MEDIÆVAL SCULPTURE, FROM THE FIFTH TO THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The ancient or classic Italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the Christian era. The arch of Constantine was one of its latest works, and is interesting as an example of the decline of art. The sculptures upon it, which were taken from the arch of Trajan, executed two centuries earlier, are so superior to those that were added in the time of Constantine, that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by side.
After the time of Constantine, when the Christians were no longer forced to hide their art in the catacombs, they began to have a sculpture of their own. The first Christians in Rome were brought into contact with the worship of Isis and Pan, Venus and Apollo, and were filled with horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities. They believed that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the commandment which says, "Thou shalt not make to thyself any graven image, nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or in the water under the earth." Thus it happened that when the early Christians desired to represent the Saviour they employed painting, such as is found in the catacombs, rather than sculpture, and separate statues are the rarest remains of early Christian art.
Fig. 71.—Statue of St. Peter.
The oldest Christian statue which is known in marble is that of St. Hippolytus, which is in the Museum of the Lateran Palace, where there are also two small statues of Christ as the Good Shepherd, which were found in the catacombs.
The most important statue of this period is that of St. Peter, which is held in great reverence by Roman Catholics, who kiss its toe as they enter the church of St. Peter's at Rome, and press their foreheads against the extended foot. The statue is of bronze, and some antiquarians believe that it is the Jupiter of the Capitol changed so as to answer for a statue of St. Peter; others say that it was cast from the metal of the statue of Jupiter; and the usual belief is that it was made by the order of Pope Leo I. about the middle of the fifth century as a thank-offering for the deliverance of Rome from the barbarian Attila by the miraculous protection of St. Peter and St. Paul. This statue is too rude to belong to classic art, though it is of remarkable excellence for a work of the fifth century (Fig. 71).
The principal use of sculpture by the early Christians was for the decoration of the sarcophagi, or burial-cases. These were cut in bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients, the subjects being taken from the life of Christ; the ornaments were the Christian emblems, such as the lamb, cross, vine, palm, dove, and the monogram of Christ. As time passed the designs were more and more elaborate; stories from the Old Testament were frequently illustrated, and numerous figures were crowded together, with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the meaning of the whole more clear.
The largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the museums of the Lateran and the Vatican. In the centre of one of the finest of these is a shell, in which are the half figures of the two who were buried in this sarcophagus. At the upper left hand is the Saviour before the tomb of Lazarus; one of the sisters of the dead man kisses the hand of Jesus; next to this is the Denial of Peter; nearest the shell Moses reaches up to receive the Table of the Law. On the right of the shell, in the upper row, is the Sacrifice of Isaac and the Washing of Pilate's Hands. On the lower row, beginning at the left, is Moses causing the Water to flow from the Rock; next is the Apprehension of Peter, and next, Daniel in the Lions' Den. Besides these there are the Healing of the Blind and the Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes. This will show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases, and how the subjects from the Old and New Testaments are mingled without order or apparent reason. These sarcophagi have been found in various parts of Italy and in France, and are seen in many museums.
In no part of the Roman Empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by the early Christians as at Byzantium. Several attempts to adorn the city with statues and other works of art were made there, and many of the Greek sculptures which had been carried to Rome were again borne off to decorate this new Capitol. The Emperor Constantine there erected a column a hundred feet high, and placed his statue on it; Theodosius also erected a column and an obelisk; but Justinian excelled all these, and about 543 A.D. set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of himself in bronze upon it. The column which supported this statue was of brick masonry covered with plates of bronze. From the accounts we have of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time; it was called the Augustio, and was placed on the Augusteum near the church of St. Sophia; in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in pieces, and the metal was then melted down. The artist who executed the Augustio was Eustathius of Rome, who was sent to Byzantium for this purpose.
But the Byzantine Christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of statues, and favored only the lesser works of art. Ivory-carving, which long before had been brought from the East by the Greeks, now came into special favor, and the Byzantine artists devoted all their talent to making beautiful works of this sort. The most important of these carvings which remains is in the cathedral of Ravenna. It is the episcopal chair or cathedra of Maximianus, and was made between 546 and 552 (Fig. 72).
Fig. 72.—From the Cathedra of Maximianus.
This chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory; scenes from the life of Joseph and other similar designs are represented, and these are surrounded by a great variety of small figures, which form a sort of framework around the principal parts; for example, animals and birds among vine-branches, and all arranged in a life-like and artistic manner. So large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual. The greater number of ivory carvings are upon small objects, such as drinking-cups and other vessels, book-covers and diptychs, or tablets for writing, of which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections.
