Champagne and Brie.
I may speak of the fairs of these provinces collectively. They were not only amongst the most celebrated of France or of Europe, but possess the charm of great antiquity. They are believed to have been founded by the earls of those provinces. Sidonius Apollinaris alludes to them, in the fifth century. They were held in seventeen of the chief cities—some of which had as many as six yearly, others four, none less than two.
I have already given (in the first chapter in this book) some account of the commercial importance of these fairs in Europe, and need not re-traverse that ground. They have a great interest from an English point of view for reasons which will presently appear.
These districts were not indeed provinces of France at the early date above named. They only became so in 1284, and so far from their fairs gaining any additional lustre by the annexation, the very reverse appears to have been the fact. The domination of the crown of France spread awe instead of confidence into the minds of their wealthy traders!
The truth I suspect to be that charges and restrictions previously unknown were imposed. This view indeed finds direct support in the fact that in 1349 Philip de Valois granted letters patent confirming ancient franchises, and suppressing the new impositions. By means of this document we learn precisely what the ancient privileges were. The patent consisted of thirty-six articles, but the more material may be grouped under five heads, viz.:
1. The Franchises.—All foreign dealers their factors and agents to have free liberty under the Royal protection, to resort to these fairs with their goods, provided however that these same goods were designed to be sold or exchanged there; or failing this were to be removed within the appointed time for the duration of the fair. They were exempted from all dues, impositions, &c., according to the good and ancient usages, customs, and liberties of the said fairs. No favours or letters of respite might be granted against the said dealers, or the customs and liberties of the said fairs—all such, if obtained, being null. No dealers resorting to or returning from, should be stopped or molested, without special warrant from the wardens of the conservation, and for obligations made truly and really in the fair.
2. Wardens of the Privileges.—These were judges appointed during the fair, to see that the franchises were preserved, and to take cognizance of contests that might arise between traders there. Every fair was to have two wardens, one chancellor to keep the seal, two lieutenants, forty notaries, and 100 serjeants. The wardens and chancellors were sworn in the Chamber of Accounts, Paris, where they were yearly to make their report of the state of the fairs. No judgment might be given during the fair but by the two wardens, or when one was unavoidably absent, by one warden and the chancellor.
3. How goods were to be brought within the franchise.—The drapers and traders of the seventeen cities of Champagne and Brie frequenting the fairs—that is to say those of the cities in which one of these seventeen fairs was held—might not sell their cloths or other stuffs, wholesale or retail, within or without the kingdom, unless first sent to one of the fairs and exposed for sale from the first day appointed for the sale of cloth until the sixth following, on pain of forfeiture; they being, however, at liberty to dispose of them as they pleased, if not sold in that time.
Farmers, curriers, &c., must bring their leather to the fair, and expose it all together from the first of the three days, without reserving any for the last days, or selling in any other place than that designed for the sale of leather.
Horse-dealers, both subjects and foreigners, must have their stables in the said fairs from the third day of the cloths (i.e. fixed for the sale of cloth) until the fair ended.
In like manner all other wares brought into the fair were to remain on sale, some for six days, others for three days only, according to their nature and quality.
4. Inspections.—These were of two kinds, one by the wardens conservators, and the other by examiners chosen out of the trading companies frequenting the fair. The wardens’ inspection was at the opening of every fair, to see that the dealers had all suitable convenience and security—the inspectors being properly qualified judges of the character of the goods brought, with authority to stop and seize all that were of inferior quality; but this not without appeal to six, five, or four persons experienced in the particular trade.
5. Payments, Bonds, and Exchanges.—All tradesmen, alike French and foreigners, might agree in their contracts for payment of goods sold in the fair—to be paid in gold and silver current at the time of making the contract, notwithstanding any ordinance concerning money to the contrary. Interest for loans, and goods sold on credit at fairs, might not exceed fifteen per cent. The interest might not be added to the principal in renewing bonds made at fairs. Nor might bonds made at any other time run in the style of those used at fairs, as if made there.
All letters, acts, contracts, &c., relating to fairs, to be null unless under the authenticated seal of the fairs. None unless he had actual residence in fairs might use the seal or other obligations, or enjoy the privileges thereof.
The re-establishment of these privileges—many of which were obviously made in the interest of merchants attending to buy—had the effect of restoring the fairs of these provinces to their former greatness. Again multitudes of traders came from Germany, Italy (particularly from Florence), Lucca, Venice, and Genoa, with gold, silver, and silk stuffs, spices and other goods of their country, or of the Levant, taking in exchange cloths, leather and other commodities, not only the produce of the provinces, but brought from other parts of France.
I speak of the fair of Troyes separately hereafter, on account of one of its distinguishing features.
Mr. Morley has pointed out that before the establishment of free fairs in France, the rights of salutaticum, pontaticum, repaticum, and portulaticum, absorbed one half of a foreign merchant’s goods upon their first arrival and debarkation. Afterwards traders came exempt not only from imperial taxation, but from many of the ordinary risks of travel.
