CHAPTER XXXII
GUESSING AND GASSING
AS we were riding to Montplain yesterday," said Adelaide to Percy, soon after they started for Blue Mound, "Professor Barstow told me that in his opinion all that was needed to redeem these old lands of Virginia and the Carolinas is plenty of efficient labor, such as he thinks we had before the war. I know papa does not agree with him in that, but Professor said that soils do not wear out if well cultivated, that in New England they grow as large crops as ever, and that in Europe, on the oldest lands the crop yields are very much larger than in the United States; and in fact that the European countries are producing about twice as large crops as they did a hundred years ago. He thinks it is because they do their work more thoroughly than we do. He says that 'a little farm well tilled' is the key to the solution of our difficulties."
"That might seem to be a good guess as to the probable relation of cause and effect," replied Percy, "but we ought not to overlook some well known facts that have an important bearing. It is exactly a hundred years since DeSaussure of France, first gave to the world a clear and correct and almost complete statement concerning the requirements of plants for plant food and the natural sources of supply. Sir Humphrey Davy, Baron von Liebig, Lawes and Gilbert, and Hellriegel followed DeSaussure and completely filled the nineteenth century with accumulated scientific facts relating to soils and plant growth.
"Sir John Bennett Lawes, the founder of the Rothamsted Experiment Station, the oldest in the world, on his own private estate at Harpenden, England, began his investigations in the interest of practical agricultural science soon after coming into possession of Rothamsted in 1834. In 1843 he associated with him in the work Doctor Joseph Henry Gilbert, and for fifty-seven years those two great men labored together gathering agricultural facts. Sir John died in 1900, and Sir Henry the following year.
"That the people of Europe have made some use of the science thus evolved is evident from the simple fact that they are taking out of the United States every year about a million tons of our best phosphate rock for which they pay us at the point of shipment about five millions dollars; whereas, if this same phosphate were applied to our own soils that already suffer for want of phosphorus, it would make possible the production of nearly a billion dollars' worth of corn above what these soils can ever produce without the addition of phosphorus. And our phosphate is only a part of the phosphate imported into Europe. They also produce rock phosphate from European mines, and great quantities of slag phosphate from their phosphatic iron ores.
"They feed their own crops and large amounts of imported food stuffs, and utilize all fertilizing materials thus provided for the improvement of their own lands. Legume crops are grown in great abundance and are often plowed under to help the land.
"Do you wonder why the wheat yield in England is more than thirty bushels per acre while that of the United States is less than fourteen bushels? Because England produces only fifty million bushels of wheat, while she imports two hundred million bushels of wheat, one hundred million bushels of corn, nearly a billion pounds of oil cake, and other food stuffs, from which large quantities of manure are made; and, in addition to this, England imports and uses much phosphate and other commercial plant food materials.
"Germany imports great quantities of wheat, corn, oil cake, and phosphates, and thus enriches her cultivated soil, and Germany's principal export is two billion pounds of sugar, which contains no plant food of value, but only carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, secured from air and water by the sugar beet.
"Denmark produces four million bushels of wheat, imports five million bushels of wheat, fifteen million bushels of corn, fifteen million bushels of barley, eight hundred million pounds of oil cake, eight hundred million pounds of mill feed, and other food stuffs, phosphate, etc., and exports one hundred and seventy-five million pounds of butter, which contains no plant food of value, but sells for much more than these imports cost.
"Italy applies to her soils every year about a million tons of phosphates, which contain nearly twice as much phosphorus as is removed from the land in all the crops harvested and sold from the farms of Italy.
"The very good yields of the crops of New England are attributable to large use of fertilizing materials, in part made from food stuffs shipped in from the West; and the high development of certain lands of Europe and New England has been possible under the system followed only because the areas concerned are small. Thus, the average acreage of corn in Rhode Island and Connecticut is less than three townships, or less than one-tenth as much corn land in the two States as the area of single counties in the Illinois corn belt.
