Baithusians are no where charged with the sin of denying, like the Sadducees, the immortality of the soul and future judgment. Moreover, I thought of the similarity of the names Baithusians and Essenes (ביתוסים איסיאי), and especially of the manner in which the ancients changed names. Now, owing to the word בית being so frequently found prefixed to names of schools and families, the appellation ביתוסים might easily have originated from a junction of the words בית איסיאי. I also saw the passage in the Talmud, Sabbath, cap. viii, fol. 108, as quoted also in Sopherim, cap. i, which is as follows:—‘A Baithusian [[60]]asked R. Joshuah whence do we know that phylacteries must not be written upon the skin of an unclean animal?’ To which he replied—‘It is written that the Lord’s law may be in thy mouth, ( Exod. xiii, 9 ) this signifies that phylacteries must be written upon the skin of an animal which thou canst take into thy mouth, i.e., eat.’ To this he said—‘This being the case, we must also not write the phylacteries upon the skin of an animal which died;’ [for an Israelite is as much forbidden to taste the flesh of it, as to eat an unclean animal.] Hereupon the Rabbi replied—‘I will tell thee a parable, to make the thing clear. Two men are condemned to death: the one the king kills, and the other is killed by the executioner: now, which of the two dost thou esteem higher? Surely the one whom the king himself has executed. So the animal which died, [i.e., which the King of Kings caused to die] must be preferred to the others.’ Whereupon the Baithusian said—‘Accordingly, we ought also to eat it.’ R. Joshuah replied—‘The Bible prohibits it ( Deut. xiv ), and dost thou want to eat it?’ The Baithusian then said—‘קלוס.’ This expression Rashi of blessed memory rightly says is Greek; i.e. ‘καλὸν.’ Hence it is to be inferred that the Baithusian was a Greek; and, indeed, we know from Philo and Josephus that the Essenes were also Greek Jews, living in Alexandria.… From all these things I easily quieted my mind, and concluded that the Baithusians are the same as the Essenes.’[76] Now, from a careful perusal of the account given by Josephus of the Essenes, it will be seen that he never describes them as Greek Jews. Besides, this is utterly at variance with ancient tradition, as the Talmudic authorities most positively declare that the Baithusians and Sadducees were both alike in doctrine, that both derived their names from the founder of these sects, Baithos (ביתוס) and Zadok (צדיק), the disciples of Antigonus of Soho, and that they gave rise to these sects, through misinterpreting [[61]]the following saying of their master[77] which he had received from Simon the Just:—“Be not like servants who serve their master for the sake of receiving a reward, but be ye like servants who serve their master without the view of receiving a reward,” recorded in Aboth. i. 3. Upon this Aboth d. R. Nathan (cap. v.) remarks, “Antigonus’ two disciples at first continued implicitly to teach this saying to their disciples, and these again to their disciples. At last, however, they began to ponder over it, and said—‘What did our fathers mean by this saying? Is a labourer to labour all day and not receive his wages in the evening? Now if our fathers had believed that there is another world, and a resurrection of the dead, they would not have spoken thus.’ Hence they dissented from the law, and from them originated the two sects, the Sadducees and the Baithusians, the Sadducees from Sadok and the Baithusians from Baithus. They used gold and silver vessels all the days of their life, not because they were proud, but because they said that the Pharisees themselves have a tradition that they afflict themselves in this world, and have nothing in the world to come.” From this we see that 1. The Baithusians, like the Sadducees, derived their appellation from the proper name of their founder, which is Baithus ביתוס so that the first part of the name בית cannot be separated from it. 2. Like the Sadducees, the Baithusians denied the immortality of the soul and the existence of angels, whereas the Essenes firmly believed in the immortality of the soul, and made the angels play a very important part in their creed. That the Sadducees and the Baithusians were considered to be identical, or, at all events, to [[62]]hold similar doctrines is also evident from the fact that what is in one place of the Talmud ascribed to the former, is in another place ascribed to the latter. Thus, for instance, in Succa 48 b. the Sadducees are said to have questioned the necessity of bringing a libation of water on the Feast of Tabernacles; in Tosifta Succa cap. iii. it is ascribed to the Baithusians. In Maccoth, 5, b. Chagiga, 16 b. it is said that the Sadducees urged that a false witness should only then be executed if the individual whom he had falsely accused had already been executed; in Tosifta Sanhedrin, cap. vi. the same thing is ascribed to the Baithusians. According to Joma, 19 b. 53 a, the Sadducees would have it that the High Priest should put the incense on the fire outside the Sanctuary on the great Day of Atonement, in Tosifta Joma, cap. 1, and Jerusalem Joma, i. 5, this is also ascribed to the Baithusians. Comp. also 115, b., Megillath Taanith, cap. vi., with Tosifta Jadajim cap. ii. And 4. The Baithusians are constantly spoken of as heretics and false witnesses (comp. Jerusalem Rosh Ha-Shana, ii, 1; Babl. ibid. 226), which is utterly at variance with the high character given to the Essenes even by those who belonged to opposite sects.
1587–1643.—Our learned countryman, Dr. Thomas Godwyn occupies the next position. In his interesting and erudite volume, entitled Moses and Aaron: which was first published in London 1625, Godwyn devotes the twelfth chapter of the first book to the Essenes. The etymology of this name he takes to be the Syriac אסא to heal, to cure diseases, and submits that they were called Essenes = θεραπευται physicians, because they cultivated the study of medicine. His summary of their doctrines and practices is made from Josephus’ description of them as well as from Philo’s reputed account of the Therapeutae which has nothing to do with the Palestinian Essenes. Godwyn also gives a number of supposed parallels between the doctrines and practices of [[63]]Essenism and Pythagorism. He does not attempt to account for these resemblances, nor does he try to trace the origin of the brotherhood. He is, however, certain that they existed in the time of Judas Maccabæus and “continued until the day of our Saviour and after; for Philo and Josephus speak of them as living in their time.” He assigns the following reasons for their not being mentioned in the New Testament 1. Their being small in number. 2. “They were peaceable and quiet, not opposing any; and therefore not so liable to reproof as the Pharisees and Sadducees, who opposed each other, and both joined against Christ.” 3. They were passed over in silence in the New Testament just “as the Rechabites in the Old Testament, of whom there is mention only once and that obliquely, although their order continued about three hundred years, before this testimony was given of them by the Prophet Jeremiah.” And 4. “Though the name of the Essenes be not found in Scripture, yet we shall find in St. Paul’s Epistles many things reproved, which were taught in the school of the Essenes. Of this nature was that advice given unto Timothy:—‘Drink no longer water, but use a little wine.’ ( 1 Tim. v. 23 ). Again, ‘Forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from meats is a doctrine of devils’ ( 1 Tim. iv. 3 ); but especially Colossians ii. , in many passages the Apostle seemeth directly to point at them, ‘Let no man condemn you in meat and drink’ (verse 16 ): ‘Let no man bear rule over you, by humbleness of mind and worshipping of angels’ (verse 18 ) ‘Why are ye subject to ordinances (τί δογματίζεσθε verse 20 )?’ The Apostle useth the word δόγματα which was applied by the Essenes to denote their ordinances aphorisms or constitutions. In the verse following he gives an instance of some particulars, ‘Touch not, taste not, handle not’ (ver. 21 ). Now the junior company of Essenes might not touch the seniors. And in their diet their taste was limited to bread, salt, water [[64]]and hyssop. And these ordinances they undertook διὰ πόθον σοφίας saith Philo, for the love of wisdom; but the Apostle concludeth (ver. 23 ) that these things had only λόγον σοφίας a show of wisdom. And whereas Philo termeth the religion of the Essenes by the name of θεράπεια which word signifieth religious worship; the Apostle termeth in the same verse εθιλεθρεκείαν voluntary religious worship or will worship; yea, where he termeth their doctrine πάτρων φιλοσοφιας a kind of philosophy received from their forefathers by tradition; St. Paul biddeth them beware of philosophy (ver. 8 ).” I have given this extract in full because succeeding writers have with more or less exactness based their opinion upon it. In animadverting upon it, I need only refer to the former part of this Essay, where it will be seen that some of the things here mentioned, are not peculiar to the Essenes, and others do not belong to them at all, whilst the last quotation from Philo describes the Therapeutae and not the Essenes.[78]
1628–1678.—Next in point of time is Theophilus Gale, who gives us a description of the Essenes in his famous work called The Court of the Gentiles, part ii. (Oxford, 1671), book ii. § 9, p. 146–156. As might be expected from this learned writer, who wrote this elaborate work to demonstrate that “the original of all human literature, both philology and philosophy, is from the Scriptures and the Jewish Church,” he endeavours to prove that Pythagoras took the whole of his philosophic system from the Essenes. “As for the origination of their name,” Gale tells us, “they were called חסדים i.e. according to the Greek καθαροὶ and according to our English dialect pure. Now the origination or rise of these Essenes I conceive (by the best conjectures I can make from antiquity), to be in or immediately after the Babylonian captivity (though some make them later), and the occasion of their separation [[65]]and consociation seems this. Many of the carnal Jews defiling themselves either by being too deeply plunged in worldly affairs, even to the neglect of their religion, or, which was worse, by sensual compliances with their idolatrous lords, thereby to secure their carnal interests, these חסדים or Essenes, to preserve themselves from these common pollutions, separated and retired themselves from the crowd of worldly affairs into an holy solitude, and private condition of life; where they entered into a strict confederation or consociation to lead together a collegiate devout life.”[79] He then gives an epitome of their doctrines and practices, and finally endeavours to shews that Pythagoras got his system from them. In doing this, Gale mixes up the Therapeutae with the Essenes, and follows largely the description of Godwyn.