One great element of interest in these fairs centres in the circumstance of the following correspondence between the Wardens of the fair and the Lord Mayor of London concerning dealings in these fairs in the thirteenth century. They have been carefully preserved amongst the records of the City for six centuries—and now for the first time gain the glory of printer’s ink. They reveal a feature in the comity of nations; and present a proof of the cosmopolitan interests of commerce which can scarcely be excelled. Hence I propose to give them entire:
1. Letter directed to the Mayor by the Keepers of the Fairs of Champagne and Brie, dated September 1299.
To the venerable man, the provident, wise and discreet Warden of London, or to his vicegerent, Peter de Fremeville, knight, and Robert de Champagne (de Campaniis), keepers of the fairs of Champagne and Brie for our most illustrious Lord the King of the French, increase of all good with greeting and sincere affection. Whereas heretofore, by our letters patent sealed with the seal of the fairs of Champagne, we have entreated you to compel, or cause to be compelled, the burgess Fauberti, a citizen of Florence and horse-dealer (mercatorem equorum), together with Guido Fauberti, Nutus (or Nuto) Fauberti, brothers of the said burgess, Master Gerald de Galaiòn physician, [and] James son of the said Nutus, associates of the said burgess, by the sale of their goods and the seizure of their bodies, sending them back to us, to yield and pay to Pucheus de Pré (de Prato), formerly horse-dealer in the said fairs, Martin de Burgo novo, brother of John de Burgo now deceased formerly horse-dealer, and John de Burgo novo, nephew of the said John deceased and of Martin aforesaid, or to the bearer of our said letters for them, one thousand six hundred petits livres Tournois with sufficient damages and expenses; and to satisfy us concerning the said King’s amends for default of the fairs. In which sum of money they are held effectually bounden, and every of them in the whole, for the body of the fairs of Bani (Bari) super Albam from the year of Our Lord 1292, as well by reason and because of certain pledges made and committed in and upon the body of the said fairs, as by reason and because of the restitution of more sureties and more costs and damages, which by default of the said burgess and his associates before mentioned in and upon the body of the said fairs they had and were said to have incurred: as in certain open letters of definitive sentence sealed with the seal of the said fairs is said to be contained. Upon which things Tolnetus [elsewhere Nicholas] called Concesse, our sworn servant in the said fairs, by word of mouth related to us that he in the year of Our Lord 1293 presented to you our aforesaid letters (as he says), which deprecatory letters of ours directed to you if forsooth you received, yet you willed not to demand due execution of the same, or to write back any answer to us, although at the end it was duly contained that what you should do therein, you would will and deign by your letters to write back, and although in presence of many trustworthy persons you were so requested by our said servant; on the ground that war was begun and raised between the most excellent princes, the King of France and King of England: as our said sworn servant on oath has related all these things to be true, whereat we most greatly marvel, if it is so and we hold ourselves not contemned, since this is to the no mean damage and grievance of the said creditors, and prejudice and contempt of the government of the said fairs committed unto us, because on account of the war aforesaid you were by no means bound to keep back our said letters deprecatory demanding due execution. Wherefore as much as we can with diligence on behalf of our most excellent lord, John by the grace of God, King of France and Navarre, Lord of Champagne and Brie, and on our part, by the tenor of these presents, we move your providence to be entreated, that you do cause all the goods of the aforesaid burgess Fauberti and his associates before named and of the said company to be solemnly proclaimed for sale, and to be sold and divided without delay to the uses and customs of fairs, or so much of them that out of the price of the sale the said creditors (or, for them, the bearer of these presents) as to the aforesaid sum of money with sufficient damages and expenses, and we, as to the amends of our said lord the King, be wholly satisfied; and that the body of the said burgess Fauberti together with the bodies of his associates aforenamed—if they can be found in your jurisdiction, and if the sale of goods does not suffice for the premises—you do send back to us to the fairs in sure and faithful custody to pay among them the charges of the creditors, and to clear themselves before us in this matter as to the uses and customs beforesaid. If, however, you wish to put forward any thing contrary to the report of our said servant, and believe your own interests to be concerned, be present in person before us, or, for yourself, send at a fitting day which the bearer of these presents shall cause to be named to you, to say what shall seem to you expedient. Otherwise, we shall then hold the said report to be fast and firm, you doing thereupon, on account of the reverence and honour due to our aforesaid lord the King and the intervention of our prayers, because we are bounden to you and yours in all manner of favours deserved, such and so much as you would wish us to do for you in the like or a greater case. What you shall do herein, have a care to signify to us by the bearer of these presents in your letters patent together with the present letters demanding execution sent back, notwithstanding that they shall not be presented to you by the servant of the fairs. Given in the year of Our Lord one thousand two hundred and ninety-nine in the month of September.
