A theory of pure design

by Denman Waldo Ross

DEFINITION OF OUTLINES

106. Outlines are lines which, returning to themselves, make inclosures and describe areas of different measures and shapes. What has been said of lines may be said, also, of outlines. It will be worth while, however, to give a separate consideration to outlines, as a particularly interesting and important class of lines.

As in the case of dots and lines, I shall disregard the fact that the outlines may be drawn in different tones, making different contrasts of value, color, or color-intensity with the ground-tone upon which they are drawn. I shall, also, disregard possible differences of width in the lines which make the outlines. I shall confine my attention, here, to the measures and shapes of the outlines and to the possibilities of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm in those measures and shapes.

HARMONY, BALANCE, AND RHYTHM
IN OUTLINES

107. What is Harmony or Balance or Rhythm in a line is Harmony, Balance, or Rhythm in an Outline.

Fig. 162

In this outline we have Measure-Harmony in the angles, Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles, Measure and Shape-Balance on a center and Symmetry on the vertical axis. The same statement will be true of all polygons which are both equiangular and equilateral, when they are balanced on a vertical axis.

Fig. 163

In this case we have Measure-Harmony of angles but no Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles. We have lost Measure and Shape-Balance on a center which we had in the previous example.

Fig. 164

In this case the angles are not all in a Harmony of Measure; but we have Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles, and we have Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. There is a certain Harmony in the repetition of a relation of two angles.

Fig. 165

In this case we have Measure-Harmony in the angles, which are equal, and a Harmony due to the repetition of a certain measure-relation in the legs of the angles. As in [Fig. 162], we have here a Measure and Shape-Balance on a center and Symmetry on the vertical axis. This polygon is not equilateral, but its sides are symmetrically disposed. Many interesting and beautiful figures may be drawn in these terms.

Fig. 166

We have in the circle the most harmonious of all outlines. The Harmony of the circle is due to the fact that all sections of it have the same radius and equal sections of it have, also, the same angle-measure. The circle is, of course, a perfect illustration of Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. The balance is also symmetrical. We have a Harmony of Directions in the repetition of the same change of direction at every point of the outline, and we have a Harmony of Distances in the fact that all points of the outline are equally distant from the balance-center, which is unmistakably felt.

Fig. 167

The Ellipse is another example of Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. In this attitude it is also an illustration of Symmetry.

Fig. 168

In this case we still have balance but no symmetry. The attitude suggests movement. We cannot help feeling that the figure is falling down to the left. A repetition at equal intervals would give us Rhythm.

Fig. 169

In this case we have an outline produced by the single inversion of a line in which there is the repetition of a certain motive in a gradation of measures. That gives Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. This is a case of Symmetrical Balance. It is also a case of rhythmic movement upward. The movement is mainly due to convergences.

Fig. 170

In this case, also, the shapes repeated on the right side and on the left side of the outline show movements which become in repetitions almost rhythmical. The movement is up in spite of the fact that each part of the movement is, in its ending, down. We have in these examples symmetrical balance on a vertical axis combined with rhythm on the same axis. It may be desirable to find the balance-center of an outline when only the axis is indicated by the character of the outline. The principle which we follow is the one already described. In [Fig. 169] we have a symmetrical balance on a vertical axis, but there is nothing to indicate the balance-center. It lies on the axis somewhere, but there is nothing to show us where it is. Regarding the outline as a line of attractions, the eye is presumably held at their balance-center, wherever it is. Exactly where it is is a matter of visual feeling. The balance-center being ascertained, it may be indicated by a symmetrical outline or inclosure, the center of which cannot be doubtful.

Fig. 171

The balance-center, as determined by visual feeling, is here clearly indicated. In this case besides the balance on a center we have also the Symmetry which we had in [Fig. 169].

Fig. 172

The sense of Balance is, in this case, much diminished by the change of attitude in the balanced outline. We have our balance upon a center, all the same; but the balance on the vertical axis being lost, we have no longer any Symmetry. It will be observed that balance on a center is not inconsistent with movement. If this figure were repeated at equal intervals without change of attitude, or with a gradual change, we should have the Rhythm of a repeated movement.