Diptychs were carved ivory tablets, with the inner surface waxed for writing, and were used by the early Christians, as they had been by the ancients. The illustration given here is from the diptych of the Consul Areobrudus, and belongs to the year 506 (Fig. 73). The whole design upon it represents a contest with lions and bears; the scene is where—the circus gates being thrown open—the animals rush into the arena to be slain by the gladiators. Some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from the life of Christ and other religious themes.
About the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for church purposes. The smaller altars were covered with it, the vessels used for the Holy Sacrament were made of it, magnificent covers for church books, were carved, and as much thought seems to have been given to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to the splendid temples of the ancients. Ivory-carving extended from Byzantium into Germany and other Western countries, and along with it went the working in rich and precious metals, which had also been practised somewhat by the earlier Christians.
Fig. 73.—Diptych.
Zurich.
During the tenth century the metal works were very costly, and the different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of this sort. Altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates, which were extended down from the top of the table to the floor, forming antependiums, as they are called, in the same way that those of cloth are now used. These plates of metal were worked into designs in relief, ornamented with delicate filigree work, with paintings in enamel, and even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems. Crucifixes were also made of metals and richly adorned, as well as all the vessels and smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the church—incense-burners, candlesticks, tabernacles and reliquaries, or caskets for preserving relics. In the sacristies of many old churches and in art collections these rare, costly articles are still preserved, and are of great interest in the study of art.
Many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even grotesque, while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner. Vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins, dragons, cranes, lions, and other curious birds and beasts, while the human faces represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls. In one case the eyes of the Saviour were made of large carbuncles; you can understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the Redeemer. In truth, there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in many of these works, that we can but ridicule while we recognize the industry and care which was expended upon them. It is also difficult to understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of the world so completely, for in these mediæval days it existed nowhere on the face of the earth.
About the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold an important place in the art of Germany, and as architecture now received more attention, and bronze gates, and occasionally bronze figures of bishops and other church dignitaries, were used for the decoration of church buildings, we may say that bronze works made the medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again brought into use. At Hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the principal entrance to the cathedral, which was cast in 1015, and in various places in Germany, France, and Northern Italy works of this kind are seen which belong to the eleventh century, while a bit of stone or wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met.
The twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its uses. This century was a period of remarkable activity in every department of human life. The Crusades were then preached, and armies of zealous Christians went forth to redeem Jerusalem from the power of the Pagans; in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished; the nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had before existed; commerce was extended into new channels; men were more individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had done hitherto; and, in short, human intellect all over the Western world seemed to be awakening from a long, deep sleep, and to be inspired with strength and activity.
With all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and sculpture, which went hand in hand, and in the beginning can scarcely be separated from each other. The early Christians had been content with the decoration of interiors; now the exteriors received much attention, and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with statues and other sculptured ornaments, and the exterior decoration soon extended to many portions of the edifices. In the interiors, too, the altars, fonts, choir-screens, and other objects were made of carved stone or of stucco, which hardened like stone, and were all richly ornamented with sculpture. A completely new spirit seemed to possess the artists, who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors, and the period known as the Romanesque was thus ushered in.
Fig. 74.—From the Façade of Chartres Cathedral.
We cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the faults of the preceding eras, or were satisfactory to our artistic sense; but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which had come into the world, and give unerring promise of the progress which followed. The same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in sculpture; and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful, yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a hopeful and important change.
Germany, in its different provinces, took the lead in this artistic progress; but France was not far behind; and, indeed, in the cathedral of Chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals of the early Gothic style of architecture which followed the Romanesque. In this cathedral, too, we see for the first time an attempt to make the head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the classic head, which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had degenerated into a caricature. (Fig. 74.)
Other cathedrals at St. Denis, Le Mans, Bourges, and Paris are splendid examples of the art of this time; and when we remember how Italy took the lead of these northern countries in later days, it seems strange that at this era she was far behind them. It is even true that the first works in Northern Italy which indicated that the awakening which had come north of the Alps had reached that country were executed wholly or in part by German artists; but by the end of the twelfth century both the sculpture and bronze-casting of Italy gave promise of the great revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts.