J. de sancto Nabore.
2. Letter sent to the Keepers of the Fairs of Champagne and Brie, dated March 19, 1299-1300.
To the noble men and discreet lords Peter de Fremeville knight and Robert de Champagne keepers of the fairs of Champagne and Brie for the lord the King of France, Elias Russel, Mayor, and the Citizens of London, Greeting and continual increase of sincere affection. Whereas you lately wrote unto us that we should compel the burgess Fauberti &c. [named as before] as well by sale of their goods as by seizure of their bodies and also sending them to you, to render to Pucheus de Pré formerly horse-dealer, Martin de Burgo novo and other creditors in your letters comprised, or to the bearer of your said letters, 1,600 petit livres Tournois together with damages and expenses, and also the amends of the Lord the King for default of fairs; in which sum of money the aforesaid dealers (mercatores), and every of them in the whole, are bound by their letters made in the fairs of Bari super Albam, by reason of divers contracts between them before had from the year of Our Lord 1292, as in your letters thereupon to us directed more fully is contained: We willing, so far as the laws and customs of England permit, by mutual interchange to comply with your prayers, have caused to come before us, in the presence of John de Flekers your servant and bearer of the presents, the aforesaid burgess and Nutus, dealers, to answer to your said servant concerning the said debt according to the form of your letters, which said dealers asserted that they are quit of all the aforesaid, because of them all they sufficiently satisfied the said creditors, and therein proffered a letter of Gencian de Paris, baker (panetarii) of the King of France, and Robert de Champagne, keepers of the fairs of Champagne and Brie sealed with the seal of the fairs of Champagne, in which it is contained that the said burgess, for himself, his brothers, and associates, in the fairs of Bari super Albam in the year of Our Lord 1293, appeared in person before the said keepers, and spoke with the said Pucheus and compounded with him under such form that the said Pucheus held himself as paid by the said burgess, his brothers and associates abovesaid, by reason of the said composition, as the said Pucheus before the said keepers acknowledged and wholly assented to the said composition for himself and his associates. And because by the letters aforesaid it appeared that the said burgess and his associates by the said composition are totally quit of the debt aforesaid, we could not by your mandate lawfully compel them to pay the said money. Given at London on Saturday next before Mid-Lent in the year of Our Lord 1299.
3. Second letter [of the Keepers] of the Fairs of Champagne and Brie for the burgess Fuberti to the Lord Mayor, dated May 1300.
To the provident men, the venerable and honorable Mayor and Citizens of London, or their vicegerents, or one of them, Peter de Fremville, knight, and Robert de Champagne, keepers of the fairs of Champagne and Brie, continual increase of sincere affection with greeting. Whereas we, by our letters patent sealed with the seal of the said fairs, have many times (pluries) prayed and requested you to compel and cause to be compelled the burgess Fouberti, citizen of Florence and horse-dealer by seizure of his body and goods, and also by the sale of the goods of Guido Fouberti &c. [as before], to satisfy Pucheus de Pré formerly in the said fairs horse-dealer, Martin &c. [as before], on and of the sum (that is to say) of 1060 [for 1600] petits livres Tournois with moderate damages and costs, in which sum of money the said burgess Fouberti together with his associates aforesaid is held bound to the beforenamed Pucheus, Martin and John, as debtor, concerning the body of the past fairs of Barri super Albam in the year of Our Lord 1293, as well by reason and because of certain pledges made and committed in and upon the body of the abovesaid fairs, as by reason and because of the restitution of more sureties and more costs and damages which by default of the said burgess and his associates beforementioned in and upon the body of the said fairs they had and were said to have incurred, as in certain letters of definitive sentence sealed with the seal of the fairs of Champagne is said to be contained: upon which, first, you would make no answer to us, or for our said letters deprecatory demand any execution, as Nicholas called Concesse our sworn servant, bearer of our said letters (as he said), reported to us on oath by word of mouth; but upon the tenor of our second letters which you caused to be detained with you—as John de Flichers our sworn servant, bearer of the same (as he says) related to us with his own mouth—upon these things with certain closed letters you wrote back, that you caused to come before you in presence of the said John de Flichers the aforesaid burgess and Nutus, dealers, according to the form of our letters to answer to our said servant concerning the said debt. Which said dealers asserted they were quit of all the abovesaid, because of all these they duly satisfied the said creditors &c. [reciting what was said in the last]. By the course of these presents we thus hereupon notify to you that the said sum of money has not yet been in any way satisfied, as Dignus de Pré, son and heir (as it is said) of Pucheus deceased, has given us to understand. And assuredly, moreover, as soon as the said burgess on account of the things aforesaid appeared before you, and alleged the things contained in your answer, you ought to have taken into your hand his goods and those of his said associates, and to have fixed a certain and fit day for him before you, as in our letters abovesaid was contained; for the cognizance of what relates to fairs belongs to no judge, but to us only by reason of the government of fairs committed unto us. Wherefore, on the part of our lord the King of France and on our own part, we again ask your providences to cause without delay so much of the goods of the said burgess and his associates aforesaid to be taken, sold, and divided to the uses and customs of fairs that the aforesaid Dignus de Pré may be fully satisfied of the whole sum of money aforesaid with damages and expenses, and we, of the amends; and the body of the said burgess, is the sale shall not suffice for the costs of the said complainant, left on account of your default it behove us to inhibit the land and fairs of Champagne and Brie to all your subjects and their goods. What you shall do herein, have a care to signify to us in your letters patent by the bearer of these presents, sending back the present letters together with our other letters aforesaid detained with you, as has been said. Given in the year of Our Lord 1300 in the month of May. J. de Sancto Nabore.
I have placed a passage in italics, as indicating the fact that the merchants of London attended these fairs.
4. Letter from the Lord Mayor of London in answer directed to the Keepers of the Fairs of Champagne [and Brie] dated 20 Aug. 1300.
