Engines.

The strength of a steam engine is indicated in horse-powers. A horse-power is taken as the capacity of performing 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute; lifting 3300lb. 10 feet high, or 10lb. 3300 feet high would be 33,000 foot-pounds of work.

To obtain the Indicated Horse-power—the most usual Standard.—A diagram is taken from the engine by a small apparatus, and this diagram, when measured and averaged at different points of its length, gives the mean pressure of steam in the cylinder. Multiply this by the speed of the piston, by the area of the piston, and divide by 33,000, and the I.H.P. is to hand. 39·81 average pressure per square inch, area of piston 400 square inches, length of stroke 5-1/2 feet, strokes per minute 40 (or 11 feet both ways)—

(39·81 × 400 × 11 × 40)/33,000 = 212·32 I.H.P.

Nominal horse-power (condensing) = area of piston divided by 22; ditto high pressure = area of piston divided by 11.

2-1/2 to 3 looms, with preparation, are reckoned to 1 indicated horse-power.

Coal.—A good quality of coal should evaporate 8lb. of water for each 1lb. burnt, and for a manufacturing concern (including sizing, which takes a great amount of steam) the consumption of coal should be about 3-1/4lb. per I.H.P. per hour. Thus 600 horse-power should use about 24 tons per week; excluding sizing, 2-3/4lb. would suffice.

To find the Circumference of a Circle.—Multiply the diameter by 3·1416 or (roughly) by 3-1/7.

To find the Area of a Circular Space.—Square the diameter and multiply by ·7854.

To find the Cubical Contents of a Rectangular Block.—Multiply the depth, length and breadth together.

City and Guilds of London Institute
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF
TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

TECHNOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS.

19B.—COTTON MANUFACTURE.

Section I.—COTTON SPINNING.

I. Syllabus.—The Examination will include questions founded on such subjects as the following:—

1. The geographical position of the world’s cotton fields, and suitable regions to which it may be introduced.

2. Cotton cultivation and the various causes of damage to the fibre during growing and picking seasons, with the dates of planting and picking in all cotton-growing countries.

3. The mode of preparing the raw material, cotton gins, ginning, packing, &c. Means and methods of adulteration.

4. Commercial handling of the raw material up to the spinning mill.

5. The nature and properties of the various kinds of raw material—Sea Island, Queensland, Fiji, Egyptian, New Orleans, Uplands, Boweds, Dollerah, Hinghinghat, Surat, Brazilian, &c.

6. The selection of, and advisability, or otherwise, of mixing various cottons with a view to the full utilization of every kind.

7. The development of and the principles involved in the construction of the several machines used in cotton spinning.

8. Cleaning cotton by opening, scrutching, carding and combing machines.

9. Processes of attaining a parallel arrangement of fibres by carding, and the attenuation of the sliver through drawing, slubbing, intermediate and finishing roving frames.

10. Spinning operations upon the throstle, mule, and ring frames.

11. The doubling of single yarns for lace, hosiery, sewing thread, and kindred purposes.

12. Warping and bundling for the home trade and export, with the accompanying processes of winding and reeling.

13. Packing and commercial dealing with yarns in the process of distribution.

In the Honours Examination more difficult questions in the above subjects will be set than in the Ordinary Grade.

II. Full Technological Certificate.—The candidate, who is not otherwise qualified (see Regulations 33 and 34), will be required, for the full Certificate in the Ordinary Grade, to have passed the Science and Art Department’s Examination, in the Elementary Stage at least, and for the full Certificate in the Honours Grade, in the Advanced Stage at least, in two of the following Science subjects:—

Certificates, showing that the candidate has passed the Second Grade Examination of the Science and Art Department in Geometrical Drawing as well as in Freehand or Model Drawing, will be accepted in lieu of one of the above Science subjects for the full Technological Certificate in either grade of the Examination.

Section II.—COTTON WEAVING.

The Examination in the Ordinary Grade will consist of a paper of questions only.