"Did you ever hear of the 'Egypt' we have out West, Miss West?"
"Out West, Miss West," she repeated. "That is too much repetition of the same word to make a good sentence. I like 'Miss Adelaide' better; I do get tired of hearing West and Westover over and over. Yes, I have heard of the 'Egypt' you have out West. Is it near Illinois?"
"Near Illinois? Why, Miss Adelaide, I am surprised that you should even know about the crop yields of Rhode Island and not know where 'Egypt' is. Let me inform you that 'Egypt' is in Illinois, and our 'Egypt' is a country as large as thirteen states the size of Rhode Island. Cairo is the Capital, and Alexandria, Thebes, and Joppa are all near by. Tamm and Buncombe, and Goreville and Omega are also among our promising cities of 'Egypt,' although you may not so easily associate them with the ancient world."
"Well I know where Cairo is," Adelaide replied, "but if your 'Egypt' is on the map you will have to show me. I know now that 'Egypt' is in Southern Illinois, but how do you separate 'Egypt' from the rest of the State?"
"We make no such separation," said Percy. "But to find 'Egypt' on the map, you need only take the State of Illinois and subtract therefrom all that part of the corn belt situated between the Mississippi River and the west line of Indiana. The southern point of 'Egypt' is at Cairo, the Capital, and it is bounded on the east, south, and west, by the Wabash, the Ohio, and the Mississippi; but the north line is not only imaginary, but it is movable. In fact it is always just a few miles farther south, but I think all 'Egyptians' will agree that a sand bar which is being formed below Cairo between the Ohio and the Mississippi is truly 'Egyptian ' territory. If you ever visit in the West do not fail to see 'Egypt.'
"I really hope I may, sometime," she replied. "We have relatives who claim to live in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Missouri, but I think possibly they may all be 'Egyptians,' from what you have told me about the vast area of that great fairy empire. I know I would dearly love to go there."
"'Egypt' is the wheat belt and the fruit belt of Illinois," Percy continued. "One of the grand old men of Illinois, Colonel N. B. Morrison, who was for years a trustee of the State University, used to be called upon for an address whenever he was present at Convocation. He always stated proudly that he lived in the 'Heart of Egypt.' He said the soil there was not so rich perhaps as in the corn belt, but that with plenty of hard work they were able to live and to produce the finest fruit and the greatest men in America. He said they had to work both the top and bottom of their soil, and he explained that they harvested wheat and apples from the top, and then went down about 600 feet and harvested ten thousand tons of coal to the acre, and still left enough to support the earth. I have heard him say that when he was born there was not a mile of railroad in the United States, and that he had during his own lifetime, witnessed the practical agricultural ruin of almost whole States. He used to plead for the University to send some of her scientific men to help them to solve the problem of restoring the fertility of their soils down in 'Egypt'; and I am glad to say that finally the State appropriated sufficient funds so that the Illinois Experiment Station is rapidly securing the exact information needed to make those Southern Illinois lands richer than they ever were.
"I spent several days in 'Egypt' last month and I am planning to make another trip down there next week before deciding definitely about purchasing our poor land farm. I am not sure but the land of 'Egypt' is as poor as we ought to try to build up considering our limited means."
"Oh, do you think so? But Papa's land is not so poor is it?"
"No, it is not so poor in mineral plant food on the sloping areas, but even there it is extremely poor in humus and nitrogen. However, I fear I could not enjoy farming in irregular patches of five or ten acres, and the level lands of Virginia and Maryland are so exceedingly poor, that much time and money and work will be required to put them on a paying basis. There would be no pleasure or satisfaction in merely robbing other farms to build up mine, as some of the prosperous truck farmers and dairymen are doing. I should want to practice a system of soil improvement of unlimited application so that it would not be a curse to the agricultural people, as is the case with the man who builds up his farm only at the expense of other farms.