However, it is not possible to connect the art of Italy with that of any other country in any comprehensive sense. Italian art may be said to have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than did the art of northern nations; its period of decline, too, was longer; but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength by a method of its own, and may be said to have been distinct from northern art in every respect, and divided from it by its different spirit as clearly as Italy was divided from other lands by the towering summits of the Alps.
About the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the northern nations a new era in literature. Hitherto the written language had been the monkish Latin; now the poets began to use their own tongues. This new writing may be said to have commenced with the Provençal poets, who were followed by those of Northern France; but it was in Germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national feeling had been repressed, and how, now that it had burst its bonds, it resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of Winter and rush from one point to another, brushing aside every obstacle which lies in their way. I cannot here speak in detail of these poets and their works, but Hartmann of Aue, Walther von der Vogelweid, Wolfram and Gottfried of Strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing centuries.
At the same time with this advance in letters there came, in North-eastern France, the new Gothic style of architecture, which had the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the importance it had in classic days. Now, the same artist was both architect and sculptor, and the result was that architecture was so arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture, which, in its turn, added much to the grand and full effect of architecture.
Artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference to the antique, and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited to artistic representations. The dress of a knight was as graceful as one could wish, with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one side of the neck, or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder; and the costume of the other sex, with the full folds of the lower garment fastened by the girdle, and veiling without hiding the movement of the figure, was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the classic robes of the Greeks.
The effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by the use of color. The draperies were enriched by gold ornaments, and painted in rich blue and red, while the flesh parts were delicately tinted. Colors were used with care, and often served to conceal the defects in the sculpture itself, and were thus of great advantage. Color was most frequently used in interior decoration, but it was not unknown upon exterior portals, and porches were introduced to protect this polychromy, as the painting of sculpture was called.
The subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than formerly. While the life of Christ and the Virgin still made the central and most important topic, there were added scenes from the lives of the saints, those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen. New symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and months; others represented the virtues, and even the customs and habits of the people were sometimes introduced. There were also humorous representations, even on sacred edifices. Water-pipes and gutter-spouts were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals, and even with grotesque faces; in short, the smaller details of the architecture of this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time. For example, the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf; now the flowers and leaves native to France were the models of the sculptors, and a charming variety of life-like ornament was the result.
The church of Ste. Chapelle, at Paris, completed about 1248, was the first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development. Here, for the first time, the statues were not placed in the stiff, perpendicular posture, but, by being inclined to different positions, had a light appearance and an air of movement, which was a great relief from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time.
The cathedral at Rheims, however, shows the perfection of thirteenth-century art. It is conceded to be the best example of church building of its time, and its façade the most beautiful structure of the Middle Ages. Its wealth of sculpture is wonderful; its three great portals, the buttresses, the space above the great window and various other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a forest of sculpture, and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the architecture of the edifice. It naturally follows that in this vast amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence; some of the statues are like those of an earlier date: some are too tall and awkward; others too short and rotund; but there are many elegant figures, full of grace and dignity, with the drapery falling in natural folds, and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite unknown before this time.
In one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of Christ which was not surpassed by any work of this period. The study of every portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic times or as it has been in more recent days. This statue holds an orb in the left hand, and the right hand is uplifted; not only the nails of the fingers, but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated.
It frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the statues of mediæval date. This is so noticeable that it would seem as if the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs, and that the figures were left to those of less talent. On the pediment at Rheims the Last Judgment is represented in five divisions, and these reliefs are among the most beautiful sculptures of this century. The scene of the Resurrection of the Dead is arranged in two rows of figures; a section of it is here given (Fig. 75).
There are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject, and the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions are all that could be desired in any age of art. The forms are in good proportions, and the faces are filled with fear, surprise, hope, and supplication. A volume might be written upon the sculptures of the Rheims Cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of mediæval art.
Fig. 75.—From the North Transept of Rheims Cathedral.
Critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of Phidias. The two periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from the traditions of those who had preceded them, and took up their work with a desire to come nearer to nature. They were alike, too, in the union of architecture and sculpture, and in the fact that all kinds of sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure. Colossal and full-sized statues, statuettes, reliefs, and a great variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the Christian cathedral, as they had been upon the Greek temple; and in one case as in the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to show forth religious mysteries, and to illustrate the working of the supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings.