I. Syllabus.—The Examination will include questions founded on such subjects as the following:—

1. Winding Machines for warping and pirns.

2. Warping.—Mill, beam and sectional.

3. Sizing.—Ball, hank, dressing, slashing upon both cylinder and hot-air frames.

4. Beaming and Scotch Dressing.

5. Reeds and Healds (Counts Setting, &c.), Drawing in and Twisting.

6. Comparative merits of Hand and Power Looms.

7. The Power Loom—its parts, the principle governing each, with the relation and timing of each to the other.

8. Shedding Motions—as Tappets with their over and under motions. Dobbies or witches.

9. Picking motions, alternate and “pick and pick.”

10. Beating up, shuttle box, and minor motions.

11. Necessary calculations for the power loom.

12. The various makes of cloth produced by Tappets and Dobbies as plain cloth, twills, satins, and small figured effects, with one warp and weft, or with the addition of extra warp for figuring, as in Dhooties.

13. Method of making designs, drafts, and tie-ups for the above.

14. Colour and colour blending as applied to the coloured branches of the industry.

15. Calculations for warp and weft and method of costing goods.

The Examination for the Honours Grade will consist of more advanced questions on the preceding subjects, especially those enumerated in Sections 7 to 11; and, in addition, questions relating to the following:—

1. Construction of the various Jacquard machines in use, and their relative suitability to various goods, and the system of mounting Jacquard looms.

2. Construction, merits and uses of the hand loom.

3. Principles of cloth structure, and the mechanism required for the production of the following typical fabrics:—Plain cloth, twills, diapers, brocades, damasks, coloured stripes and checks, warp spots, repps, weft spots produced with circles, swivels or extra shuttles, backed cloths, double cloths, 3, 4, 5, &c., ply fabrics, tapestries, velveteens, cords, Terry fabrics, plain and figured gauze, lappets, plain and figured leno.

4. Principles of designing and card cutting involved in producing the above fabrics, giving preference to the actual designing and working of such patterns as shall be practically useful as articles of commerce.

5. Analysis of samples of woven fabrics to determine pattern, draft, tie-up, and counts of material used.

6. Composition of the various yarns used in the production of mixed fabrics.

7. Latent and other defects in fabrics caused by faulty construction and unequal balancing of warp and weft.

8. Selection of warp and weft yarns suitable for the fabrics required.

9. Proportioning of fabrics so as to maintain the original structure with an increased or diminished weight.

10. Method of calculating the cost of a fabric from given data of values of material and labour, by ascertaining the fibre, counts, ends, picks and weight.

11. Actual Weaving.—Each candidate will be required, during the year preceding the Examination, to design and execute in suitable material an original pattern, of not less than 200 ends and 200 picks in a complete pattern, and to forward the same (carriage paid) to London a fortnight prior to the day of the Examination, together with a certificate signed by his employer, or by the class teacher and a member of the School Committee, stating that the work has been executed by the candidate without assistance. The specimen of weaving, showing the complete pattern, must not be less than one yard in length and at least 24 inches in width: it must be properly dyed or finished, and constructed in such a manner as to be a saleable article.

II. Full Technological Certificate.—The candidate, who is not otherwise qualified (see Regulations 33 and 34), will be required, for the full Certificate in the Ordinary Grade, to have passed the Science and Art Department’s Examination, in the Elementary Stage at least, and for the full Certificate in the Honours Grade, in the Advanced Stage at least, in two of the following Science subjects:—

Certificates, showing that the candidate has passed the Second Grade Examination of the Science and Art Department in Geometrical Drawing as well as in Freehand or Model Drawing, will be accepted in lieu of one of the above Science subjects for the full Technological Certificate in either grade of the Examination.

GLOSSARY OF TRADE TERMS.

Am.—American. Sc.—Scotch.]

Some words not mentioned here are explained in previous parts of the book, and will be found in the General Index.

Apex—The tip or point—e.g., of a cone or wedge.

Backed Cloth—Cloth which, in addition to the faced fabric, bears bound underneath a layer either of extra weft, extra warp, or of another cloth. The term is usually applied to the first-named variety.

Bar—A term applied to a single strip of coloured weft, used as heading or cross border.

Beam—The flanged roller on which the warp yarn is wound, either at the beam, warping, sizing, or dressing machines; also applied to the full beam.