To the discreet and honourable men, if it please their most dear friends, the lords Peter de Fremville, knight, and Robert de Champagne, Wardens of the fairs of Champagne and Brie for the illustrious King of France, Elias Russel, Mayor of London, and the Citizens of the same City, Greeting and continual increase of sincere affection with health. Whereas heretofore you wrote to us that we should compel the burgess Fuberti, Citizen of Florence, horse-dealer &c. [naming the others as before], as well by sale of their goods as by the seizing of their bodies and sending them to you, to render to Pucheus de Pré, formerly horse-dealer, Martin de Burgo novo, and other creditors in your said letters comprised, or to the bearer of the said letters, 1600 petits livres Tournois together with damages and expenses, and also amends of the Lord the King for default of the fairs; in which sum of money the said burgess and his associates, by their letters made in your fairs beforesaid, are bound by reasons of divers contracts between them had belonging to the year of Our Lord 1293; as in your letters thereupon to us directed more fully is contained: We, as much as in us lies, and as the customs and rights of the Realm of England permit us to do, willing to comply altogether with your prayers and requests, have made to come before us, in the presence of your servant the bearer of the presents, the said burgess and Nutus whom we found in our jurisdiction. Nevertheless we sequestered their goods in the presence of your servant putting upon them concerning the said debt, as is contained in your letters aforesaid. And your letters being heard and understood, the said traders (mercatores) asserted that they are not bound of right to answer to your said letters, because in your letters secondly to us directed (as you assert) it was contained that the said burgess and his associates before you in your fairs in the year of Our Lord 1292 bound themselves, upon which obligation they proffered a certain letter of satisfaction of the said debt, sealed with the seal of the fairs of Champagne and Brie. In which said letter it was contained that the said burgess before you compounded with the said Pucheus, to which composition he the said Pucheus assented; and in these your letters now to us directed it is contained that the said burgess and his associates in the year of Our Lord 1293 bound themselves before you in your fairs: at which writing we marvel. Moreover, at the time in which your said letters were directed unto us, our lord the illustrious King of England was in his war of Scotland with whom at present we have not been able to consult, nor are the said burgess and his associates of the liberty of our City of London: on which account, without the special mandate of our Lord the King of England we dared not move a hand toward the seizing of their bodies, or send the said burgess and others out of the Realm of England. Therefore we request and earnestly entreat your lordships that at present in this charge you will hold us excused from the actions abovesaid, and deign to write to our Lord the illustrious King of England upon the aforesaid debts and requests; and those things which shall be commanded us for the advantage of the said creditors, and for your good pleasure, we will dispatch without delay, and to the utmost of our power. Farewell in Him who is the salvation of all men. Given at London on Saturday next after the feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the year of Our Lord 1300.
CHAPTER XX.
OTHER FAIRS OF FRANCE.
I have now to notice some of the other great fairs of France. And here it has to be remarked that while the later sovereigns—certainly down to Louis XV.—adopted the regulations already reviewed, for their model in the government of fairs, yet that there were some necessary deviations, according as time, place, and other circumstances demanded. The chief of these deviations will be noted in the following summary, wherein I review the provincial fairs first, and afterwards those in and around Paris.
Postlethwayt, in his “Dictionary of Trade,” from which some of the preceding and following details are drawn, remarks, not with entire clearness: “Though it be not essential to these meetings of traders to have comedians, rope-dancers, and the like, yet there are few considerable ones without enough of them; and, perhaps, is what greatly contributes to the trade of them—the nobility and country gentry greatly flocking to them, more for their diversion than what they buy there, which might be had, perhaps, better and cheaper at home. It is well known how the nobility of Languedoc flock to the fair of Beaucaire, and those of Normandy to that of Guibray; but it is nothing in comparison to the assembly of German princes and nobles at the three fairs of Leipzic, and the two of Frankfort-on-the-Main.” He was writing in the first half of the last century. Things are now much changed.
Beaucaire (in Languedoc).—An important town, whose manufactures consist of silks, red wines, taffetas, olive oil, and pottery. But its trade is chiefly due to its great fair, held annually between 1st and 28th July, the site extending from the Rhône to the base of the Castle Rock. This fair was established in 1217 by Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, and was for many ages attended by merchants and manufacturers from all countries in Europe, and even from Persia and Armenia. Arthur Young visited it in 1788, and records (“Travels in France”) that the business transacted at it reached 10 million livres—£439,000. So late as 1833 it drew together 60,000 persons, and the amount of its transactions were stated to be 150 millions of francs—£6,000,000! This would appear to be an over-estimate.
I believe the fair now only lasts one week, namely from 22nd to 28th July inclusive. It is a rule that all bills must be presented on the 27th, and protested if necessary on 28th—last day of the fair. The trade in linen and cloth is very large.
Besançon.—This ancient city, a great centre of warfare and of trade from the days of the Cæsars, had once a fair of great celebrity. At a later period it was chiefly notable for carrying on the business of exchange. This business had been perfected at the fairs of Lyons, from whence it passed here. On the first day of the fair the merchants of a certain standing announced the terms on which they were willing to exchange with different countries, and on the second day an authoritative declaration was made of the fair terms of exchange with any foreign country. For this purpose, with the constant fluctuations in all actual coinage, it was necessary to have a unit which should be common to all lands, and free from the possibility of depreciation. Hence everything was reckoned by means of an imaginary unit—scutus marcharum, or money of account: so that the form which the business took was not that of buying bills, but of exchanging these fictitious coins, made realizable in one town, for quantities of actual coinage of another country, according to the authoritatively declared rate, which took account of the difficulty of transport, and of various risks. A scutus marcharum was worth in Genoa 67⅓ soldi of the actual coinage of the place. The question to be settled was what, at this time, shall be paid in Piacenza for a scutus marcharum in Genoa? This was the fair rate of exchange, and the announcement of it was intended to exclude the operations of private speculators (in which it was not entirely successful), and to secure a division of the advantage among each of the parties transacting business. Vide Cunningham’s “English Industry and Commerce,” 1882, p. 278.