1643–1724.—We then come to Dean Prideaux, who has a lengthy description of the Essenes in The Old and New Testaments Connected, part ii. book v., which first appeared in London, 1717. The chief value of Prideaux’s work on this subject consists in the fact, that he has given in English Philo and Josephus on the Essenes, as well as the short notice from Pliny. In his own remarks, which follow these extracts, he, in common with his predecessors, mixes up the Therapeutae with the Essenes, and tries to repel the Romanists who adopted the assertion of Eusebius (Hist. Ecclesiast. lib. ii. c. 17), that these Therapeutae or contemplative Essenes were Christian monks instituted by St. Mark. He also endeavours to expose the folly of the Deists, who infer, from the agreement between the Christian religion and the documents of the Essenes, that Christ and his followers were no other than a sect branched out from that of the Essenes. Among the accusations which the Dean brings against the Essenes for violating the law of God, is the charge that they “absolutely condemned servitude which the holy Scriptures of the [[66]]New Testament ( Philemon 9–21 ), as well as the Old, allow.”[80] Instead of blaming them for repudiating slavery, we believe that the civilized world in the present day will be unanimous in pronouncing it to have been one of the glorious features of Essenism, anticipating the spirit of Christianity and the philanthropy of the nineteenth century.
1653–1723.—Basnage gives a very lengthy account of the Essenes in his History of the Jews lib. ii. chaps. xii. xiii. Those who are acquainted with the writings of this learned Frenchman, know that he could not write on anything without bringing together a mass of useful information. He, however, mistook the character of the Essenes, as well as the value of the documents upon which he relies. Preferring Philo’s account to that of Josephus, though the latter lived amongst the Essenes, Basnage confounds the brotherhood with the Therapeutae, and hence asserts that “they borrowed several superstitions from the Egyptians, among whom they retired.” Through this, he is led to occupy by far the greater part of his description with the needless discussion of the question “Whether the Essenes from being Jews were converted to Christianity by St. Mark, and founded a monastic life.”[81]
1692–1762.—Dr. Jennings’ chapter on the Essenes is simply a commentary on Godwyn’s account. Jennings disputes some of the imaginary parallels between Essenism and Pythagorism exhibited by Godwyn, and inclines to the opinion “that the Essenes begun a little before the time of the Maccabees, when the faithful Jews were forced to fly from the cruel persecutions of their enemies into deserts and caves, and by living in those retreats, many of them being habituated to retirement, which thereby became most agreeable to them, they chose to continue it, even when they might have appeared upon the public [[67]]stage again, and accordingly formed themselves into recluses.” As to the difficulty to account for “the absolute silence of the evangelical history concerning the Essenes,” Jennings reiterates the remarks of Godwyn upon the subject.[82]
In 1821, appeared in Berlin, Bellermann’s valuable little volume on the Essenes and Therapeutae.[83] The author with characteristic German industry and perseverance, brought together in this monograph the ancient documents on the Essenes. His critical acumen, however, is not commensurate to his industry, and while his little volume will deservedly continue to be a useful manual for the student who wishes to acquaint himself with what Philo, Pliny, Josephus, Solinus, Porphyry, Epiphanius and Eusebius said upon this subject, it is to be questioned whether Bellermann’s conclusions will be shared by many. He is of opinion that “the Essenes and Baithusians are the same both in name and doctrine,” and that “the Essenes have four other names in history besides their proper name, viz.:—they are called, 1, Therapeutae by the Greek Alexandrians. 2. Hiketeans by Philo, in the superscription to the Treatise on contemplative life. 3. Ossenes or Ossens, by Epiphanius. And 4, Baithusians in the Talmud, and by several Rabbins. As this notion, which has been advanced by De Rossi three centuries and a half ago, has already been refuted, it would be needless to repeat the arguments here.
1825.—Neander, whose first instalment of his gigantic Church History appeared in 1825, now began to grapple with this mysterious brotherhood. In the introductory chapter of this history, in which a description is given of the religious condition of the world at the advent of Christ, he gives a very [[68]]brief but very pregnant sketch of the Essenes. With that deep penetration, which was one of the chief characteristics of this sagacious critic, he repudiates the notion that the Essenes originated under foreign influences, and maintains that “it is a gross error to infer from the resemblance of certain religious phenomena the relationship of which is to be traced to a common inward cause, inherent in the nature of the human mind, that they have an external origin, having been copied from the other.” Hence, he submits that Essenism arose out of the deeper religious meaning of the Old Testament, that it afterwards adopted some of the old Oriental, Parsee, and Chaldean notions, and that it had no Alexandrian elements. Neander moreover most justly cautions against the accounts of Philo and Josephus, saying that they clothed the opinions of the Essenes in a garb peculiarly Grecian, which we might rightly consider as not originally belonging to them.[84]
1829.—The difficulty which perplexed Christian writers, arising from the fact that the Essenes are not mentioned in the New Testament, did not affect Jewish writers, although it is true that this name is also not to be found in the ancient Jewish writings. For if it be granted that this appellation is a corruption of an Aramaic word, the Essenes must be looked for in the Talmud and Midrashim, which are chiefly written in Aramaic, under their original designation whatever that might be. The clue to it must, of course, be the identity of the features ascribed to them by Philo and Josephus and those ascribed in the ancient Jewish volumes to any order of Judaism. To this task Rappaport, the corypheus of Jewish critics, betook himself. Knowing that the Essenes were no distinct sect, in the strict sense of the word, but simply an order of Judaism, and that there never was a rupture between them and the rest of the Jewish community, Rappaport most [[69]]justly does not expect that they would be spoken of under a fixed denominational name. He therefore rejects De Rossi’s notion that the Baithusians, so frequently denounced in the Talmud and Midrashim, are the Essenes described by Philo and Josephus, and sought to identify them by their peculiar practices, expecting to find that they would be spoken of by different names. He soon found that what Philo and Josephus describe as peculiarities of the Essenes tallies with what the Mishna, the Talmud, and the Midrashim record of the Chassidim (חסדים), and that they are most probably the so-called old believers (ותיקין), who are also described in the Talmud as the holy community in Jerusalem (קהלא קדישא דבירושלים). He rightly recognised in them an intensified form of Pharisaism, and remarks that what is said in the Mishna about the moderation observed in eating and drinking, the great humility, endurance under sufferings, zeal for everything that is holy, community of goods, &c, refers to this holy community, or the Essenes. He also quotes the following remark from the Midrash Coheleth, on Eccles. ix, 9 , about this holy community; “Rabi repeated from the traditions of the holy community (עדה קדושה) ‘acquire a trade in connection with the study of the Scriptures, &c.’—[Query] ‘Why are they called holy community?’ [Reply] ‘Because they divided the day into three divisions—devoting one-third to the study of the Scriptures, another to prayer, and the third to work. Some say that they devoted the whole of the winter to studying the Scriptures and the summer to work.’ ” He, too, was the first who pointed out that the prayer which Josephus tells us the Essenes offered up at the rising of the sun, is the national hymn of praise, which still constitutes a part of the Jewish daily service, and is as follows:—
He in mercy causes His light to shine upon the earth and upon the inhabitants thereof; and in His goodness unfailingly renews every day the work of creation. How numerous are Thy works, O Lord! Thou hast made them all in wisdom; the earth is full of Thy possessions. [[70]]O King, Thou only art the exalted one from everlasting, the praised and glorified and extolled since the days of yore! Lord of the universe, in Thy great mercy have mercy upon us! Lord our might, fortress of our strength, shield of our salvation, defend us! O Lord, be Thou praised, Thou great in wisdom, who hast ordained and created the rays of the sun: the Infinitely Good has formed a glorious testimony for His name. He surrounded His majesty with luminaries. The chiefs of His heavenly hosts are holy beings; they glorify the Almighty; they continually declare the glory of God and his holiness. Blessed be the Lord our God, for the excellency of the works of Thy hands, and for the shining luminaries which Thou hast. They shall glorify Thee for ever.
God, the Lord of all created things, is praised and blessed in the mouths of all the living. His power and goodness fill the universe; wisdom and intelligence are round about Him. He exalts himself above the angels, and beams in glory upon his chariot-throne. Interceding goodness and rectitude are before His throne, loving-kindness and mercy before his majesty. Benign are the luminaries which our God has created. He has formed them in wisdom, intelligence, and understanding; He has endowed them with power and strength, to bear rule in the midst of the world. Filled with splendour and brightness, their glory illuminates all the world; rejoicing in rising and joyous in setting they perform with awe the will of their Creator. They give praise and glory to His name, joy and song to the memory of His kingdom. He called the sun, and light rose; He saw and shaped the form of the moon. Praise Him all ye heavenly hosts; ascribe glory and majesty to Him ye seraphim, ophanim, and holy angels.