But I must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental sculpture of the thirteenth century. While many of the tomb statues still retained a general resemblance to those of the past, there were many examples of new strength and progress. In a church near Le Mans the statue of Berengaria, the wife of Richard Cœur de Lion, who died in 1219, was made with open eyes; this gives a very life-like appearance to the face, and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue; the drapery is full and free; the feet rest upon a dog, which is the emblem of fidelity, and in the hands is a casket. There is something about this statue which appeals to us—a human element which had been sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries.
But the series of reliefs which were made for the Cathedral of St. Denis were the most important tomb sculptures of this period. They were sixteen in number, and represented princes of the early lines of French sovereigns down to the thirteenth century. Of course those of the Merovingians and Carlovingians could not be portrait statues, and the heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of Philip the Bold, who died in 1285, and his wife, Isabella of Aragon, who died in 1271, are reached. These two are intended to be portraits, and they show the individual characters of these royal personages. In all France there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these.
In Germany the Romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which went with it held their sway much longer than in France, and the new Gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of France. Slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about the middle of the thirteenth century; but it was not until the very end of this period that the Gothic style had affected German art, except in the south-western portions of the country. These provinces bordered upon France, and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations. In Strasburg, at the end of the century, a cathedral was built which was one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that could be produced. The sculptures show the effect of the new French manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude, while they are still crowded and over-decorated, as in the earlier days, and the fixed architectural frame of the German style is preserved throughout. (Fig. 76.)
Fig. 76.—From the West Façade, Strasburg Cathedral.
There is reason to believe that the relief of the Death of the Virgin, at Strasburg, was the work of Sabina von Steinbach, a daughter of the architect of the west façade of the cathedral. The grouping is fine, and the transparent drapery, which reminds us of the same effects in antique sculpture, is beautifully executed.
Fig. 77.—Duke Robert of Normandy.
In the Cathedral of Freiburg, the nave of which was completed in 1270, there are some very fine sculptures, which are like the Rheims works in spirit and execution; a figure of the Madonna is one of the best statues of the time in any country. There is much to admire in the whole of this cathedral. Here and there in Germany there are some tomb-sculptures of the thirteenth century, which are simple, noble, and individual; but the progress of art here was much less rapid than in France.
Another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was the introduction of sculpture into England. The few pieces of plastic art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient in number or excellence to merit the name of English sculpture.
The first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century, when Guillaume de Sens, a French architect, was employed to build a new choir to Canterbury Cathedral. Not long after this the Temple Church was erected; then Westminster Abbey followed, and at length, under Henry III., all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom. This king summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries, and portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the England of that day. By comparing English tomb-sculpture with that of other countries, it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble those whose memories they honored, far more than other nations had done. The illustration given here, with its air of life—almost of motion—is a good example of what I mean (Fig. 77).
The sculptures upon the English exteriors, and, indeed, upon the interiors of edifices, were far less lavish than on the Continent; but in Wells Cathedral, completed before 1250, there is a wealth of sculpture for an English church of this date, and from this time forward the plastic arts were of great importance in Great Britain.
With the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in the religious and political affairs of all Europe. The Pope no longer held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office, and the imperial power was also much shaken. We cannot speak of these subjects in detail here, but the result to art of these changes was seen in a development of individualism, and the effects of it did not show an improvement when considered as a whole, though it has some new features which were attractive.
In these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper meaning than ever before, and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life, and to art along with others.
This new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists, and they attempted new effects, so that a far greater variety was made in their works. The statue of the Madonna, for example, was so often repeated that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments, by which the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had already been expressed in the representations of the sweet Mother of Christ. But just here they failed; the new era brought more realism, more likeness to nature, more freedom to the artist to put something of himself into his work; but much of the deep thought and the devout feeling of the thirteenth century was lost, and it cannot be said that art was elevated in its tone.
There were influences, too, in the new state of society which permitted details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from suitable or devotional; sometimes they were even comic in their effects. For example, such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse, grotesque, and burlesque side-play, and the little figures which represented these powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with such serious subjects as the Last Judgment or the death scenes of eminent men. This makes us feel, when we study the fourteenth century, that the sculpture of the Middle Ages reached its highest point in the thirteenth century, and soon after began to decline.
In Germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at Nuremberg. The Church of St. Laurence, that of St. Sebald, the Frauenkirche, or the Church of Our Lady, are all great monuments to the art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works of the Nuremberg sculptors.