Bordeaux.—This city has or had two fairs annually—one commencing on the 1st March, the other on the 15th October; they each continued fifteen days. The October fair was generally the more considerable.
The chief commodities disposed of were wines and brandies, and it was no unusual sight to see several hundreds of vessels beyond the usual average number in the port, some of these being of unusually large tonnage.
The fairs had the same privileges with those of Champagne, Lyons, Paris, and Poictou. The consular judges performed the office of conservators, with the same jurisdiction as those of Lyons.
Caen (Normandy).—This free fair was once very famous. It begins the day after Low Sunday, and lasts fifteen days, of which the first eight were designated the “great week,” the other portion the lesser, because formerly the franchises lasted only the first eight; and because the concourse of strangers was much greater during the early week of the fair.
The merchants dealt in merchandise of all kind, but woollen manufactures were the great speciality. The shops in which the dealers expose their goods here are designated “Lodges.” A considerable number of horses and of cattle were brought to it from the provinces of Normandy. This fair was regarded as next in importance to that of Guibray.
It seems that in 1433 there was an attempt to despoil this fair, by an attack of 700 horsemen, of which I find the following brief record:—“Whereupon they sent the Lord Ambrose de Lore, with vii. c. horsemen, to robbe and spoyle the poore people, commynge to the faier, on the daye of Sainct Michaell the Archangell, kepte in the Suberbes of the toune of Caen.”—Hall, Hen. VI. ann. ii.
During the year several smaller and ordinary fairs are held for the sale of horses, cattle, butter, and poultry.
Dieppe.—This is a free fair of comparatively modern date, said to be the last authorized in France, having been founded by letters patent in 1696. It was first opened on 1st December that year. It continues for fifteen days. All foreigners are at liberty freely to trade here, and goods declared to be for the fair are not liable to seizure while the fair lasts; nor were they liable to inspection by the wardens—a relaxation of practice apparently not quite in the interest of the buyers.
Its franchises and privileges are, that all goods brought into the port of Dieppe during the fair, and there sold or bartered, are exempt from one moiety of duties inwards and outwards. And merchandise imported and not sold during the fair may be carried out free of customs.
Guibray (Lower Normandy).—A fair of very considerable importance, lasting from 10th to 25th August, was held here. Arthur Young, of agricultural fame, describes in his “Travels in France” (1788), a visit to it on 22nd August, and records as follows: “At this fair of Guibray merchandise is sold, they say, to the amount of six millions (£260,500) ... I found the quantity of English goods considerable, hard and queen’s ware; cloth and cottons. A doz. of common plain knives, 3 livres; and 4 livres for a French imitation, but much worse.” It was a feature of this fair that the resident gentry for long distances around came here to make their purchases.
Lyons.—It has been supposed that the ancient fairs of this city were founded on a special privilege granted by the Roman conquerors. They are four in number—the first is that of the Epiphany, which always begins in January, the Monday after the twelfth day; the second is Easter fair, beginning on St. Nisier’s day in April; the third in August, which begins on St. Dominick’s day in that month; and the fourth is the fair of All Saints, beginning on St. Hubert’s day, in November. The situation of this city, at the confluence of the Saône and the Rhône, render it unrivalled for the facilities of water carriage through some of the richest parts of France.
These fairs were of the highest mercantile repute, and at a very early period bills of exchange were brought into requisition in the adjustment of the accounts for merchandise purchased there. It seems also that bills resulting from commercial dealings in many other parts of Europe were made payable at the Lyons fairs.
Fixed days for payment followed each fair. The ceremonies attending these days were as follows: The chief magistrate came to the lodge of the Exchange, accompanied by his registrar and six syndics, viz., two French, two Italian, and two Swiss or Germans; and there, after a short discourse to the assistants, recommending probity in trade, and observance of the laws, customs, and usages of the place, the laws, customs, and usages were read in extenso; and the clerk drew up a process verbal of the opening of the “payment.” The next day they met at the City-hall, and by plurality of voices settle the course of exchange for all cities with which Lyons had any commercial correspondence. This custom prevailed for some centuries; and even when the strict regulations here described were frequently departed from, the regulations were capable of being enforced on appeal.
When bills were drawn to be paid at one of these appointed times at Lyons, which had not then begun, the drawer said “pay this my first of Exchange, &c., in the next Epiphany (or other) payment;” but if the payment had already begun, the bill had to be drawn payable “in this current or present payment of Epiphany” (or other term). The bills so drawn were to be accepted in the first six days of the payment they were made payable in; and the person on whom they were drawn was not obliged to declare whether he would or not accept until the sixth day. But after that day the bearer might protest them for non-acceptance, though he might detain them during the whole time of that “payment,” to see whether any one offered to discharge them. The protest, however, was immediately forwarded to the remitters; and if any one paid a bill in the time of the payment before the sixth day (or that being a feast day, the day following) it was at his own risk.