In some outlines only certain parts of the outlines are orderly, while other parts are disorderly.

Fig. 173

In the above outline we have two sections corresponding in measure and shape-character and in attitude. We have, therefore, certain elements of the outline in harmony. We feel movement but not rhythm in the relation of the two curves. There is no balance of any kind.

We ought to be able to recognize elements of order as they occur in any outline, even when the outline, as a whole, is disorderly.

Fig. 174

In order to balance the somewhat irregular outline given in [Fig. 173], we follow the procedure already described. The effect, however, is unsatisfactory. The composition lacks stability.

Fig. 175

The attitude of the figure is here made to conform, as far as possible, to the shape and attitude of the symmetrical framing: this for the sake of Shape and Attitude-Harmony. The change of attitude gives greater stability.

INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF
AN OUTLINE

108. A distinction must be drawn between the measures of the outline, as an outline, and the measures of the space or area lying within the outline: what may be called the interior dimensions of the outline.

Fig. 176

In this case we must distinguish between the measures of the outline and the dimensions of the space inclosed within it. When we consider the measures—not of the outline, but of the space or area inside of the outline—we may look in these measures, also, for Harmony, for Balance, or for Rhythm, and for combinations of these principles.

HARMONY IN THE INTERIOR DIMENSIONS
OF AN OUTLINE

109. We have Harmony in the interior dimensions of an outline when the dimensions correspond or when a certain relation of dimensions is repeated.

Fig. 177

In this case we have an outline which shows a Harmony in the correspondence of two dimensions.

Fig. 178

In this case we have Harmony in the correspondence of all vertical dimensions, Harmony in the correspondence of all horizontal dimensions, but no relation of Harmony between the two. It might be argued, from the fact that the interval in one direction is twice that in the other, that the dimensions have something in common, namely, a common divisor. It is very doubtful, however, whether this fact is appreciable in the sense of vision. The recurrence of any relation of two dimensions would, no doubt, be appreciated. We should have, in that case, Shape-Harmony.

Fig. 179

In this circle we have a Measure-Harmony of diameters.

Fig. 180

In this case we have a Harmony due to the repetition of a certain ratio of vertical intervals: 1:3, 1:3, 1:3.

110. Any gradual diminution of the interval between opposite sides in an outline gives us a convergence in which the eye moves more or less rapidly toward an actual or possible contact. The more rapid the convergence the more rapid the movement.

Fig. 181

In this case we have not only symmetrical balance on a vertical axis but movement, in the upward and rapid convergence of the sides BA and CA toward the angle A. The question may be raised whether the movement, in this case, is up from the side BC to the angle A or down from the angle A toward the side BC. I think that the reader will agree that the movement is from the side BC into the angle A. In this direction the eye is more definitely guided. The opposite movement from A toward BC is a movement in diverging directions which the eye cannot follow to any distance. As the distance from BC toward A decreases, the convergence of the sides BA and CA is more and more helpful to the eye and produces the feeling of movement. The eye finds itself in a smaller and smaller space, with a more and more definite impulse toward A. It is a question whether the movement from BC toward A is rhythmical or not. The movement is not connected with any marked regularity of measures. I am inclined to think, however, that the gradual and even change of measures produces the feeling of equal changes in equal measures. If so, the movement is rhythmical.

When the movement of the eye in any convergence is a movement in regular and marked measures, as in the example which follows, the movement is rhythmical, without doubt.

Fig. 182

The upward movement in this outline, being regulated by measures which are marked and equal, the movement is certainly rhythmical, according to our understanding and definition of Rhythm. Comparing [Fig. 181] with [Fig. 182], the question arises, whether the movement in [Fig. 182] is felt to be any more rhythmical than the movement in [Fig. 181]. The measures of the movement in [Fig 181] are not marked, but I cannot persuade myself that they are not felt in the evenness of the gradation. The movement in [Fig. 181] is easier than it is in [Fig. 182], when the marking of the measures interferes with the movement.