At the close of the century, between 1385 and 1396, Master Heinrich den Balier erected the "Beautiful Fountain," which is still the pride of the city and a splendid monument of the time. In Nuremberg many of the dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures, and it is now one of the most interesting places in all Germany to the student of ancient art.
We have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time; Augsburg, Prague, Stuttgart, Bamberg, Würzburg, Cologne, and many other German towns and cities have rich treasures of its work, but its character is everywhere much the same, and great activity, with a tendency toward decline, are its prominent features.
In Germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used for a great variety of purposes. In these smaller works the life and freshness, the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very attractive (Fig. 78).
Fig. 78.—Ivory Relief. Hunting Scene.
In France the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of art than the preceding one had been. The fact that so much had been done in the thirteenth century—so many new churches built and so many older ones remodelled—is one reason for this change. In this direction there was very little left to be done. Then, too, the country was so disturbed by wars with England that the arts of peace suffered neglect. However, there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already begun, and during the early part of this century a great deal was accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet completed, and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank and importance. Those in the Cathedral of St. Denis were much increased in number, and in all parts of France these works were multiplied.
During this century many artists from the Netherlands were employed in France; and in the city of Dijon, which was the residence of the dukes of Burgundy, the works of Flemish artists were very numerous.
Perhaps the most skilful of these masters was Claux Sluter, who was the favorite of Philip the Bold, and executed the splendid monument to that duke which is now in the Museum at Dijon. He was also the sculptor of the Moses Fountain, the decorations of the Carthusian chapel, and other works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was. Sluter had a great influence upon art, and, in fact, may be said to have established a school the effects of which endured long after his time.
In England sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century. Large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine. Tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the principal plastic works of the time. The habit of erecting monuments to the dead now extended to all classes, whereas it had formerly been confined to noble and distinguished people. The result was that the monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to mark the differences of rank, and much grand effect was thus produced; but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly, and the monuments of this age are wanting in spirit, stiff and unattractive. The costume of the time, too, was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque air to many figures, and thus added to the general appearance of decline which marked the English tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century. It compares unfavorably with the German monuments of the same period, and the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art.
As we have said, the sculpture of Italy was quite different from that of the more northern countries of Europe. One great reason for this was that individualism in art was a strong power in Italy much earlier than in more northern countries. In Germany the early sculptors of the Middle Ages did not put their names upon their works; they practised their art as a religious service, and their pious devotion made them forget themselves. Not so in Italy: there each artist wished to be known in his works, and regarded them as works of art, done for the sake of art, and not as acts of piety. One result of this difference was that the northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in them, while the Italian works had more perfection of form.
In Italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches. Painting was preferred before it, and in spite of the influence of the Gothic style, which extended south of the Alps, the Italians would not give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid Christian paintings which were their glory. They built their edifices with this end in view, and as the same person was frequently an architect, painter and sculptor, he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of the merits of each art.
So it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the church were separate objects, such as altar-pieces, fonts, pulpits, and tombs. It rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered with sculptures, as in Germany or France, and there were few richly sculptured portals of churches in Italy. The material mostly used for Italian sculpture was fine white marble, which was very rarely colored; sometimes a little gilding was used; but as a rule painting and sculpture were not united, as they had been north of the Alps.
However, the sculptors of Italy had a wider range in art than in other lands; for being less devoted to the service of the church, they were employed for more secular works. It is true that the separate statues of the Madonna were very numerous, and that tomb-sculpture was important; but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of the cities and their great men, and there were public fountains and other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the many petty powers into which the whole country was divided. The council-halls of the free cities were very fine, and gave great opportunity to Italian artists to give variety to their works, and the sculptors very early excelled in reliefs, which told historical stones with great clearness.
As early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the progress of Italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of separate artists. The first man of importance who thus claims our attention is Nicola Pisano, who was born at Pisa between 1205 and 1207, and who, according to the custom of his time, was both architect and sculptor. When he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment as architect to Frederic II., with whom he went to Naples; he served this sovereign ten years, and then went to Padua, where he was employed as the architect of the Basilica of St. Anthony.
In 1237 Nicola made his first essay in sculpture, and executed a relief representing the Deposition from the Cross, which still remains in its place over one of the side doors of the Cathedral of San Martino at Lucca. This work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist, and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other Italian sculptors who had preceded him. (Fig. 79.)
Fig. 79.—Relief by Nicola Pisano.
Lucca.