The bearers of bills not satisfied by the last day of any “payment” were to protest them on the third day after the payment finished, otherwise they lost their right as against the drawers; but if this were done in form, and in the time prescribed, the holder might afterwards refuse payment from any one that offered it, and take his reimbursement upon the drawer, alike for principal and charges. And the said holders of bills were obliged to take their reimbursement on the drawers or indorsers in a time limited, viz., for all bills drawn from any part of France, in two months; those which were from Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, Flanders, and England, in three months; and those which were drawn from Spain, Portugal, Poland, Sweden, and Denmark, in six months, to be counted from the date of the protest; or in default thereof they lost their rights against the drawers and indorsers. See Besançon.
The general reader must pardon these details, which are of commercial significance. It was customary at an early period to make the bills drawn from Amsterdam and elsewhere on the “payment” of Lyons, in “golden crowns of the sun;” but when this specie became decried in France, the usage of exchange came to be to draw for the payment of Lyons (as was practised in France generally), viz., in crowns of sixty sous, equal to the present English half-crown. These practices may be compared with the usages of Nuremburg, Frankfort, and Leipzig fairs.
The franchises of the fairs of Lyons in the early half of the last century had this special feature: that all goods intended for foreign countries, sent out of this city during the fifteen days of either fair, paid no customs outwards, provided the bales and parcels were marked with the city arms, and had certificates of franchise properly made out. To enjoy this privilege the merchandise had to be sent out of the kingdom before the first day of the following fair, unless special permission for delay had been obtained.
There is reason to believe that a considerable trade in books was transacted at these fairs during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
These fairs have a great history, which cannot be followed up here, and there is the less need to make the attempt because the inquiry is already in competent hands, those of Mr. Chancellor Christie, of Darley House, Matlock. The authorities which may be consulted are the following:—
1. “Ordonnances et priviléges des Foires de Lyon, et leur antiquité avec celle de Brie et Champagne et la confirmation d’ialles par sept roys de France.” Printed at Lyons in 1560, and subsequently.
2. “Cat. de la Bib. Lyonnaise a M. Costa redige par Aime Vingtrisme.” (Lyon, Brun, 1853.) Pp. 458-61. Nos. 10,353-10,415.
3. A Memoir addressed to Charles VIII. in 1485, and presented by M. Pericaud ainé in his privately printed “Notes et documents pour servir a l’histoire de Lyon, 1483-1546” (Lyons, 1840).
4. In the “Proces de Bandiction de la Maison Neuve Accusé d’heresia à Lyon 1534,” printed by Fick, Geneva, in 1873.
Montrichard (in Touraine).—This fair was famous for the great concourse of traders to it from all the provinces of the kingdom; but particularly for the great trade in woollen stuffs, amounting on an average to some 12,000 pieces at each fair.
Rheims.—This city had formerly four fairs; it has now two only, May and October—the great fair on St. Remigius’ day. These were all free fairs, two of the original fairs lasting eight days, the others but three days. Their franchises were mainly the same as those of Champagne. A very large commerce was in early times transacted at these.
Rouen.—This ancient trading city had two fairs; the one called Candlemas fair, beginning on the 3rd February, and the other called Pentecost fair, opening the day after the festival. They each continued fifteen days, and were much frequented by foreigners, particularly the Dutch, British (English and Scotch), and those of other northern nations; its advantageous position for trade, by reason of facilities of water carriage, offering great inducements to the concourse of foreign traders.
Goods sold and exchanged at these fairs, and carried out of the city during the fifteen days, paid but half dues outwards.
Toulon.—This town—the Plymouth of France—has a fair, not designated “free,” which commences on 3rd November, and continues “fifteen working days.” Its franchises, granted in 1708, were that no goods while it lasts are subject to any duties; and all traders, alike French and foreigners, enjoy the franchises and liberties granted to the fairs of Lyons, Brie, Champagne, Rouen, and other cities. These underwent some modifications in the following year, at the instance of the farmers-general of the revenues of France.
Troyes.—This town (one of the cities in Champagne) was noted in the middle ages for its great fairs, of which there were two—one being fixed to the Monday after the Second Sunday in Lent; the other commencing on 1st September. Philip of Valois granted the privileges of these fairs.
A lasting record of the importance of the dealings thereat is handed down to us in the form of “Troy (Troyes) weight,” used in connection with dealings in the precious metals. It is said that this system of weights was brought from Cairo by the crusaders, and was first and permanently adopted as the standard of weight in the dealings of the fairs of Troyes. Hence it may be inferred that the trading was largely in the precious metals, in spices, and in drugs.[9]
Goods sold at these fairs were exempted from all customs outwards, local dues excepted, under certain restrictions.
It is recorded especially of these fairs, that they had a staff of notaries for the attestation of bargains, courts of justice, police officers, sergeants for the execution of the market judges’ decrees, and visitors—the prud’hommes—whose duty it was to examine the quality of goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate those found unfit for consumption. The confiscation required the consent of five or six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
Sismondi, in his “History of the Italian Republics,” writing of the events of the thirteenth century, says:
The Tuscan and Lombard merchants however trafficked in the barbarous regions of the West, to carry there the produce of their industry. Attracted by the franchises of the Fairs of Champagne and of Lyons, they went thither, as well to barter their goods as to lend their capital at interest to the nobles, habitually loaded with debt; though at the risk of finding themselves suddenly arrested, their wealth confiscated by order of the King of France, and their lives too sometimes endangered by sanctioned robbers, under the pretext of repressing usury. Industry, the employment of a superabundant capital, the application of mechanism and science to the production of wealth, secured the Italians a sort of monopoly through Europe: they alone offered for sale what all the rich desired to buy; and notwithstanding the various oppressions of the barbarian kings, notwithstanding the losses occasioned by their own oft-repeated revolutions, their wealth was rapidly renewed.