These, as Rappaport rightly remarks, are some of the remains of the ancient prayer used by the Essenes. It will be seen that these hymns of praise contain not only thanksgiving for the renewal of the light, to which Josephus refers, but they also refer to the mysterious cosmogony (מעשה בראשית) and theosophy (מעשה מרכבה), as well as to the angels which played such an important part among this brotherhood.[85]
1835.—The difficulty of reading Rabbinical Hebrew in which Rappaport’s profound remarks are written, must have prevented Gfrörer from seeing what this erudite Jewish critic had written on the Essenes; for, although the second edition of vol. i. part 11 of his Critical History of Primitive Christianity, containing an account of the Essenes, appeared in 1835, yet he positively states “that the Essenes and the Therapeutae are the same sect and hold the same views” (p. 299). [[71]]According to him, the development of Essenism is as follows. In the third century before Christ, the Jews in Alexandria formed societies according to the Pythagorean model, and thus originated the sect called the Therapeutae, from these Egyptian Therapeutae again Essenism developed itself in Palestine about 130 B.C. Hence Essenism is the channel through which the Alexandrian theosophy was first transplanted into Palestinian soil. The reason why the Essenes kept their doctrines secret is that the Palestinian priests were hostile to this foreign importation, and persecuted those who received this contraband. Accordingly, the relationship of Pythagorism, Therapeutism and Essenism, to use Gfrörer’s own figure, is that of grandmother, mother and daughter. “So perfect is the agreement between the Therapeutae and the Essenes, that it even extends to their names. For the word Ἐσσαῖνς according to the most correct etymology, is derived from the Syro-Chaldaic verb אסא which denotes to cure, to nurse, and hence is nothing but a literal translation of θεραπευτὴς.”[86]
1843.—Similar in spirit is the elaborate article on the Essenes in Ersch und Gruber’s Cyclopœdia, written by Dähne, who maintains that “Essenism is the produce of the Jewish-Alexandrian philosophy, and that it is only when viewed from this stand-point that the deviations from the rest of their Jewish co-religionists, and their peculiar institutions, doctrines, and precepts appear in the clearest light.” It is not surprising that holding such an opinion Dähne should feel perplexed to account for the existence of this thoroughly Jewish-Alexandrian order, as he makes the Essenes to be, in the very heart of Palestine. All that he can say upon this subject is, that they somehow got there in the middle of the second century before Christ. The affiliation of Essenism to the Jewish-Alexandrian [[72]]philosophy brings it into most intimate relationship with Therapeutism, and necessarily devolves upon Dähne to define this family connection which he does in the following manner.[87] “The difference between the Therapeutae and the Essenes, both of whom are followers of the Jewish-Alexandrian moral philosophy, is that the former devoted themselves entirely to a contemplative life, whilst the latter gave themselves more especially to a practical life. Hence though both rest upon the same foundation, the Therapeutae gave themselves up absolutely to the highest aim of man, as they marked it out, the contemplation of God; whilst the Essenes to some extent voluntarily lingered in the outer court of the Holy of Holies, placed themselves intentionally for the good of the brethren in more frequent contact with the world than the requirements of nature demanded, thereby generously, but certainly unphilosophically, temporarily retarding their own highest perfection and happiness.” Like De Rossi, Bellermann, Gfrörer and others, Dähne derives the name from the Chaldee אסא to heal, and says “accordingly the term Essenes denotes spiritual physicians, or men who strive in the highest sense to lead back the spirit to its natural (i.e. truly divine) character and activity.”[88]
1846.—A new epoch began in the history of the Essenes with the investigation of Frankel on this subject, which [[73]]appeared in his Zeitschrift für die religiözen Interesse des Judenthums, 1846. Taking up the idea of Rappaport, that the Essenes must be looked for in the body of the Jews and not as a separate sect, Frankel refers to the fact that, whilst the Assideans = Chassidim are referred to in 1 Macc. ii. 24 ; 2 Macc. xiv. 6 , &c., the Perushim = Pharisees are never mentioned, to show that no such marked and denominational divisions existed at first in the community, and rightly remarks, that it “is only after a longer development that sects appear in their separation, and sharply defined features, when that which originally formed a united whole is now divided and parted into various branches. And even this partition and separation only shew themselves to the analysing mind, and especially when the analysis is conducted after a foreign fashion, as Josephus has done it, who reduced the Jewish sects into Greek schools, and made the Essenes correspond to the Pythagoreans. But in reality even these divisions flow one into another, and do not stand in opposition to one another, but are simply to be distinguished by their different shades of colour, and by the greater stringency or laxity with which the same rules are regarded, so that they do not form separate sects, but some individuals keep to these rules with greater anxiety, whilst others, though considering them as binding, do not regard them as having such a wide application. Now in early times there were only Essenes = Chassidim (חסדים), the name of Perush = Pharisee (פרוש) was not as yet known; it was only afterwards when in succeeding periods some became more rigid in their manner of life and views of religion, that the name Pharisees (פרושים) appears to denote the less strict Jews, whilst the others were in a special degree denominated by the old, respectable appellation Chassidim = Essenes (חסדים).” This, Frankel corroborates by showing most clearly that many of the vital principles which Josephus describes as peculiar to Essenism, are at the very basis of [[74]]Pharisaism, and that the Essenes are frequently mentioned in the Mishna, Talmud, and Midrashim by the names חסדים הראשונים the original Assideans = Chassidim, חברים the associates, ותיקין those who have enfeebled their bodies through much study; דבירושלים the retired ones; צנועין קהלא קדישא the holy congregation in Jerusalem; טובלי שחרית hemerobaptists. Frankel concluded his essay with the promise to return to this subject on some future occasion.[89]
1847.—Within twelve months of the publication of Frankel’s elaborate Essay, an article appeared in the American Quarterly entitled The Biblical Repository. As there was not sufficient time for this German production to become known in the New World, Mr. Hall, the writer of the article, could not avail himself of it, and was therefore obliged to derive his information from the writings of Dr. Neander. But though Mr. Hall has thrown no light on the Essenes, yet his reflections upon their moral character and their connection with Christianity are so just, sensible and candid, that we subjoin them to show that good Christians may honestly acknowledge the good in Essenism without detracting from Christianity.
“Let us give the Essene credit for all that he was as a worshipper of the true God, and as a man striving after moral purity in a corrupt age. The Gospel that breathed new life into the higher nature of man, can afford to allow all his virtues. We know that the Spirit of Christ opens the eye to the excellencies of others. Truth rejoices in truth, and as all truth is from the same source, the lustre of one development can never be increased by hiding the glory of another. We would not enhance the necessity of our Lord’s appearance by depreciating the moral condition of mankind at that period. Those ascetic Jews deserve well of mankind for the light they gave out in a dark age. We admire the humanity and justice of their principles; their disapproval of war and slavery in the midst of a world lying in wickedness, and the noble example of industry, frugality and moderation in the things of this life they set before all. We honour their honest endeavours to combine the vita contemplativa and the vita activa,—to escape the bondage of the senses, to maintain the supremacy of the spirit, and to unite themselves with the Highest. But in all these respects, they are only the true children of monotheism, the legitimate offspring of the Jewish theocracy. They could have sprung up nowhere else. In the phenomenon of the Essenes let us [[75]]therefore adore the provident wisdom of Jehovah, and recognize the secret working of his love in carrying forward the great, eternal economy of salvation. They exerted an influence on their age which helped to pave the way for the Christ. Conscience spoke, and was spoken to, through them; and the dying sense of virtue was kept alive. Thus were they stars which emitted an humble though useful light before, but grew pale and became invisible after, the coming of the Sun of Righteousness.”[90]
1852.—Though Ewald published the second edition of the fourth volume of his Jewish History in 1852, when Frankel’s Essay had been six years before the literary world, yet he manifests total ignorance of it in his account of the Essenes, contained in this volume. Still, this profound and merciless critic, without having access to the Jewish information gathered from the Talmud and Midrashim, saw that Essenism was no Greek plant transplanted into Palestine, but like Pharisaism grew out of the Chassidim. He remarks that “people who left the great community in order to lead a specially holy life, with the permission and under the direction of the law, were to be found in Israel from the remotest times, yet in its first form there were only the Nazarites, of whom each one lived for himself; and in the second, the Rechabites combined themselves already into a larger union; but now the whole conscience of the people itself, as it were, departed into solitude with numerous Essenes. For it cannot be denied that they, proceeding from the Chassidim, represent the direct and legitimate development of Judaism in the form which became the ruling one since Ezra.” “Their new features and endeavours merely consisted in their intensely earnest and rigorous application of the demands of the law, as understood and interpreted since Ezra. Finding that the rigorous and logical application of these laws was impossible in the great community, especially in that community as regulated by the Pharisees, they preferred to congregate and [[76]]live in solitude.”[91] Very unfortunate is Ewald’s derivation of Essene from the Rabbinic חזן servant (of God), and the assertion that this name was given to them because it was their only desire to be θεραπευταὶ θεοῦ.