Beer—Twenty dents or splits in a reed, also 40 ends—i.e., two ends to each split.

Bevel—A cog wheel, having the teeth set at an angle with the shaft on which it moves, but in the some plane, unless a skew-gear bevel.

Bitting—Drawing in additional ends at the side of healds and reeds in case of a wider warp having to be used.

Bobbin—A flanged wooden cylinder.

Borders—The stripe running along the side of a piece of cloth—formed either by different colour, counts of yarn, or weave, from the centre.

Box Motion—Arrangement for operating the shuttle boxes in check weaving.

Bracket—An attachment bolted to a framing for the support of other apparatus.

Cam or Camb—A plate revolving on a shaft, having its circumference other than circular, thus giving a reciprocating motion to any lever actuated by it.—Applied in some districts to the shedding tappets and picking plates.

Cellulose—A botanical term referring to an organic substance of which the cotton fibre principally consists, and being composed of six atoms of carbon with five of water, or C6H10O5.

Cloth—The technical name for woven cotton fabrics: although cloth is the popular name for woollen and worsted fabrics, and cotton is usually called calico, or some such name, yet in the trade the name of cloth is always given to cotton goods.

Compass Board—Another name for the cumber board.

Cop—The cylindrical coil of yarn formed at the mule, or, in the case of two-fold yarn, at the twiner.

Cord—The bands used in attaching the healds to the heald-rollers, or lambs—i.e., heald cords; also a very coarse thread, used as a heading or stripe border; a name given to a cloth bearing a stripe, formed by using cord warp yarn; and also a contraction of corduroy.

Counts—A system of indicating the fineness of yarn, written by placing ’s after the figures signifying the number of hanks per lb.—thus, “40’s”; otherwise, grist or numbers.

Cover—A name given to the downy appearance of cloth or yarn.

Cross-band—Sometimes applied to yarns spun twist-way, in contradistinction to open-band.

Cross-border—A heading to a piece of cloth or handkerchief, either formed by coloured or other weft, or by a change in the pattern.

Cumber Board—The perforated frame for the guidance of the harness in the jacquard or some dobby shedding motions.

Cutting—The severance of the pile warp or pile weft in a fabric which requires the slitting of some filament, so as to produce a nap, formed by short threads presenting their section on the face of the cloth.

Cut—A length of warp required to weave a piece of cloth; also the piece when woven.

Deliquescent—A substance which tends to liquefy in the air—thus, chloride of magnesium tends to retain dampness and cause a fabric in which it is present to become moist.

Dent—A space between the wires of a reed, otherwise split.

Draft—A plan showing the order in which the ends are drawn through the healds (see page 94).

Elongated Twills—Twilled cloth, in which the wale extends a greater distance than usual before reaching the other side of the fabric, caused by weaving two or more picks before altering the risen ends forming the wale. These twills do not run at an angle of 45 degrees.

End—The technical name for a thread.

Entering Draft—The system of drawing the warp through the healds (see Draft).

Fell (of Cloth)—The edge of the fabric (in the loom) which has most recently been woven.

Filling—Am. for weft.

Fixing—Am. for tackling.

Flue—One lap of the folded cloth.

Flushing—Bringing the warp or weft to the surface of the cloth without interweaving.

Fly-reed—Sc. for loose reed.

Gaws—Sc. for goal.

Gears—Sc. for healds.

Goal—A gap caused in a piece by the cloth being drawn forward without the weft interweaving, especially when used to mark the end of a piece.

Grey—Yarn or cloth in an undyed or unbleached state.

Grist—Synonymous with counts (Sc.).

Ground—That portion of a fabric, usually of a simple weave, which serves as a base on which to display a figure.

Hank—A measurement of yarn. In cotton, 840 yards.

Harness—The arrangement of leashes in a jacquard. (Am. for a heald.)

Heald—The arrangement of top and bottom staves, carrying the leashes with eyes for use in stave work.—Sc., heddle; Am., harness.

Lag—A bar of the lattice used in dobby work.

Lathe (South Lancashire)—Synonymous with slay.