Inspectors of Fairs.—In the course of the preceding notices of the chief fairs of France various references have been made to the inspection of goods, as forming part of the regulations of such fairs. These inspectors were appointed by the state. It was their business to attend at all fairs where there was any considerable trade in woollen and other textile fabrics; to inspect and mark them; and if deficient or not conformable to the authorized regulations, to seize them. Such examination it is obvious required to be made with great circumspection and reserve, and at hours suited to the convenience alike of buyers and sellers. The inspectors were usually accompanied, in the performance of their duties, by the judge of the police of manufactures, and the wardens and jurats of trades in the respective places.
Some free fairs had their own judges and particular jurisdiction.
An examination of M. Bottin’s “View of the Fairs of France” goes to show that they took place mostly on the frontiers of the kingdom, or on the marches of ancient provinces; or at the foot of high mountains, or at the beginning or end of the snow season, which for months shuts up the inhabitants in their valleys; or in the neighbourhood of the famous cathedrals or churches frequented by flocks of pilgrims; or in the middle of rich pasture tracks. But there are some marked exceptions to these rules.
The establishment and abolition of fairs—with the exception of cattle markets and the markets of the metropolis—are now generally left to the discretion of the departmental prefects.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE FAIRS OF PARIS.
The City of Paris had fairs in great variety, some of which I now proceed to notice.
St. Denis or Lendit Fair.—One of the earliest, perhaps the first, was the mercantile fair of St. Denis, chartered early in the seventh century by Dagobert “in honour of the Lord and to the glory of St. Denys at his festival.” This fair, by reason of the privileges granted, became known under the name of the forum idictum—whence l’indict, and its corruption to landit and lendit. To it came the iron and lead of the Saxons, the slaves of the northern nations, the jewellery and perfumes of the Jews, the oil, wine and fat of Provence and Spain, the honey and madder of Neustria and Brittany, the merchandise of Egypt and the East.
The fair, which lasted ten days from the 10th of October, was opened by a procession of monks from the Abbey of St. Denis; and in later times it was usual for the Parliament of Paris to allow itself a holiday, called Landi, in order that its members might take part in the great marriage-feast of commerce and religion: just as the English Parliament usually finds relaxation in horse-flesh and mammon on the “Derby day” at Epsom!
English merchants frequented this fair in the ninth century, vide Cunningham’s “English Industry and Commerce,” 1882, p. 82.
But St. Denis had another fair, at one time famous, to which tradition has accorded the following origin. The Paris Cathedral received from Constantinople, in 1109, some fragments of the cross, regarded as authentic. The populace could not find room in the church where they were deposited in any one day; hence the bishop carried them in great pomp to the plain of St. Denis, where there was room enough for the vast concourse of worshippers who assembled to contemplate and adore. This ceremony and procession were renewed at stated periods. The schools of the cloister of Notre Dame had early taken part in the processions; and finally the students of the University of Paris claimed it as a patron festival, which it certainly was not.
In process of time a mart or fair became established on the recurrence of this Church festival. The ground was regarded as consecrated for the purpose. On each 12th of June (the day after the festival of St. Barnabas) the procession took place. It was at a later period called the “Feast of the Parchment.”
Early in the morning of the day of procession, the students, attired in their best, assembled on horseback at the top of Mount St. Geneviève, to accompany the Rector of the University, who, arrayed in his scarlet cloak, and wearing his doctor’s cap, proceeded on a mule or hackney, accompanied by the deans, proctors and myrmidons, to the plain of St. Denis, where the market for the sale of parchment was already opened. The rector upon reaching the fair caused to be put aside as much parchment as would be required by the University for the coming year, and received from the sellers a donation equivalent to £100 of the present day. This I assume was the toll paid for the right of holding the fair.
After this the students alighted from their horses, and instead of forming part of the procession back to Paris, amused themselves at the fair. This invariably led to riot and disorder, and not a year passed without blood being spilt. Thus from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the decrees of parliament against the carrying of arms or sticks, which were continually being renewed and always neglected, testify to the gravity of the evil, and to the difficulties of putting an end to it.
At last, in 1566, the fair was transferred from the plain to the town of St. Denis, and at about the same period paper began to supersede parchment even for public documents. The rector, therefore, ceased getting a supply of parchment at the fair, and the students having no further pretext for attending, it speedily fell into disuse. By the beginning of the seventeenth century the only vestige of it left was the general holiday which the rector granted to the students of the University upon the first Monday after the feast of St. Barnabas, vide Lecroix’s “Science and Literature in the Middle Ages,” pp. 34-36.
St. Germain.—This fair was held in a large permanent building specially provided, constituting something like twin market halls, elegantly constructed of timber, and long regarded as models of construction. The two halls embraced nine streets in line intersecting each other and divided into twenty-four sections or aisles; the shops having little rooms or store-houses over them, and behind some of them were open spaces, with wells—regarded as of importance in case of fire, although not proving of much avail when the event occurred. The streets were distinguished by the names of the different trades conducted in them—as Goldsmiths’ Street, Mercers’ Street, &c.