1853.—Nearly seven years had now elapsed since Frankel published his masterly Essay on the Essenes, and promised to return to this subject at some future time. True to his promise, he now gave another elaborate treatise, in which he substantiated, by numerous quotations from the Talmud, his former conclusions, that the Essenes are the offspring of Judaism, that they are nothing but stationary, or more correctly speaking consequential Chassidim, that they were therefore not so far distant from the Pharisees as to be regarded as a separate sect, but, on the contrary, that they formed a branch of Pharisaism.[92]
1856.—So convincing was Frankel’s Treatise, that Graetz, who published the third volume of his masterly History of the Jews in 1856, in which he gives an elaborate account of this brotherhood, remarks:[93] “I completely accept these results about this sect being based upon critical investigation, and shall only add a few supplementary points by way of illustration.”[94] The additions consist of a very able analysis of Philo’s reputed Treatise entitled De Vita Contemplativa, showing that it is spurious, and of an attempt to show that the Essenes were perpetual Nazarites (נזירי עולם). His remarks are as follow—“There were great masses of Nazarites in the [[77]]post-exile period (Tosifta Nasir, c. iv.; Babbi Berachoth, 48 a; 1 Macc. ii. 49; Joseph. Antiq. xviii. vi.), but they were of a different character to those of the Biblical period; they were Nazarites for the whole life (Nasir 4 a.) The Mishna presupposed their existence; the magical in Nazaritism, which was connected with the growing of the hair in the Nazarites of the Bible, gradually recedes into the back ground or loses its significance altogether; whereas the Levitical, the guarding against defilement, appears more and more in the foreground among the life-long Nazarites. The Essenes then were such Nazarites as represented in private life the highest priestly consecration. The connection between the Nazarites and Essenes has already been indicated in obscure passages in the Talmud, that one consecrated himself to be a perpetual Nazarite if he simply wished to be a Nazarite in order that he [[78]]might be able to preserve the secrets of disgraceful family circumstances. (Tosifta Nasir, b. i. 6; Kidushim 71 a.)[95]
1857.—The learned historian Jost, who published the first volume of his History of Judaism in 1857, was also perfectly convinced by the results of Frankel’s researches, and made them the basis of his excellent description of the Essenes, in which he maintains that they grew out of Pharisaism or from the ancient Chassidim. “The Essenes,” he submits, “are exactly the same that the other Rabbis wished to be who endeavoured to practise the Levitical law of purity, as leading to higher consecration. They have neither another creed nor another law, but simply institutions peculiar to this brotherhood, and endeavour to reach the highest consecration by their manner of life, in defining the different stages, according to preliminary exercises and certain years of preparation. Their views and tenets are therefore also to be found in the utterances of the learned and the Rabbis who did not enter their order, so that they did not look upon the Essenes as opponents or apostates, but, on the contrary, as holding the same opinions with increased claims and some fewer enjoyments, whom many out of their own midst joined, and who were called Chassidim or Zenuim.”[96]
1857.—The comparatively few and unessential deviations from Judaism to be found in Essenism were, however, more than Herzfeld could tolerate, without characterising the innovators as heretics and smugglers of contraband opinions. Dissatisfied with the modern researches of Frankel and Graetz on this subject, this learned historian, and chief Rabbi of Brunswick, returned to the old notion of De Rossi, that the Essenes of Josephus and Philo are identical with the Baithusians mentioned in the Talmud. Still he thinks that De Rossi’s [[79]]opinion “must be better proved than he had done it,” and therefore remarks—“first of all, seeing that the prefixed בית denotes school or sect in the appellations Beth-Shammai, Beth-Hillel; that בית הכותים in Tosifta Helem ii. b, and בי כותאי in Chullin 6 a, denotes the sect or the land of Cuttim; and then that בית סין stands twice Tosifta Succa, cap. iii., and Tosifta Menachoth cap. x. for Baithusians, can it mean anything else than house or sect of Essenes? When אסי physician became the name of a sect, an Essene could not so well be called אסי without ambiguity; he was therefore described as one of בית אסי.”[97] Thus much for the origin of the name, and now let us hear Dr. Herzfeld’s theory about the brotherhood itself. It is simply this[98]—“A Jew, who became acquainted with the allegorical exegesis prevalent among the Alexandrian Jews, and with its mother the Greek wisdom, but who, like Pythagoras, Plato and Herodotus, had also found [[80]]an opportunity to learn some things from Egyptian priests, conceived and carried out the plan, eclectically to form from it and from Judaism a speculative and ascetic system, as well as to organise, according to its model, a sect from the Jewish ascetics.”[99] This Alexandrianized Palestinian Jew founded the order of the Essenes in Palestine about 230 B.C.
1857.—Another effort was made in this year to explain the origin of this mysterious brotherhood. Professor Hilgenfeld of Jena, who maintains their genuine Jewish origin, starts the notion that the Essenes belonged to the Apocalytical school, and that they must be regarded as the successors of the ancient prophets, and as constituting the prophetic school. It is only when we view them from this stand point that their precepts and practices can be understood, and that the high antiquity ascribed to them by Josephus (Antiq. xviii. 1, 2) and Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 17), can be comprehended. This he moreover assures us gives the clue to the explanation of their name. The Hebrew prophets were also called חזים seers, which, being in the Aramaic pronunciation חזין, easily gave rise through Greek change of vowels to the name Ἐσσαῖου, Ἐσσηνοί. Hilgenfeld manifests an almost inexcusable ignorance of the labours of Frankel and Graetz on the Essenes.[100]
1860.—A necessarily brief but interesting article on the Essenes, written by the able Mr. Westcott, appeared in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible. The writer wisely availed himself of the labours of Frankel and Jost, and properly traced the origin of the brotherhood to the Chassidim. His fear, however, lest any shining virtues in the Essenes might be thought by some to pale some of the brightness of the Sun of Righteousness, prevented him from appreciating the true [[81]]character of this order, as well as from seeing that they paved the way to Christianity.
1863.—Graetz again, in the second edition of the third volume of his History of the Jews, in which he has an additional chapter on the Rise and Progress of Christianity, goes to the other extreme, and maintains that “Jesus simply appropriated to himself the essential features of Essenism,”[101] and that primitive Christianity was nothing but an offshoot from Essenism.
1862.—Of the article on the Essenes in Dr. Alexander’s valuable edition of Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature, being written by me, I can do no more than say that it embodies the substance of this Essay.
1863.—The description of the Essenes in the new edition of Dean Milman’s History of the Jews, gives a very imperfect idea both of the development and morality of this brotherhood.[102] The learned Dean seems to be wholly unacquainted with the researches of Frankel and Graetz on this subject. He, however, rightly rejects the notion that Essenism had its origin in Pythagorism.