"We have been speaking of the development of agriculture on the small tracts of cultivable land in the great manufacturing States of New England. But, if we would make a fair comparison with a State like Illinois, we should consider some great agricultural State, as Georgia, for example, which is also one of the original thirteen. Georgia is a larger State than Illinois, and Georgia cultivates as many acres of corn and cotton as we cultivate in corn. But Georgia land cannot be covered with fertilizer made from Illinois corn, nor even with seaweed and fish-scrap from the ocean. Her agriculture must be an independent agriculture, just as the agriculture of Russia, India, and China must be, just as the agriculture of Illinois must be, and as the agriculture of all the great agricultural States must be. What is the result to date? The average yield of corn in Georgia is down to 11 bushels per acre. This is not for half of one township, but the average of four million acres for the last ten years; and this in spite of the fact that Georgia out more for the common acidulated manufactured so-called complete commercial fertilizer than any other State."
"That is appalling," said Adelaide, "but still some larger countries are building up their lands, such as those of Europe."
"In large part by the same methods as the New England truckers and dairymen are following," he replied, "and in comparison with the area and resources of their colonies and of the other great new countries upon which they draw for food and fertilizer, they are fairly comparable with the New England States in this country. Even the Empire of Germany is only four-fifths as large as Texas. The only country of Europe at all comparable with the United States is Russia, and in that great country the average yield of wheat for the last twenty years is eight and one-fourth bushels per acre, even though, as a general practice, the land is allowed to lie fallow every third year. The average yield for the five famine years that have occurred during the twenty-year period was six and one-quarter bushels of wheat per acre."
"That is wretched," said Adelaide, "I know about the Russian famines for we have made contributions through our church for their relief, but that condition can surely never come to this great rich new country, can it?"
"It will come just as certainly as we allow our soil fertility to decrease and our population to increase. As a nation we have scarcely lifted a hand yet to stop the waste of fertility or to restore exhausted lands; practically every effort put forth by the Federal government along agricultural lines having been directed toward better seeds, control of injurious insects and fungous diseases, exploitation of new lands by drainage and irrigation, popularly called 'reclamation,' although applied only to rich virgin soils which can certainly be brought under cultivation at any future time either by the Government or by private enterprise. But why should not the Federal government make all necessary provisions to furnish ground limestone and phosphate rock at the actual cost of quarrying, grinding, and transporting, in order that farmers on these old depleted soils may be encouraged to adopt systems of soil improvement; or even compelled to adopt such systems, just as they are compelled to build school houses, bridges, and battleships?"
"Perhaps the Government would do this," said Adelaide, "if the
Secretary of Agriculture would recommend it."
"I have heard of the '_big if,'" _Percy replied slowly, "but I am afraid this _if _will beat the record for bigness. His soil theorists continue to assure him that soils do not wear out, no matter how heavily cropped, if they are only rotated and cultivated; and to support their theories they have forsaken the data from the most carefully conducted and long continued scientific investigations, and indulged in a game of guessing that the increasing productiveness of a few small countries of Europe is not due to any necessary addition of plant food.
"But here is the depot, and I have taken almost an hour to drive three miles. If I had hurried, you might have been back home by this time. I am afraid I have been selfish in allowing the team to walk nearly all of the way, but they will at least be fresh for the home trip which you promised to make in less than twenty minutes, I remember. Now if you will hold the lines, I will run into the store to get the thread. I remember the kind; I often do such errands for mother."
"I will wait while you get your ticket and find out if the train is on time," said Adelaide, as Percy returned with the thread.
"At least fifty minutes late," he reported, "and the agent said he was glad of it for he would need about that time to make out such a long-jointed ticket as I want. I am rather glad too, for I can watch you to the turn in the road on the hill, which must be a mile or more, and I will time you. You can have six minutes to make that corner."
"You mean I can have six minutes to get out of sight," she suggested.
"I think you are out of sight," he ventured.
Adelaide reddened. "I shall have to tell mother what slang you use," she said.