During the twelve years following this time Nicola Pisano was chiefly employed as an architect, and it was not until 1260 that he established his fame as a sculptor; but when we consider the pulpit for the Baptistery of Pisa, which he now did, it is plain that he must have given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at Lucca; and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied the sculpture of classic days. The work upon this pulpit is a wonderful advance upon the sculpture of the period; and though there are marks of his inexperience in its arrangement, as a whole it is above criticism when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its sculpture are taken into account. (Fig. 80.)
Nicola went next to Bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains of St. Dominick, who had died there in 1221. This burial-case was completed in 1267, and is very interesting as an illustration of the art of the thirteenth century. The next work of this sculptor was a pulpit for the Cathedral of Siena. When he undertook this work he agreed to live at Siena until it was completed, with the exception of short visits to Pisa—four in each year. He had assistants in this work, and it was completed in about a year and a half. Meantime he exerted a great influence upon the sculpture of Siena, which up to this time had amounted to little more than good stone-cutting. Indeed, Nicola Pisano had an effect upon the art of all Italy: in the north at Padua, in the south at Naples, and in Central Italy at Pisa, Lucca, and Siena.
Fig. 80.—Relief from the Pulpit at Pisa.
Nicola Pisano.
In 1269 he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at La Scorgola, which are now in ruins. In 1274 Nicola commenced his last work, the Fountain of Perugia. He did not remain constantly in that city, but after making the plans he left his son Giovanni in charge of the work, while he returned to Pisa and occupied himself with making the figures for its decoration. This fountain was held in such esteem that laws were enacted for its preservation, and it was called the most valuable possession of the city, while some went so far as to say that it could not be surpassed in the world. Even now, after all it has suffered from time and weather, it commands our admiration.
In 1278 Nicola died, after a life of great achievements. He left an untarnished name, too, for he had been loved and respected by all his associates, and as patron, friend, and servant had done all his duty. Mr. Perkins, in his "Tuscan Sculptors," says of him: "Inestimable were the services rendered to art by this great man. He gave the death-blow to Byzantinism and barbarism; established new architectural principles; founded a new school of sculpture in Italy, and opened men's eyes to the degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study; so that Cimabue, Guido da Siena, the Masuccios and the Cosmati all profited by his pervading and enduring influence. Never hurried by an ill-regulated imagination into extravagances, he was careful in selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation; an indefatigable worker, who spared neither time nor strength in obedience to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula; now in Pisa, then in Naples, Padua, Siena, Lucca, or Florence; here to design a church, there to model a bas-relief, erect a pulpit, a palace or a tower; by turns architect and sculptor, great in both, original in both, a reviver in both, laying deep and well the foundations of his edifices by hitherto unpractised methods, and sculpturing his bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models long unheeded. Ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all classes with whom he came in contact, he was truly a great man—one to whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude, and who looms up in gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries, holding the same relation to Italian art which Dante holds to Italian literature."
Fra Guglielmo d'Agnello (1238-1314?), also a Pisan, was a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and worked with him at Bologna. There is little to be said of his works after his master's death.
Giovanni Pisano (about 1240-1320) was born at Pisa, and though a pupil of his father and a co-worker with him, he seems to have fallen under some other and a very different influence. In architecture he preferred the Gothic style, and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic action and expression; his works were full of exaggeration. He was an architect as well as sculptor, and was a master in his own right when twenty years old, and in 1268 he went to Naples to design a church for the Franciscans; he was also the architect of the episcopal palace there.
After the death of his father the Pisans were anxious to retain Giovanni in their service; he first transformed an old church into a new one in the pointed style of architecture. It was named Santa Maria della Spina, because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown of Christ to it. This was the first building in Italy of this style of architecture. Giovanni next built the Campo Santo of Pisa. Many shiploads of earth had been brought from Palestine to Pisa in order to make a burial-place in which Christians could be laid in the sacred earth. Giovanni Pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it could be extensively decorated with works of art. He made it the most beautiful Campo Santo in Italy. Many of the sculptures are by his own hand. (Fig. 81.)
This allegorical representation of Pisa was the first attempt at making large statues in Italy since the days of the Emperor Constantine. The city stands alone, and is a proud princess with a diadem, holding in her arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness. Below her are four statues of the cardinal virtues, Temperance being a nude figure. It is a very strange work, and in some respects not attractive, but it shows the originality of the sculptor; the principal figure has much intensity of expression.