1847.—After the above was printed, I found a notice of the Essenes in Hirschfeld’s work on the Hagadic Exegesis, in which he submits that the name Essene may be derived from the Greek ἦθος manners, morality, virtue, that though the Essenes had several things in common with the Therapeutae, yet there was a great difference between the two sects, and that the former rested more on the Bible and on Judaism. Still he affirms that “some Neo-Platonic, Pythagorean and Persian ideas found their way among the Essenes, [[82]]and brought with them some practices and institutions which this brotherhood mixed up with the Jewish views of religion, and amongst which are to be classed their extension of the laws of purification, &c.” Hirschfeld, moreover, maintains that, “like the Alexandrians, but only from a different standpoint, the Essenes aimed to reconcile religion with science.” As this opinion has already been discussed in this Essay, it is needless to repeat the objections against it.[103]
[1] According to tradition there were four degrees of purity. 1. The ordinary purity required of every worshipper in the temple (טהרת חולין). 2. The higher degree of purity necessary for eating of the heave-offering (טהרת תרומה). 3. The still higher degree requisite for partaking of the sacrifices (טהרת הקודש). And 4. The degree of purity required of those who sprinkle the water absolving from sin (טהרת חטאת). Each degree of purity required a greater separation from the impurities described in Leviticus xi, 24 – xv, 28 . These impure subjects were termed the fathers of impurity; that which was touched by them was designated the first generation of impurity; what was touched by this again, was called the second generation of impurity; and so on. Now, heave-offerings—the second degree of holiness—became impure when touched by the third generation; the flesh of sacrifices—the third degree of holiness—when coming in contact with the fourth generation; and so on. These degrees of purity had even to be separated from each other; because the lower degree was, in respect to the higher one, regarded as impure, and any one who lived according to a higher degree of purity became impure by touching one who lived according to a lower degree, and could only regain his purity by lustrations (טבילה). The first degree was obligatory upon every one, the other grades were voluntary. Before partaking of the heave-offering, the washing of hands was required; and before eating of the flesh of sacrifices, immersion of the whole body was required—Comp. Babylonian Talmud, Tract Chagiga, 18 b. [↑]
[2] Geschichte der Philosophie, vol. iii, part ii, p. 583 ff. [↑]
[3] The figures before each point of comparison do not exit in the original German; I have inserted them in the translation in order to facilitate the references to these different points of comparison. [↑]
[4] Comp. Diog. Laert. de Vitis Philosophorum, lib. viii. Vit. Pythagor. xii. It is true that Cicero represents Cotta as giving no credit to this story, because, as [[18]]he apprehends, Pythagoras never offered animal sacrifices (De Natura Deorum, lib. iii. cap. xxxvi.), but it is also related by Athenaeus (Deipnosoph. lib. x.), Plutarch and others. [↑]
[5] An excellent account of the Pythagorean system is given by Zeller, Geschichte der Philosophie. Erster Theil, Tübingen, 1856, pp. 206–365; Grote, History of Greece, vol. iv. London, 1857, pp. 527–553; and Mason, in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Article Pythagoras. [↑]
[6] R. Nathan, the Babylonian as he is called, was Vice-President of the College in Palestine, under the Presidency of Simon III. b. Gamaliel II. A.D. 140. The above-quoted work of which he is the reputed author, as indicated by its title, אבות דרבי נתן i.e. the Aboth of R. Nathan, is a compilation of the apothegms and moral sayings of the Jewish fathers (אבות), interspersed with traditional explanations of divers texts of Scripture, consisting of forty-one chapters. Both the historian and moral philosopher will find this work an important contribution to the literary and philosophical history of antiquity. It is printed in the different editions of the Talmud, and has also been published separately with various commentaries, in Venice, 1622: Amsterdam, 1778, &c., &c.; and a Latin translation of it was published by our learned countryman, Francis Taylor, under the title of R. Nathanis Tractatus de Patribus, latine cum Notis. London, 1654, 4to. Comp. Zunz, Die gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden. Berlin, 1832, p.p. 108, 109; Fürst, Kultur- und Literaturgeschichte der Juden in Asien. Leipzig, 1849, p. 16 ff; by the same author, Bibliotheca Judaica, volume iii. Leipzig, 1863, p. 19 ff; Steinschneider, Catalogus Libr. Hebr. in Bibliotheca Bodleiana col. 2,032 ff. [↑]
[7] For the passages embodying the sentiments of the Essenes, which constitute the above comparisons, we must refer to the second part of this Essay and the notes. [↑]
[8] Compare the account of Philo, p. 36; Pliny, p. 40; Josephus, p. 52; in the second part of this Essay. [↑]
[9] This prophecy is given in full in the second part of this Essay, p. 50. [↑]
[10] Zeitschrift für die religiösen Interessen des Judenthums. Berlin, 1856, p. 449. [↑]
[11] Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten, vol. 1, Leipzig, 1857, p. 207. [↑]
[12] As Mr. Westcott, the writer of the article Essenes in Smith’s Dictionary of the Bible, has misunderstood this passage and wrongly represented Jost himself as deriving this name from חשאין the silent, the mysterious, we give Jost’s own words:—“Uns will scheinen, dass Josephus den Namen allerdings von חשא schweigen, geheimnissvoll sein, ableitet; dahin führt seine Uebertragung des Wortes חשן in die griechischen Buchstaben ἐσσην Ed. Hav. Ant. 1, 147, welches Wort die LXX λογεῖον übersetzen. Da das Wort חשאין seinen Zeitgenossen sehr geläufig war, so konnte er annehmen, dass man sich unter dem Namen der Sekte einen angemessenen Begriff dachte und er keiner Erläuterung bedürfe. Ja, es wäre möglich, dass er den Begriff aus חשן selbst ableitet, und auf λογεῖον oder λογίον, als mit Weissagung begabte, zurückführte. Vergleichte Gfrörer, Philo 1, 196.” [↑]
[13] Aboth di. R. Nathan, cap. xxxvi. [↑]
[14] Comp. Epiphan. Haeres. xix. lib. i. tom. ii. sect. 4, p. 120, ed. Petav. [↑]
[15] Comp. Petite Variae Lectiones, c. xxviii. p. 2600. [↑]
[16] Josippon b. Gorion also called Gorionides, lived in Italy about the middle of the tenth century. He is the compiler of the celebrated Hebrew Chronicle called Josippon, or the Hebrew Josephus. His real character and the value of his Chronicle are discussed under the article Jossippon in Dr. Alexander’s edition of Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature. [↑]
[17] De Rossi, also called Asarja min Ha-Adomim, was born at Mantua in 1513, and died 1577. For an account of this eminent Jewish scholar, who may be regarded as the father of Biblical criticism at the time of the Reformation, see Dr. Alexander’s edition of Kitto’s Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature, Article Rossi. [↑]
[18] Salmas. Plinian. exercitat. in Solinum cap. xxxv. p. 432, edit. Ultraject. [↑]
[19] Comp. Graetz, Geschichte der Juden. Dritter Band, Zweite Auflage, Leipzig. 1863, p. 464, &c.; Frankel, Programm des jüdisch-theol. Seminars von 1854. [↑]
[20] Comp. Philonis Opera, ed. Mangey. London, 1742, vol. ii pp. 457–45. [↑]
[21] Josephus, who also mentions this fact, distinctly says that their not offering sacrifices in the temple is owing to the different degree of holiness which they practised. (Vide infra p. 228.) From the repeated declarations in the Bible, that a life of uniform obedience and faithful service is far more acceptable to God than the cattle of a thousand hills ( 1 Sam. xv. 22 ; Ps. xl. 7 ; l. 7–14 ; li. 17 ; Prov. xxxi. 3 ; Isa. i. 11 , 17 ; lxv. 3 ; Jer. vii. 21–23 ; Hos. vi. 6 ; xiv. 3 ; Micah, vi. 6–8 ), the Essenes could easily be reconciled to their abstaining from offering animal sacrifices, and would be led to attach infinitely greater importance to the presenting of their bodies a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God. (Comp. also Rom. xii. 1 ). This circumstance led Petitius to the conclusion that Herod, who was friendly to the Essenes in consequence of the favorable prophecy about him uttered by the Essene Menahem (vide infra p. 50), employed them to translate the Prophets and the Psalms into Greek, and that they availed themselves of the opportunity to introduce their tenets and rites into this version, now called the Septuagint. Thus, for instance, when David said “Sacrifice and burnt offering thou didst not desire, mine ears hast thou opened” ( Ps. xl. 6 ), the Essenes rendered it “Sacrifice and burnt offering thou dost not desire, but a body hast thou prepared me,” interpolating three of their tenets. 1. They made the Prophet speak absolutely, as if God had entirely rejected sacrifices because they would offer him none. 2. By dropping the words, “mine ears hast thou opened,” they showed their disapprobation of slavery. (Comp. Exod. xxi ). And 3, by substituting “a body hast thou prepared me,” they understood the college of devout Essenes, who met together as a body, and whom God appointed instead of sacrifice. Comp. Basnage, History of the Jews, English translation. London, 1708, p. 128. [↑]