"I hope you will," he retorted, "for I have watched her watch you and I am sure she will agree with me. But I do feel that I owe you a sincere apology for taking up the time we have had together with this long discussion of the things that are of such special interest to me. I have been alone with my mother so much and she is always so ready and so able, I may add, to discuss any sort of business matter that I fear I have been forgetful of your forbearance."
"But you really have not," Adelaide replied. "I keep books for papa, and I am very much interested in these social and economic questions which are so fundamental to the perpetuity of our State and National prosperity. I have been both entertained and instructed by these discussions; and I might say, honored, too, that you do not consider me too young and foolish to talk of serious subjects."
"I am sure it is kind of you to make good excuses for me. You have at any rate relieved my mind of some burden, but I am sure you are the only woman I have ever known, except my mother, who could endure discussions of this sort. I have so greatly enjoyed the few short visits I have had with you. I wish I might write to you and I shall be so much interested to learn what success your father has if he begins a system of soil improvement. Would it be presuming to hope that I might hear from you also?"
"I am papa's stenographer," she replied, "and perhaps he will dictate and I will write. We will be glad to hear of your safe return,—and you,—you might ask papa. Now, I shall soon be out of sight."
"Please don't," begged Percy. "It is still forty-five minutes 'at least,' before the train comes. Let me go a piece with you. I will leave my suit case here and with nothing to carry I shall easily walk a mile in twenty minutes. May I drive, please?"
"No, I will drive. I want to ask you another question, and I am afraid you would drive too fast.
"You mentioned some long-continued scientific investigations which I assumed referred to the yield of crops. What were they?"
"I meant such investigations as those at Rothamsted and also those conducted at Pennsylvania State College. I have some of the exact data here in my note book.
"In 1848, Sir John Lawes and Sir Henry Gilbert began at Rothamsted, England, two four-year rotations. One was turnips, barley, fallow, and wheat; and the other was turnips, barley, clover, and wheat. Whenever the clover failed, which has been frequent, beans were substituted, in order that a legume crop should be grown every fourth year.
"The average of the last twenty years represents the average yields about fifty years from the beginning of this rotation.
"In the legume system, as an average of the last twenty years, the use of mineral plant food has increased the yield of turnips from less than one-half ton to more than twelve tons; increased the yield of barley from thirteen and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-two and two-tenths bushels; increased the yield of clover (when grown) from less than one-half ton to almost two tons; increased the yield of beans (when grown) from sixteen bushels to twenty-eight and three-tenths bushels; and increased the yield of wheat from twenty-four and three-tenths bushels to thirty-eight and four-tenths bushels per acre.
"In the legume system the minerals applied have more than doubled the value of the crops produced, have paid their cost, and made a net profit of one hundred and forty per cent. on the investment, in direct comparison with the unfertilized land.
"If we compare the average yield of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat of the last twenty years with the yield of turnips in 1848, barley in 1849, clover in 1850 and wheat in 1851 we find that on the unfertilized land in this rotation of crops in fifty years the yield of turnips has decreased from ten tons to one-half ton, and the yield of barley has decreased from forty-six to fourteen bushels, the yield of clover has decreased from two and eight-tenths tons per acre to less than one-half ton, while the yield of wheat has decreased only from thirty bushels to twenty-four bushels. As a general average the late yields are only one-third as large as they were fifty years before on the same land. Wheat grown once in four years has been the only crop worth raising on the unfertilized land during the last twenty years, and even the wheat crop has distinctly decreased in yield; although where mineral plant food was applied the yield has increased from thirty bushels, in 18851 to thirty-eight bushels as an average of the last twenty years. In the fallow rotation on the unfertilized land the yield of wheat averaged thirty-four and five-tenths bushels during the first twenty years (1848 to 1867) and twenty-three and five-tenths bushels during the last twenty years.
"On another Rothamsted field the phosphorus actually removed in fifty-five crops from well-fertilized land is two-thirds as much as the total phosphorus now contained in the plowed soil of adjoining untreated land.