The fair was opened the day after Candlemas Day. It was greatly frequented by traders from Amiens, Beaumont, Rheims, Orleans, and Nugent, with various sorts of cloth and textile fabrics. The goldsmiths, jewellers, and toymen of Paris made a fine display of their wares.
There were brought to this fair, one year with another, some 1,400 bales of cloth and other woollen stuffs, of which the inspector of manufactures at the Custom-house, Paris, was required to keep a particular register. Two inspectors of the fair were required to be present at the opening of the bales of goods. There was also a further inspection made by the Masters and Wardens of the Guilds of Drapery and Mercery.
I find a graphic account of this fair in Lister’s “Travels in France,” 1698, which I here transcribe:
We were in Paris at the time of the fair of St. Germain. It lasts six weeks at least; the place where it is kept, well bespeaks its antiquity; for it is a very pit or hole, in the middle of the Faubourg, and belongs to the great abbey of that name. You descend into it on all sides, and in some places above twelve steps; so that the city is raised above it six or eight foot.
The building is a very barn, or frame of wood, tiled over; consisting of many long allies, crossing one another, the floor of the allies unpaved, and of earth, and as uneven as may be: which makes it very uneasy to walk in, were it not the vast croud of people which keep you up. But all this bespeaks its antiquity, and the rudeness of the first ages of Paris, which is a foil to its politeness in all things else now.
The fair consists of most toy-shops, and Bartholomew-fair ware; also fiance and pictures, joiner’s work, linen and woollen manufactures; many of the great ribband shops remove out of the Palais hither; no books; many shops of confectioners, where the ladies are commodiously treated.
The great rendezvous is at night, after the play and opera are done; and raffling for all things vendible is the great diversion; no shop wanting two or three raffling boards. Monsieur, the Dauphin, and other princes of the blood come at least once in the fair-time to grace it. Here are also coffee-shops, where that and all sorts of strong liquors ... are sold.
Knavery here is in perfection as with us; as dexterous cut-purses and pick-pockets. A pick-pocket came into the fair at night, extremely well-clad, with four lacqueys with good liveries attending him: he was caught in the fact, and more swords were drawn in his defence than against him; but yet he was taken, and delivered into the hands of justice, which is here sudden and no jest.
I was surprized at the impudence of a booth, which put out the pictures of some Indian beasts, with hard names; and of four that were painted, I found but two, and those very ordinary ones, viz. a leopard, and a racoun. I asked the fellow, why he deceived the people, and whether he did not fear cudgelling in the end: he answered with a singular confidence, that it was the painter’s fault; that he had given the racoun to paint to two masters, but both had mistaken the beast; but however (he said) though the pictures were not well designed, they did nevertheless serve to grace the booth and bring him custom.
St. Laurence (or St. Laurent).—So called from its situation near St. Laurence’s Church. It is so ancient that no date can be even approximately fixed for its origin. Its chief traders were goldsmiths and mercers, picture-painters, sempstresses, lemonade-sellers, toymen, earthenware people, gingerbread bakers, &c. &c. To it came people from Amiens, Beauvais, Rheims, and other places of Picardy and Champagne, with light fabrics, both plain and striped, and camlets of all sorts.
The fair seems originally to have lasted but one day; but the period gradually became extended to two months, commencing the day after St. James’s day and ending at Michaelmas. It was proclaimed by sound of trumpet.
These two rival fairs had this peculiarity: they were always open as bazaars. They were not fairs in the usual sense of the term for more than three months in the year. The St. Germain fair was held in the winter, and the St. Laurent in the early part of the summer. The former never recovered its popularity after the fire which destroyed the wooden constructions used during the fair (1763), though by the erection of new galleries, more elegant than the old ones, there was added to the attractions of a fair a dancing-saloon, the Winter Wauxhall, which was well attended for a time.
The St. Laurent fair was held in the upper part of the faubourg of that name, was larger and more elaborately decorated than the St. Germain fair, but it had no Wauxhall, and the only amusements for the frequenters of its Chinese Redoubt were swings and other foreign games.
The St. Ovide Fair.—This was established in August, 1764, and was held in the very centre of Paris, upon the Place Vendôme, then bounded on one side by the church and convent of the Capucines. It was held there for some years, and then transferred to the Place Louis XV., where it did not last long, although it had originally been made fashionable as the Gingerbread Fair. It was at this fair that Nicolet, previous to establishing his theatre des grands danseurs du Roi, displayed the wonderful strength and agility which gave rise to the proverb “de plus fort en plus fort, comme chez Nicolet.”—Lacroix, “The Eighteenth Century,” p. 356.
Onion Fair of Notre Dame.—This fair is held in September, commencing with the feast of Notre Dame, and continuing till the end of the month. It is held on the Isle of Notre Dame, along the Quai Bourbon. A prodigious quantity of black and red onions are brought into the city at this period, the citizens laying in a stock for the whole year.
Pork or Bacon Fair.—This “fair for gammons” is held on the Tuesday in Passion Week in the street of Notre Dame, lasting but the one day only. There is sold at it immense quantities of hams, flitches of bacon, and other salted pork. Many amusing articles have been written concerning it.