[22] This is not the only reason why the Essenes withdrew from cities. Their observance of the Levitical laws of purity which rendered them impure when they came in contact with those who did not live according to the same rules, was the principal cause of their living separately. (Vide supra p. 7, note 1.) Philo, however, states the first reason because the Greeks, for whom he wrote, understood it better than the second, which is so peculiarly Jewish in its character. [↑]
[23] The same thing Christ urged on his disciples. Comp. Matth. vi. 19–21 . [↑]
[24] This simple desire for the supply of our daily bread, and the contentment of mind here spoken of, are also commended by our Saviour. ( Matth. vi. 11 , 25–34 .) [↑]
[25] Believing that all they that take the sword shall perish with the sword, Comp. Matth. xxvi. 52 . [↑]
[26] The Apostle Paul, too, admonished the Colossians to “beware lest any man spoil you through philosophy.” ( Col. ii. 8 .) [↑]
[27] Thus also Christ, when he was asked which was the greatest commandment in the law, declared, love to God and love to our neighbour, and that on these two hang all the law and the prophets. (Comp. Matth. xxii. 36–40 .) [↑]
[28] Although the taking of oaths was discountenanced by the Jews generally (Comp. Ecclus. xxiii 11, &c.; and especially Philo De decem oraculis § 17, Opp. Tom. ii. p. 194, &c., ed. Mangey); and the Pharisees took great care to abstain as much as possible from using them (Comp. Shevuoth 39, b; Gittin 35, a; Bemidbar Rabba c. xxii); yet the Essenes were the only order who laid it down as a principle not to swear at all, but to say yea, yea, and nay, nay. So firmly and conscientiously did they adhere to it that Herod, who on ascending the throne had exacted an oath of allegiance from all the rest of the Jews, was obliged to absolve the Essenes from it. (Comp. Joseph. Antiq. book xv. chap. x. § 4). Christ too, laid it down as a principle for his disciples not to swear at all, but to say yea, yea, and nay, nay. (Comp. Matth. v. 38–37 .) [↑]
[29] This community of goods was also adopted by the early Christians, who, as we are told, “sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all as every man needed.”—(Comp. Acts, ii. 45 , iv. 34, 35. ) [↑]
[30] The account here given of the sufferings of the Essenes bears a very striking resemblance to the description in the Epistle to the Hebrews xi. 36–38; and it may be that the Apostle refers to this extraordinary brotherhood. [↑]
[31] This fragment which Eusebius has preserved is given in Philo’s Works, ed. Mangey, vol. ii., p. 622, seq. [↑]
[32] The tracing of this brotherhood to Moses is in accordance with the practice which generally prevailed among the Jews of ascribing the origin of every law, mystical doctrine or system, which came into vogue in the course of time, either to Ezra, Moses, Noah or Adam. Thus we are told in the Jerusalem Talmud (Pea, ii. 6), and the Midrash (Coheleth, 96 d.), that all the Scriptural learning which developed itself in course of time, and everything which a Talmid Vatic might bring to light, were revealed to Moses beforehand on Mount Sinai. [↑]
[33] This refers to juvenile members of the fraternity, as the Essenes did adopt children, and trained them up to the practices of the order. Vide infra p. 41. [↑]
[34] The four companies here mentioned most probably refer to the four different classes into which the Essenes were divided, described more minutely by Josephus. Vide infra, p. 47, note 45. [↑]
[35] So also the Apostle Paul recommends us not to be slothful in business, but fervent in spirit, serving the Lord.—( Rom. xii, 11 .) [↑]
[36] That is if he belongs to the class of Essenes who practised celibacy; for there were those among them who had wives and families. Vide infra p. 49. [↑]
[37] The Mosaic law regards conjugal intercourse as polluting, and enjoins bathing after it ( Levit. xv. 18 .) Hence, when the children of Israel had to sanctify themselves in the highest degree, so as to be fit to receive the law from Mount Sinai, they were commanded not to approach their wives ( Exod. xix. 15 ). Hence, also, those who had the charge of the shew-bread polluted the sacred loaves by going to their wives ( 1 Sam. xxi. 4 ). And hence the remark of the Apostle Paul, that in order to give themselves to fasting and prayer, man and wife may keep aloof from each other by mutual consent ( 1 Cor. vii. 5 ). The same laws obtained among all nations of antiquity. Thus, among the Egyptians, Babylonians, Arabians, Greeks and Romans, both man and wife had to bathe after connubial intercourse (Herod., i. 198). No one was allowed to go after it to the temple without bathing (Herod., ii. 64; Suet. Aug. xciv. 5; Pers. ii. 50, &c.); and the priests had to abstain from approaching their wives when they were ministering in holy things (Porphyrius, de Abstinentia, lib. ii. 50; iv. 7; Plutarch. Sympos. iii. 6; Tibul. lib. ii. Eleg. 1, 11, &c.; Ovid. Metam. x. 434, &c.) Now, as the Essenes strove to be in a perpetual state of sanctification, regarded their refectory as a sanctuary and their meals as sacraments, and most anxiously avoided contact with every thing that defiled, they had of necessity to extend these Mosaic laws, which enjoin abstinence from connubial intercourse as a means of sanctification, and which regard those who indulged in it as defiled, to the whole course of their life; and they had therefore to be celibates. This extension of the Mosaic law was moreover deemed desirable in consequence of the general conviction which the Jews entertained, in common with other nations, that no woman remains faithful to her husband, and that they all defile the bed of marriage. Philo, in the passage before us, and Josephus, as we shall see afterwards (vide infra p. 41, § 2), only give the latter reason, to suit their Greek readers who could both understand it better and sympathise with it more than with the former. [↑]
[38] This is simply a repetition of what the Essenes themselves said about their origin, in accordance with a common practice among the Jews.—Vide supra p. 36, note 14. [↑]
[39] This representation of the three Jewish sects as different philosophical schools, and the supposed resemblance of the Essenes to the Pythagoreans, which he mentions afterwards, (vide infra Antiq. xv. 10; § 4, p. 50) and which have misled modern writers, are nothing but a desire on the part of Josephus to make the divers teachings of his co-religionists correspond to the different systems of Greek philosophy. It is this anxiety to shew the Gentiles, for whom he wrote, how much the Jews resemble them both in doctrine and practice, which detracts from the merits of Josephus’ history. [↑]
[40] This love for the brotherhood, which the Essenes possessed to so extraordinary a degree, was also urged by the Evangelists and Apostles on the early Christians (comp. John xiv. 17 ; Rom. xiii. 8 ; 1 Tim. iv. 9 ; 1 Peter i. 28; xi. 17; 1 John iii. 23 ; iv. 7, 11 ; v. 2 ). [↑]
[41] This does not contradict Philo’s remark (vide supra p. 37), as Herzfeld supposes, (Geschichte des Volkes Israel, vol. ii. p. 375); since the two statements refer to two different things. The former affirms that they do not receive children into the noviciate, whilst the latter speaks of their adopting and educating them, which is a distinct thing from becoming a novice. [↑]
[42] Vide supra, p. 39, note 19. [↑]
[43] So our Lord urged on the young man, who lived so exemplary a life in the performance of God’s law, and whom he loved, that unless he gave up his property he could not follow him (comp. Matth. xix. 21 ; Mark x. 21 ; Luke xviii. 22 ), and commanded his disciples to sell all their possessions and distribute the money among the poor (comp. Luke xii. 33 .) [↑]
[44] Ointment being a luxury (comp. Eccl. ix. 8 ; Dan. x. 2 ), the Essenes regarded the use of it as extravagance, and contrary to the simplicity of their manner of life. [↑]
[45] The manner in which Christ commanded his disciples to depart on their journey ( Mark vi. 8–10 ) is the same which these pious Essenes are here said to have adopted. This also explains the injunction given by our Saviour to his disciples in Luke xxii. 36 , about taking arms with them, which has so greatly perplexed commentators who were unacquainted with the customs of the Essenes. [↑]
[46] The Pharisees, too, had a steward in every place to supply the needy with clothing and food. (Comp. Pea viii. 7; Baba Bathra 8 a; Sabbath 118.) [↑]
[47] Comp. also Luke x. 4 , &c. [↑]
[48] Some translate it “they offer prayer (εἰς τὸν ἥλιον) to the sun.” But it is utterly inconceivable that the Essenes, who were such thorough Jews, and so exemplary for their adoration of the Holy One of Israel, would be guilty of idolatry by worshipping the sun. Besides, the prayer in question is described as one transmitted by the fathers. And can it be imagined that there existed among the Jews a national prayer to this luminary in direct violation of the first commandment, and of what is so expressly forbidden in Deut. iv. 10 ? The prayer therefore here spoken of is the well known national morning hymn of praise (המאיר לארץ) for the return of the light of the day, which still forms a part or the Jewish service to the present day. Comp. Berachoth 9 b; Rappaport in the Bikure Ha-Ittim, vol. x., Vienna 1829, p. 115, and infra p. 69. [↑]