"In the early 80's the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station began a four-year crop rotation, including corn, oats, wheat, and mixed clover and timothy.
"There are five plots in each of four different fields that have received no applications of plant food from the beginning. Thus, every year the crops are carefully harvested and weighed from twenty measured plots of ground that receive no treatment except the rotation of crops. The difference between the average of the first twelve years and the average of the second twelve years should represent the actual change in productive power during a period of twelve years. These averages show that the yield of corn has decreased from forty-one and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-seven and seven-tenths bushels; that the yield of oats has decreased from thirty-six and seven-tenths bushels to twenty-five bushels; that the yield of wheat has decreased only from thirteen and three-tenths bushels to twelve and eight-tenths bushels; and that the yield of hay has decreased from three thousand seventy pounds to two thousand one hundred and eighty pounds.
"As a general average of these four crops the annual value of produce from one acre has decreased from $11.05 to $8.18. Here we have information which is almost if not quite equal in value to that from the Agdell rotation field at Rothamsted. While the Rothamsted experiments cover a period of sixty years, each crop was grown but once in four years; whereas, in the Pennsylvania experiments, there have been four different series of plots, so that in twenty-four years there have been twenty-four crops of corn, twenty-four crops of oats, twenty-four crops of wheat, and twenty-four crops of hay.
"Under this four-year rotation the value of the crops produced has decreased twenty-six per cent. in twelve years. What influence will impress that fact upon the minds of American landowners? A loss amounting to more than one-fourth of the productive power of the land in a rotation with clover seeded every fourth year! This one fact is the mathematical result of four hundred and eighty other facts obtained from twenty different pieces of measured land during a period of twenty-four years.
"As an average of these twenty-four years, the addition of mineral plant food produced increases in crop yields above the unfertilized land as follows:
Corn increased forty-five per cent.
Oats increased thirty-two per cent.
Wheat increased forty-two per cent.
Hay increased seventy-seven per cent.
"As a general average of the four crops for the twenty-four years, the produce where mineral plant food is applied, was forty-nine per cent. above the yields of the unfertilized land, although the same rotation of crops was practiced in both cases."
"Those are some of the absolute facts of science secured from practical application in the adoption and development of definite systems of permanent prosperous agriculture, and they should be made to serve this greatest and most important industry just as the established facts of mathematical and physical science are made to serve in engineering."
"I am glad to know about those long-continued experiments," said Adelaide. "They are of fascinating interest. I have been so sorry for grandma, and for papa and mamma, because of their increasing discouragement over our farm. I do hope we may profit from this fund of accumulated information which has already been secured from long years of investigation. Surely we must endeavor to avoid in America the awful conditions that already exist in the older agricultural countries, where the lands are depleted and the people are brought to greater poverty than even here in Virginia.
"But we have already reached the turn, and you have a mile to walk.
How much time have you?"
"Thirty minutes yet," said Percy. "Wait just a moment. Have you read
Lincoln's stories?"
"Many of them, yes."
"Here is the best one he ever told; I have copied it on a card. He told it to a meeting of farmers at the close of an address in which he urged them to study the science of agriculture and to adopt better methods of farming:
"'An Eastern monarch once charged his wise men to invent him a sentence to be ever in view, and which should be true and appropriate in all times and situations. They presented him the words, "And this, too, shall pass away." How much it expresses! How chastening in the hour of pride! How consoling in the depths of affliction! "And this, too, shall pass away." And yet, let us hope, it is not quite true. Let us hope, rather, that by the best cultivation of the physical world beneath and around us, and the best intellectual and moral world within us, we shall secure an individual, social, and political prosperity and happiness, whose course shall be onward and upward, and which, while the earth endures, shall not pass away.'"
"I agree with you that it is his best story," said Adelaide, as Percy finished reading and placed the card in her hand. "Now you must go or I shall insist upon taking you back to the station."
"I shall stand here and time you till you reach the next turn," he replied. "Then you will be in sight of Westover. One! Two! Three! Go!"