Lay—Am. and Sc. for slay.

Leaf—A heald or a plate of the shedding tappet—e.g., three-leaf twill = three-stave twill.

Lingo—The weight below the leashes in the jacquard.

L.S.—Abbreviation of “long stick.”

Mail-eye—The aperture in the harness for the reception of the thread.

Manufacturing—(Vide Chapter I.).

Mash—(Vide Index).—Otherwise smash, or trap.

Mitre Wheels—Bevel wheels which gear with and are exactly similar to each other.

Open-band Yarn—Yarn spun weft-way—that is, twisted over to the right.

P.C.—Pin cop—i.e., weft size of cop.

Pick—The insertion of a thread of weft; the propulsion of the shuttle through the shed; the time occupied in the opening of the shed, the picking, and beating up.—A term used to signify the number of picks in a quarter-inch.

Pirn—A wooden tube on which is wound the weft used for headings, etc.

Ply—A thickness or layer of fabric—thus, two-ply, three-ply, refer to double or triple cloth.

Positive Motion—A motion driven by gearing as distinct from one driven by friction or some non-positive force.

Pure Size—Sizing with vegetable or animal substances, used for light percentages.

Range—A series of cloths similar in style, but varying in width or other dimensions.

Reed—(Vide Chapter III.).—Also the number of ends per quarter-inch.

Run—A stripe of colour in a fabric.

Scobs—Sc. for slattering.

Selvage—The sides of a fabric.

Sett—The fineness of reeds—reed counts. Also signifying the amount of warp on the beams which are sized at one time.

Shaft—A heald.

Shed—The opening made in the warp for the passage of the shuttle; also, a weaving mill.

Shot—Sc. for pick.

Slay—Otherwise lay or lathe (vide Index).

Smash—Synonymous with mash or trap (vide Index).

Split—Dent.

S.S.—Abbreviation of “short stick.”

Stave—Equivalent to shaft.

Strip—A narrow bar of heading.

Stud—A short projecting pin to carry a wheel or wheels.

Tapes—Borders of cramped or coarse warp.

Tappet—(See Index).—Sc. for wiper.

Technical—Specially appertaining to an industrial art, business, or profession.

Technology—The branch of knowledge dealing with the systematic study of the industrial arts.

Terry—Uncut or loop pile.

Trap—Synonymous with mash.

Trevette—A knife used in cutting the pile wires out of the cloth.

Tuning—Tackling.

Turns (per inch)—The extent of the torsion in yarn.

T.W.—Twist-way yarn or thread, which, in being spun, has been twisted over to the left—distinct from weft-way.

Tweel—Sc. for twill.

Twist—Warp yarn.

Up-taking—Sc. for the take-up motion.

Warp—The yarn arranged length-way of the cloth—the full beam of warp yarn.

Water T.—Throstle twist.

Waves—Zigzag twill pattern.

Wax—Cotton wax is a substance coating the outside of cotton fibres, and present to the extent of about 1/2 per cent. It is a brownish horny vegetable wax.

Weft—The yarn arranged across the cloth.

Weft-way—Yarn twisted over to the right in spinning. Weft may be either twist-way or weft-way.

W.W.—Weft-way.

Whip-roll—Am. for back-rest.

Whip-thread—The crossing thread in gauze.

Woof—The weft.

Wraith, Wrathe, or Rathe—The reed comb used for guiding the yarn to the beam.

Wrap (Warper’s)—Vide index.

Wyper or Wiper—Sc. for tappets.

Yarn—The thread of twisted fibres.

INDEX.

PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON

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OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

"Mr. Brooks is well and favourably known in the textile industries as a writer of excellent text-books in connection with the cotton trade.... In this book he has succeeded in doing the work, avoiding on the one hand intricate mathematical problems, which are discarded in practice, and on the other giving clear and simple rules for making all the calculations required in the spinning and manufacturing of cotton goods."—Textile Recorder.

"Hitherto the books published on weaving calculations have lacked the thorough instruction which characterises Mr. Brooks’s brochure, and many cotton students will find it a decidedly useful guide. The chapters on cloth and yarn calculations will be found decidedly useful and interesting. Mr. Brooks is to be congratulated on placing before the trade a vade mecum of considerable merit."—Textile World.