From this monument and his other works in Pisa, Giovanni became famous, and was called to Siena to build the front of the cathedral. The people of Siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there, by freeing him from taxes for life; but after three years he went to Perugia, where he erected a monument which has been destroyed. After this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture, and executed a variety of works at Arezzo, Pistoja, Florence, Perugia, and Cortona. In 1312 he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at Prato.
Fig. 81.—Campo Santo of Pisa.
Giovanni Pisano.
We have not the space to speak of his works in detail. The Campo Santo has more of interest than the others, and is Romanesque in its character; and yet it is true that he employed Gothic forms far more than any other. Some authors credit Giovanni with having introduced an independent art into Italy; but let that be as it may, he had not the feeling for beauty, neither had he the repose which was such a charm in the works of his father. At the same time his works are full of life and dramatic action, and could never have been designed or executed by any man who had not an uncommon genius.
Arnolfo di Cambio (1232-1310) was also a pupil of Nicola Pisano, and though eight years older than Giovanni Pisano he did not become an independent master until after Giovanni had won much fame. There are some works in Rome which are attributed to Arnolfo, but as there are uncertainties about his being their author, it is not best for us to discuss them here. He erected at Orvieto, in the church of San Domenico, a monument to the Cardinal de Braye. It was a very elaborate work, and the statue of the Madonna, which is placed above that of the cardinal, is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose. This is the only well-authenticated sculptural work by Arnolfo, but this is one of the most finished monuments of the art of the Pisan school, and is quite sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor.
Andrea Pisano (1270-1345) is principally famous as a bronze-caster, and his chief work was the making of the gates to the Baptistery of Florence, which have since been replaced by those of Ghiberti. When these gates were finished, in 1339, the Signory went in procession to view them; this proves in what esteem they must have been held, for the Signory never left the Palazzo Vecchio in a body except on the most important occasions. After examining the gates they conferred the honor of citizenship upon the sculptor. These gates told the story of John the Baptist, and the work is full of sentiment, beauty, and simplicity, while the design is pure, the draperies full of elegant grace, and the execution of the whole almost perfect.
Nino Pisano was the son of the latter. The time of his birth is not known; he died before 1361. His works are pleasing, and he especially excelled in drapery. They are not numerous, and are seen in the churches of Pisa.
But by far the most important pupil of Andrea Pisano, and, indeed, the most important Tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century, was Andrea Arcagnuolo di Cione, commonly called Andrea Orcagna (1329-1376?). This artist was the son of Maestro Cione, a goldsmith of Florence. Orcagna was an architect, goldsmith, sculptor, painter, mosaist, and poet. Painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he executed the greatest number of interesting works. In this place we shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor, which was the tabernacle in the church of Or San Michele, in Florence, made to hold the picture of the Madonna painted by Ugolino da Siena. This tabernacle is of white marble in the Gothic style. It rises from the centre high up toward the roof of the church, and has sculptures in bas-relief, statuettes and busts, all illustrating the life of the Virgin from her birth to her death. It is also enriched with mosaics, intaglios, enamels, gilded glass, pietra dura, and all of these arranged in a whole which is quite unique in art. It may be regarded as a piece of architecture or as a sculptural work, and it is full of symbolism; and whatever view is taken of it, it commands admiration for the artist who conceived and executed so difficult a task.
During the later years of the fourteenth century there were many sculptors in Italy of whom we know very little more than their names. They did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country, much of which is still to be seen. One of these, of whom few personal facts are known, exerted a large influence in Florence, where the fruits of his industry were almost marvellous. He was called Pietro di Giovanni and Pietro Tedesco, or "the German". The time and place of his birth are not known, but the records show that he worked on the Cathedral of Florence from 1386 to 1399. He worked in true German style; wherever scroll-work and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used. He also made fantastic little human beings, dwarfs and grotesque beings of different sorts, and exhausted the animal world in his designs. Lions, bears, apes, dogs, lizards, crabs, birds and fish, bees, butterflies, and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches, while angels play on pipes and violas. The whole effect of these works is cheerful and natural, and would be as suitable to decorate a music hall or a theatre as they are for a church.
The works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be taken as a fair example of the Italian sculpture of this time, but Niccolò of Arrezzo, the Massegne, and the Bon or Buoni family, and many others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the stiff, formal manner of the past, and to bring in the more sympathetic and natural one of the fifteenth century. In truth, the last decades of the fourteenth century were a transition period, when art was bursting its bonds, and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days of sculpture in Italy.