[49] This practice of bathing before meals was also common among the Pharisees (comp. Chagiga, 18, b), and as the Essenes covered themselves with their aprons so the Pharisees put on their Talith during their baptisms. (Comp. Berachoth 24, b.) [↑]
[50] The Pharisees, too, regarded the refectory as a sanctuary, and compared its table to the altar in the temple, because the altar in the temple is represented as the table of the Lord ( Ezekiel xli, 22 ). Hence, R. Jochanan and R. Eleazar remark—“As long as the temple stood the altar atoned for the sins of Israel, but now it is man’s table which atones for his sins.” (Talmud Berachoth, 55a). Hence the Chaldee paraphrase of Ezekiel xii. 22 , and the remarks of Rashi and Kimchi on this passage, which cannot be understood unless this traditional interpretation is borne in mind. Comp. also Aboth iii, 3. [↑]
[51] This was also the practice of the Pharisees, and is to the present day the custom among the orthodox Jews. [↑]
[52] This paragraph almost embodies the sentiments uttered by our Saviour in Matth. chap. v . [↑]
[53] These ancient books on magical cures and exorcisms were the reputed works of Solomon, who, according to the Talmud as well as the Byzantine and Arabian writers, composed treatises on miraculous cures and driving out evil spirits. (Comp. Pesachim 56 a; Fabricius, Codex pseudepigraphus Vet. Test. p. 1042, &c.; Weil, Biblische Legenden der Muselmänner, p. 225–279). Josephus tells [[45]]us elsewhere that some of these Solomonic productions still existed in his own days, and that he had actually seen demons driven out and people cured by their aid. (Comp. Antiq. book viii. chap. ii. § 5.) This account most strikingly illustrates what Christ says in Matth. xii. 27 . [↑]
[54] This custom has its origin in the extension of a Mosaic law. The hosts of the Lord are commanded in Deut. xxiii 13, 15 , to have spades among the martial instruments in order to bury therewith their excrements without the camp, and thus to keep themselves pure from every pollution, and to be a holy camp, because the Holy One of Israel dwells in the midst thereof. Now as the Essenes strove to be, in a pre-eminent sense, the spiritual hosts of the Lord, every one of them was obliged to have this spade in order to guard their sacred camp from defilement. For this reason the apron was also given to cover their nakedness in their numerous baptisms, and thus to keep their thoughts from dwelling upon anything which might lead to impurity; whilst the white garment was the symbol of their holiness. This, however, was not peculiar to the Essenes, as the Talmud tells us that when any one applied to become a member of the Pharisaic order (חבר), he had to pass through a noviciate of twelve months, at the expiration of which he received a sort of garment called כנפים, and having duly qualified himself in this stage, he was afterwards admitted to the holier lustrations (מקבלין לכנסּים ואחר כד מקבלין לטהרות). (Comp. Tosifta Demai e. 11; Jerusalem Demai ii. 3; Babylonian Becharoth 30, 6). [↑]
[55] This was the only occasion on which the Essenes were permitted to take an oath. [↑]
[56] This does not refer to governments generally, as Gfrörer will have it (Philo und die jüdisch-alexandrinische Theosophie, vol. ii, p. 333, &c.), but to the office of overseer or steward among the brotherhood, as is evident from the immediately following statement, which most unquestionably pledges every Essene to retain his simplicity of character if he should ever attain to any official position or stewardship in the order. [↑]
[57] This is not peculiar to the Essenes. The Pharisees, too, would not indiscriminately propound the mysteries of the cosmogony and the theosophy, which, according to them, are contained in the history of the Creation and in the vision of Ezekiel, except to those who were regularly initiated in the order. Comp. Mishna Chagiga, ii, 1. [↑]
[58] This evidently refers to the secrets of the Tetragrammaton, and the angelology which played so important a part among the Jewish mystics from time immemorial. Comp. Wisdom of Solomon vii. 20 ; Mishna Chagiga, ii, 1. [↑]
[59] The reason why he ate herbs and not bread, or the simple dish which the order generally took, is that, being bound by an oath to observe the practices of the brotherhood, he could only accept meals from those who lived according to the highest degree of purity (על טהרת חטאת), and who, as a matter of course, kept their meals according to this degree. But as such a mode of life was of very uncommon occurrence, the excommunicated Essene was obliged to live on herbs or vegetables which he had to pluck himself; for, according to the Talmud, plants are only then considered unclean when they are cut off and water is poured upon them (משהוכשרו לקבל טומאה משנתלשו). As for Josephus’ saying that he died a miserable death, and that he could only eat grass (ποιηφάγων), this is simply another instance of his exaggerating and colouring his subject. [↑]
[60] The Pharisees, too, regarded ten persons as constituting a complete number for divine worship, held the assembling of such a number as sacred, and would not spit in their presence. (Comp. Berâchoth 51 a; Jerusalem Berachoth iii. 5; Aboth iii. 6.) [↑]
[61] This is not peculiar to the Essenes; for the Pharisees, too, would not remove a vessel on the Sabbath (comp. Tosifta Succa, iii); and the orthodox Jews, to the present day, will not even carry a handkerchief on the Sabbath; they tie it round the body to serve as a girdle, so that it might not be said that they carry the weight of even so small a thing on the sacred day. Comp. also Mark xi, 16 . [↑]
[62] Neither is this peculiar to the Essenes; for not only did the Pharisees of old do the same (comp. Ioma 28, a); but the orthodox Jews of the present day wash after performing the duties of nature. [↑]
[63] This division of the brotherhood into four classes, as well as the impurity contracted by the higher class when touching one who belonged to a lower class of purity, also existed among the Pharisees. (Vide supra, p. 7, note 1.) [↑]
[64] Philo, too, speaks of this fact. (Vide supra p. 36.) [↑]
[65] This is another instance of the anxiety of Josephus to make the different phases of Judaism harmonise with the Greek mode of thinking. [↑]
[66] It is evident that Josephus, as an orthodox and pious Jew, cannot mean by εἱμαρμένη the Fatum of the Stoics, which was above the deities; but intends to convey thereby the idea of eternal counsels and predestination spoken of in the Bible. Indeed, elsewhere Josephus tells us distinctly that “the doctrine of the Essenes delights to leave all things to God” (vide infra p. 52); so that that which is in the one case ascribed to fate, is in the other ascribed to God. [↑]
[67] No more regard is to be paid to this remark, that the Essenes are like the Pythagoreans, than to the assertion which Josephus makes afterwards that they are related in their manner of life to the Polistae, (vide infra p. 53), as his aim was to shew how much the Jewish sects resembled the Greek systems of philosophy. Comp. p. 41, note 21. [↑]
[68] The fact that Menahem saw Herod in Jerusalem, and that the Essene Judah, as Josephus tells us elsewhere (comp. Jewish War, book i. chap. iii. § 5; Antiq. book xiii. chap. xi. § 2), foretold in the temple the death of Antigones, clearly shows that the Essenes did not at first form a separate community, but lived together with the rest of their Jewish brethren. [↑]
[69] Pliny, whom Solinus copies, simply says that the Essenes live in the society of palm-trees (socia palmarum), to form an antithesis with the appellation a solitary community (sola gens); and this is perfectly correct. But Solinus’ alteration of it into “palm-berries are their food” (palmis victitant) is incorrect, inasmuch as they lived from the cultivation of the land, bees, &c. [↑]
[70] This is simply a reiteration of what Pliny says about the antiquity of the Essenes. [↑]
[71] This work of Josephus, addressed to the Greeks, is no longer extant. [↑]
[72] This is simply imaginary; the real reason for it was, that they could not dig on the Sabbath the hole that was requisite for it without, as they thought, violating the sanctity of the day, as to do so was considered a labour. [↑]
[73] This unjust remark about the Essenes, whose exemplary virtues and self-denying life elicited the unqualified admiration of Jews, Greeks, and Romans, is just what might be expected from the bigoted persecutor of heretics, amongst whom he put no less a person than St. Chrysostom. [↑]
[74] This name may be derived from the Hebrew Shemesh (שמש) sun, and was most probably given to the Essenes, because of the erroneous notion that they worshipped the sun. [↑]
[75] The whole of this account is worse than useless, inasmuch as it not only gives us no information whatever about this interesting order, but is positively misleading. [↑]
[76] Comp. Meor Enajim, edit. Mantua. 1547, fol. 88 b. [↑]