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232 Detailed Drawings of the Latest Types of Machines.

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Established 1791.

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Weaving Examination Questions.

Contents.—Six Years’ Weaving and Pattern Designing Questions.—Lists of Examiners, Rules of Examination, &c.—The Syllabus for Study in each of the following Subjects:—Woollen and Worsted Cloth Weaving, Cotton Weaving, Linen Weaving, Silk Weaving, and Jute Weaving.

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Sizing Ingredients
AND
Filling Materials

Used by Sizers, Manufacturers, Finishers, &c.

SOLE MAKERS OF LANCASHIRE ACME SIZE.
SOLE AGENTS FOR THE GLOY MANUFACTURING CO.
STOCKS KEPT FOR IMMEDIATE DELIVERY.
Shipping Orders Carefully Packed.

A long experience among Sizers and Finishers often enables us to materially help our clients to get at results they specially want.

For Prices, Samples, Particulars, &c., apply to
ADLEY, TOLKIEN, & CO.,
Chemical Manufacturers, Drysalters, and Produce Merchants,
NOVAS CHEMICAL WORKS,
Paterson Street, BLACKBURN.

Telegraphic Address:—"ADTOLCO, BLACKBURN. Telephone No. 184.
Manchester Royal Exchange:—Box 40 and Pillar 12, every Tuesday and Friday.

London Office:—14 to 20 St. MARY AXE, e.c.
London Works:—Penton Street, PENTONVILLE, n.

Established 1843.
Telegrams—“KERSHAW, HOLLINWOOD.”

JOSEPH KERSHAW & CO.’S
NON-CONDUCTING COMPOSITION

IS pronounced by practical Civil, Gas, Mining, and other Engineers, and a large number of Firms who have tested its value, to be the Best, Most Durable, and Cheapest Non-Conducting Material in the market, effecting a considerable saving in fuel by preventing the radiation of heat. Saves cost in a few weeks. Will not burn. Numerous Testimonials, and over Nine Thousand References.

Some idea may be gathered of the saving effected by our Composition from the fact that in scores of cases extending over a period of twenty years, where concerns have been worked by four boilers, after being coated with our Composition they have been enabled to work the concern with three boilers, and allow one to be at rest.

Will Last Twenty Years. Does not Shrink.

Awarded Certificate of Merit at the Industrial and Art Exhibition, Manchester, 1880. The only Award given in this Department, after a severe competition with other competitors, and Honourable Mention at Manchester Smoke Abatement Exhibition, 1882. See page 182 of the Official Report of the Smoke Abatement Committee, held at Grosvenor House, Grosvenor Square, London, on Friday, July 14, 1882, under the Presidency of His Grace the Duke of Westminster, K.G.

ASBESTOS COATING, SILICATE COTTON OR SLAG WOOL COATING.

WHEEL GREASES.
LOCOMOTIVE AND WATER WHEEL GREASES.
Rope Driving Composition.
Black and Brown Banding Compositions.

RED, BLACK, AND OTHER COLOURED VARNISHES.
DETERGENT COMPOSITION,
For Removing and Preventing Scale in Steam Boilers.

Lead Ore. Engine and Bolton Polishes. White Curd Soap.
White Soft Soap, for Cop Bottoms. Soft Soap. Belting Syrup.
White Lead. Oxide and Other Coloured Paints.

In Extra Strong Casks for Exportation.

GREASE, VARNISH, COMPOSITION, AND SOAP WORKS,
HOLLINWOOD, near OLDHAM.

HOWARD & BULLOUGH, Limited,
ACCRINGTON (England),
MAKERS OF
Cotton Spinning and Manufacturing
MACHINERY
Of the most modern and approved principle, with all Brackets and Seatings milled by Special Machinery to Standard Templets.