Fig. 183

In this case we have another illustration like [Fig. 182], only the measures of the rhythm are differently marked. The force of the convergence is greatest in [Fig. 181]. It is somewhat diminished by the measure-marks in [Fig. 182]. It is still further diminished, in [Fig. 183], by the angles that break the measures.

Fig. 184

In this case the movement is more rapid again, the measures being measures of an arithmetical progression. There is a crowding together of attractions in the direction of the convergence, and the movement is easier than it is in [Fig. 183], in spite of the fact that the lines of convergence are more broken in [Fig. 184]. There is an arithmetical diminution of horizontal as well as of vertical lines in [Fig. 184].

Fig. 185

In this case the measures of the rhythm are in the terms of a geometrical progression. The crowding together of attractions is still more rapid in this case and the distance to be traversed by the eye is shorter. The convergence, however, is less compelling, the lines of the convergence being so much broken—unnecessarily.

The movement will be very much retarded, if not prevented, by having the movement of the crowding and the movement of the convergence opposed.

Fig. 186

There is no doubt that in this example, which is to be compared with that of [Fig. 184], the upward movement is almost prevented. There are here two opposed movements: that of the convergence upward and that of a crowding together of attractions downward. The convergence is stronger, I think, though it must be remembered that it is probably easier for the eye to move up than down, other things being equal.

111. The movements in all of these cases may be enhanced by substituting for the straight lines shapes which are in themselves shapes of movement.

Fig. 187

Here, for example, the movement of [Fig. 184] is facilitated and increased by a change of shape in the lines, lines with movement being substituted for lines which have no movement, beyond the movement of the convergence.

Fig. 188

In [Fig. 188] all the shapes have a downward movement which contradicts the upward movement of convergence. The movement down almost prevents the movement up.

112. The movement of any convergence may be straight, angular, or curved.

Fig. 189

In this case the movement of the convergence is angular. It should be observed that the movement is distributed in the measures of an arithmetical progression, so that we have, not only movement, but rhythm.

Fig. 190

In this case the movement of convergence is in a curve. The stages of the movement, not being marked, the movement is not rhythmical, unless we feel that equal changes are taking place in equal measures. I am inclined to think that we do feel that. The question, however, is one which I would rather ask than answer, definitely.

Fig. 191

In this case the movement is, unquestionably, rhythmical, because the measures are clearly marked. The measures are in an arithmetical progression. They diminish gradually in the direction of the convergence, causing a gradual crowding together of attractions in that direction.

Substituting, in the measures, shapes which have movement, the movement of the rhythm may be considerably increased, as is shown in the example which follows.

Fig. 192

This is a case in which the movement is, no doubt, facilitated by an association of ideas, the suggestion of a growth.

113. The more obvious the suggestion of growth, the more inevitable is the movement in the direction of it, whatever that direction is. It must be understood, however, that the movement in such cases is due to an association of ideas, not to the pull of attractions in the sense of vision. The pull of an association of ideas may or may not be in the direction of the pull of attractions.

Fig. 193

In [Fig. 193] we have an illustration of a rhythmic movement upward. The upward movement is due quite as much to an association of ideas, the thought of a growth of vegetation, as it is to mere visual attractions. It happens that the figure is also an illustration of Symmetrical Balance. As we have Harmony in the similarity of the opposite sides, the figure is an illustration of combined Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm.

There is another point which is illustrated in [Fig. 193]. It is this: that we may have rhythmic movement in an outline, or, indeed, in any composition of lines, which shows a gradual and regular change from one shape to another; which shows a gradual and regular evolution or development of shape-character; provided the changes are distributed in regular and marked measures and the direction of the changes, the evolution, the development, is unmistakable; as it is in [Fig. 193]. The changes of shape in the above outline are changes which are gradual and regular and suggest an upward movement unmistakably. The movement, however, involves a comparison of shape with shape, so it is as much a matter of perception as of sensation. Evolutions and developments in Space, in the field of vision, are as interesting as evolutions and developments in the duration of Time. When the changes in such movements are regular, when they take place in regular and marked measures, when we must take them in a certain order, the movements are rhythmical, whether in Time or in Space.