[77] אנטיגנוס איש סוכו קבל משמעון הצדיק הוא היה אמר אל תהיו כעבדים המשמשים את הרב על מנת לקבל פרס אלא היו כעברים המשמשים את הרב שלא על מנת לקבל פרס ויהי מורא שמיס עליכם כדי שיהיה שכרכם כפול: לעתיד לבא: אנטיגנוס איש סוכו היו לו שני תלמידים שהיו שונין בדבריו שונין היו לתלמידים ותלמידים לתלמידיהם עמרו ודקדקו אחריהן ואמרו מה ראו אבותינו לומר אפשר שיעשה פועל מלאכה כל היום ולא יטול שכרו ערבית אלא אילו יודעין אבותינו שיש העולם (אחר) ויש תחיית המתים לא היו אומרים כך עמדו ופירשו מי התורה ונפרצו מהם שתי פרצות צדוקים וביתוסין צדוקים על שום צדוק ביתוסין על שום ביתוס שהיה משתמש בכלי זהב וכלי כסף כל ימיו לא היתה דעתו גסה עליו אלא צדוקים אומרים מסורה בית פרושים שהן מצערין עצמן בעולם הזה ובעולם הבא אין להם כלום [↑]
[78] Comp. Moses and Aaron: Civil and Ecclesiastical Rites used by the Ancient Hebrews, eighth edition (London, 1672), book i, chap, xii, p. 50–59. [↑]
[79] The Court of the Gentiles. Pt. ii of “Philosophy,” Oxford, 1671, p. 147, &c. [↑]
[80] The Old and New Testaments Connected, seventeenth editions, vol. iii. London, 1815, part ii, book v, p. 406–431. [↑]
[81] The History of the Jews, from Jesus Christ to the present day. London, 1708, p. 125–137. [↑]
[82] Jewish Antiquities; or a Course of Lectures on the two first books of Godwyn’s Moses and Aaron, ninth edition. London, 1837, book i., chap. xii, p. 281–287. [↑]
[83] Geschichtliche Nachrichten aus dem Alterthume über Essäer und Therapeuten. Berlin, 1821. [↑]
[84] General History of the Christian Religion and Church, English Translation, Clark’s Theological Library, vol. i, Edinburgh, 1851, p. 58–66. [↑]
[85] Rappaport, in the Hebrew Annual, entitled Bikure Ha-Ittim, vol. x, Vienna, 1829, p. 118 ff. [↑]
[86] Comp. Kritische Geschichte des Urchristenthums. 1 Theil Philo und die jüdish-alexandrianische Theosophie, 11 Abtheilung. Stuttgart, 1835. p. 299–356. [↑]
[87] Diese Trennung nun aber unter ben Anhängern der jüdisch-alexandrinischen Religionsphilosophie selbst in solche, welche sich ausschliesslich dem beschaulichen und in Andere, welche sich vorzugsweise dem praktischen Leben widmeten, ist es eben, welche sich in unserem fraglichen Doppelorden auch äusserlich repräsentirte, sodass, wenn schon beide ganz auf derselben philosophischen Unterlage ruhten, die Therapeuten sich möglichst ausschliesslich und unmittelbar dem höchsten von ihnen angestrebten menschlichen Lebensziele, der Anschauung Gottes selbst, hingaben, während die Essäer gewissermassen freiwillig in dem Vorhofe zum Allerheiligsten zögernd, sich absichtlich und zum Besten der Brüder häufiger in Berührung setzten mit dem Sinnlichen, als es die Naturnothwendigkeit foderte und so ihre eigene höchste Vollkommenheit und Seligkeit zwar grossmuthig, aber gewiss auch unphilosophisch genug augenblicklich noch verkümmerten. [↑]
[88] Comp. Ersch und Gruber’s Allgemeine Encyklopädie, section i. vol. xxxviii, p. 173–192. [↑]
[89] Comp. Frankel, Zeitschrift für die religiösen Interessen des Judenthums, vol. iii. Berlin, 1846, p. 441–461. [↑]
[90] Comp. The Biblical Repository and Classical Review. New York, 1847, p. 162–173. [↑]
[91] Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Vierter Band. Göttingen, 1852, p. 419–428. [↑]
[92] Comp. Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums, Zweiter Jahrgang. Leipzig, 1853, p. 30–40; 61–73. [↑]
[93] Ich nehme diese auf kritischer Forschung, beruhenden Resultate über diese Secte vollständig an und werde nur noch einige Pünkte nachträglich beleuchten. [↑]
[94] Die Eigenthümlichkeiten der Essäer lassen sich nicht genügend aus dem Wesen der im Talmud vorkommenden חסידים oder חסידים הראשנים und der in der Makkabäerzeit auftretenden “Assidäer” erklären; man muss auch auf das nasiräische Wesen Rücksicht nehmen. Nasiräer gab es in der nachexilischen Zeit eine grosse Menge (Tosifta Nasir c. iv. Babli Berachot 48 a. 1 Makkab. ii, 49. Jos. Alterth. xviii, 6, 1). Aber sie trugen zugleich einen andern Charakter, als [[77]]die der biblischen Zeit: sie waren Nasiräer fürs ganze Leben נזיר עולם (Nasir 4 a). Die Mischna setzt das Vorhandensein solcher ohne Weiteres voraus, und das Magische an dem Nasiräerthum, das sich bei den biblischen Nasiräern an den Haarwuchs knüpfte, tritt immer mehr zurück, oder hat vielmehr gar keine Bedeutung mehr. נזיר עולם הכביד שערו מיקל בשער (das.). Hingegen tritt bei den lebenslänglichen Nasiräern das Levitische, die Hut vor Verunreinigung, immer mehr in den Vordergrund (das.). Die Essäer werden also solche Nasiräer gewesen sein, welche in ihrem Privatleben die höchste priesterliche Weihe darstellen wollten. Den Zusammenhang zwischen Nasiräern and Essäern deutet schon eine dunkle talmudische Stelle an, dass Jemand sich dadurch schon dem vollständigen Nasireat weiht, wenn er auch nur insofern Nasiräer sein will, um die Geheimnisse entehrender Familienverhältnisse bewahren zu können: הריני נזיר אם לא אגלה משפחות הרי זו נזיר ולא יגלה משפחות (Tosifta Nasir c. 1 b Kiduschim 71 a). Die Erklärung dieser Stelle durch den Essenismus hat schon Edeles (מהרש״א) in seinem Agadacommentar z. St. geahnt. Diesen Zusammenhang zwischen Nasiräerthum und Essenismus haben Epiphanius und die arabischen Schriftsteller Makrisi und Abulfarag’ geahnt; wenn auch Epiphanius die Ναζαραῖοι von den Ὀσσηνοί unterscheidet, so sind die Eigenheiten, die er von den Erstern berichtet, doch ganz essäisch. Ebenso hat Makrisi die Essäer in drei Secten zerspalten, in die Täufer (מנטהרון = ἡμεροβαπτισταί), die Essäer (אסאניון) und in die Nasiräer (מתחשפון) (in de Sacy Chrestomathie Arabe Ausgabe von 1806, arabischer Theil 172 und tome ii, 218). Das arabische Makkabäerbuch bezeichnet die Essäer durch Chassidäer (c. xxv); in Josippon fehlen an der Stelle, wo er von den drei Secten spricht, gerade die Essäer (iv, 6, Breithaupt) Die Identität von Nasiräern, Essäern und Assidäern wird also von vielen Seiten bestätigt. Auch aus Josephus’ Angabe, die Essäer hätten eigne Bücher gehabt (jüd. Kr. ii, 8, 7), lässt sich ihre Identität mit den Assidäern erweisen. Im Talmud (Jeruschalmi Barachot, Ende) wird aus einem Buchs der Chassidäer der Satz mitgetheilt: “Verlässt du sie einen Tag, so verlässt sie dich zwei Tage”: כתוב בספר חסידים אם תעובה יום יומים תעובך [↑]
[95] Geschichte der Juden, vol. iv. Leipzig, 1856, p. 96–106; 518–528. [↑]
[96] Geschichte des Judenthums und seiner Secten, vol. 1. Leipzig, 1857, p. 207–215. [↑]
[97] Die Essäer waren die Baitusim, wie schon R. Asarja de’ Rossi vermuthet hat; es muss dies nur besser begründet werden, als von ihm geschehen ist. Ich bemerke zu dem Ende erstens, dass wie das vorgesetzte בית auch in den Benennungen Bet-Schammaj, Bet-Hillel Schule oder Fraction bedeutet, so Tosifta Kelim ii, 6 בית הכותים, Chulin 6, a בי כותאי für die Sekte oder das Land der Cutim vorkommt; sodann dass Tosifta Succa, K. iii zweimal und Tosifta Menachot K. z. für Baitusim בית סין stehet: kann dies wohl etwas Anderes als Haus, Sekte der Essener bedeuten? Als אסי (Arzt) Sektenname wurde, konnte man den Essäer nicht gut mehr schlechthin אסי nennen, ohne undeutlich zu werden, man umschrieb ihn daher wohl als Einen vom בית אסי, bildete danach auch mit Zugrundelegung der Form Essener, das nachgewiesene בית סין and zog dann Jenes zusammen, um den einzelnen Essäer zu bezeichnen, gab aber dieser Form den u-Laut, entweder nachdem man das syrische Wort אסי zuweilen nach syrischer Weise ôsseh, also dunkel ausgesprochen hatte, woher die Aussprache Ossener bei Epiphanius herrühren mag, oder was mir noch wahrscheinlicher ist, indem man dem Worte Peruschim conform Zedukim und Baitusim bildete. [↑]
[98] Nach allem diesen scheint es, dass ein Jude, welcher mit der unter den alexandrinischen Juden aufblühenden allegorischen Exegese und mit deren Erzeugerin, der griechischen Weisheit, bekannt geworden war, daneben aber auch Gelegenheit gefunden hatte, von ägyptischen Priestern Manches zu lernen, wie Pythagoras selbst, Platon und Herodot, den Plan gefasst und ausgeführt habe, eklektisch hieraus und aus dem Judenthume ein speculatives und asketisches System sowie nach demselben aus judäischen Asketen eine Sekte zu bilden. Dass es an Solchen nicht gefehlt habe, verbürgt das Vorkommen von Nasiräern, z. B. nach Tosifta Nasir K. iv unter Schimon dem Gerechten, ferner 1 Mack. iii, 49, und von ihrer 300 auf einmal unter Schimon ben Schatach nach Nasir jer. v, 3. Dass er aber nicht mit jüdischen Asketen in Ägypten diesen Versuch machte, geschah vielleicht, weil es damals dort noch an solchen Asketen fehlte, oder weil er selbst aus Judäa gebürtig sein mochte. [↑]
[99] Geschichte des Volkes Israel von Vollendung des Zweiten Tempels bis zur Einsetzung des Mackabäers Schimon zum hohen Priester und Fürsten, Zweiter Band. Nordhausen, 1857, p. 368–377; 387–409. [↑]
[100] Die jüdische Apokalyptik in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwickelung. Jena, 1857, p. 245–278. [↑]
[101] Geschichte der Juden, Dritter Band Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, 1863, p. 216–252. [↑]
[102] The History of the Jews from the earliest period down to modern times. London, 1863, vol. ii. p. 110–115. [↑]
[103] “Sie lieferte zwar nicht wissenschaftliche Resultate, aber ihr Leben deutet sattsam darauf hin, dass ihre Bestrebungen darauf gerichtet waren, wie in Alexandrien, nur von einem andern Standpunct ans, die Religion und die Wissenschaft zu versöhnen.” Der Geist der ersten Schriftauslegungen order: Die hagadische Exegese. Berlin, 1847, p. 114, &c. [↑]