SPECIALITIES:
ANGLO-AMERICAN OPENERS AND SCUTCHERS.
New Patent REVOLTING FLAT CARDING ENGINE,
With rigid bend—110 Flats—43 working. Over 6000 Cards at work.
DRAWING FRAMES, with Electric Stop Motion.
Reliable—quick—not liable to get out of order. Already applied to over 35,000 deliveries.
SLUBBING, INTERMEDIATE, & ROVING FRAMES,
With Patent Differential Motion, Patent Cone Lifting Motion, Patent Cap Bars, and Patent Method of Balancing Top Rail, &c., &c.

We have applied Electric Stop Motion to over 200,000 Intermediate Spindles with marked success for the prevention of “Single.”

RING SPINNING FRAME.
THE LARGEST MAKERS IN THE WORLD.
Over 4,500,000 Spindles supplied.

RING WEFT FRAMES.

References given on application, comprising leading and extensive mills where the Weft Ring has entirely displaced the Mule.

RING DOUBLING FRAMES,
Made on either the English or Scotch System,
For Ordinary Doubling or for Sewing Cottons.

COMPOUND SIZING MACHINES.
One 9 ft. Cavity Cylinder and 3 to 7 Fans.

Howard & Bullough’s Air-Drying and Cylinder Sizing Machines of all sizes from 3 ft. to 9 ft., in Tin and Copper, with some or all of the following improvements, are found in all countries wherever Cotton Manufacturing is carried on.

Hitchon’s Patent Safety Compound Friction Motion for coarse or fine counts.

Hitchon’s Patent “Self-Traversing” Yarn Beam Presser.

Hitchon’s Patent “Self-Expanding and Contracting” Double Roller Yarn Beam Presser.

Hitchon’s Patent Adjustable Measuring Indicator, will mark any length of yarn from 1/4 to 200 yards or metres (REQUIRES NO CHANGE WHEELS).

Hitchon’s Patent “Self-Regulating” High Pressure Size Boiler.

Hitchon’s Patent Yarn Relieving Motion for size box.

New Patent Light Running Beaming Machine (“Improved Singleton”), with Patent Self-Stopping Measuring Motion, adjustable for any number of yards.

This machine has so rapidly superseded all others—our own six patents included—as to be practically the only one recognised in the market.

HOWARD & BULLOUGH, Limited,
ACCRINGTON, LANCASHIRE.

Accrington is distant from Manchester only 20 miles. Frequent trains run daily from Victoria or Salford Stations on the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.

Paris, 1878.

London, 1885.

Attend Exchange, Manchester, every Tuesday and Friday, No. 10 Pillar, One to Two o’clock.

ESTABLISHED 1863.

Practical Experience in Weaving and Loom Making for 36 Years.

HENRY LIVESEY, Limited,
BLACKBURN,
MAKERS of LOOMS
For Weaving Printers, Shirtings, T Cloths, Domestics, Linen and Sail Cloths, Double Lift Dobbies up to 40 Shafts.

Makers of the Improved “Slasher” Sizing, Cop and Ring Winding and Self-stopping Beaming Machines, Plaiting Machines, Looming and Drawing-in Frames, &c. Drum Winding and Spooling Machines for Coloured Yarns, Hydraulic Cloth Presses, &c., &c. Makers also of Bobbins, Tubes, Shuttles, Pickers, &c., &c. Loom Sides Planed and Cross Rails cut to exact length.

CRANK and TAPPET SHAFT BUSHES, also BEARINGS of PICKING SHAFTS, with their respective SEATINGS on Loom Sides, are Planed; these improvements secure more solidity in build of Loom, and thereby effect a great saving in wear and tear, require less power, and give more uniform working with greater speed.

Illustrated Catalogues on Application.

Plans and Estimates furnished for every description of Weaving Machinery.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Alderman Baynes’ Lectures, 1857, at Blackburn.

[2] In addition to the references given in the text, each article is shown on [Plate V].

[3] The term tappet shaft is used here in the sense understood in North Lancashire—i.e., the shaft driven from the crank-shaft and carrying the picking plates and tappets if plain.

[4] In this Chapter, where reed and pick is given, it must be understood as referring to a quarter of an inch, unless otherwise specified. Thus—12 × 10 means 12 ends and 10 picks in a quarter of an inch, or 48 ends and 40 picks per inch.

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