The sexual life of woman in its physiological, pathological and hygienic aspects

by E. Heinrich Kisch

Copulation and Conception.

Copulation.

The reproduction of the species is effected by means of an act of copulation on the part of a male and a female individual, both of whom must have attained complete sexual development. In all the sequence of reproductive processes it is copulation alone that is a voluntary act, all the other processes being independent of the will and even of consciousness.

A characteristic difference between man and the lower animals lies in the fact that in the human species sexual pleasure and the act of copulation may occur at any season of the year; and a further characteristic difference may perhaps be found in the fact that in the great majority of individuals of the human species the psychical process of “love” plays a determinative part. Voltaire pointed out that to man alone among animals are known the embrace and the joy of the kiss.

The significance of the kiss is depicted by Grillparzer in the following verses:

Auf die Hände küsst die Achtung,

Auf die Wangen Wohlgefallen,

Seelige Liebe auf den Mund.

Auf den Nacken das Verlangen;

Uberall sonsthin Raserei.[^[45]]

In this act of conjugation between two individuals of the same species, differentiated each from the other by the characteristics of sex, the active, provocative rôle is allotted to the male, the passive, receptive rôle, to the female. The modest and coy reluctance characteristic alike of the maiden and of the wife, promote an increase of sexual excitement in the opposite sex, and this not only in a man of purely sensual character, whose vanity is stimulated by his being the chosen one among many—a circumstance which, in view of the great dependence of the sexual act upon psychical processes and imaginative influences, is by no means devoid of importance. The woman’s coy reluctance must be overcome by means of a tender strategy before she is willing to grant the final possession of her body; and the act of copulation forms at the same time the conclusion of the physical and mental yearnings of the lover, and the commencement of the new-coming being. There is thus a physiological reason for the advice given by the celebrated surgeon, Ambroise Paré, that a man, before completing coitus, should employ some of the delicate and sensually stimulating manipulations of the earlier stages of courtship, for, he writes, “aucunes femmes ne sont pas si promptes à ce jeu que les hommes.”

The potency for intercourse of the sexually mature man, his capacity for the introduction of the erect penis during the act of copulation, is dependent on the fact that sexual excitement gives rise to a sufficient stimulus which, acting on the erection centre (and presuming that the centre and its afferent and efferent tracts are normal), leads to an increased flow of arterial blood to the penis and a diminished outflow through the veins of that organ, and consequently to its erection. The cerebrum is the organ in which the sensation of libido sexualis, of sexual excitement, has its seat; with this higher centre is connected by means of intercentral nerve tracts a lower, mechanical, reflex centre, situated in the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord, and presiding over the performance of the act of copulation; it is moreover probable that nerve fibres proceed from the spinal cord direct to the blood vessels of the erectile tissue, by means of which the calibre of these vessels can be lessened or their extensibility diminished. The relation of the erector nerves (nervi erigentes) to the penis is by many physiologists compared to the relation of the vagus nerve to the heart. In the quiescent state the small arteries of the penis and perhaps also the cavernous spaces of that organ are in a state of mean contraction, so that they offer a considerable resistance to the passage of the blood current. When now the nervi erigentes are excited to activity, the hitherto tonically contracted vessels of the penis undergo, according to the school of physiologists just mentioned, relaxation, so that they dilate under the pressure of the blood within their walls, and, the previous resistance to the flow being now removed, the blood pours freely into the cavernous spaces of the penis, and distends these to the uttermost. In this manner erection is effected, rendering possible the insertion of the penis into the genital passage of the female; with the culmination of the sexual act, the semen is ejaculated, the muscles of the prostate and the membranous portion of the urethra together with the ischiocavernosus and bulbocavernosus muscles, all acting strongly and simultaneously.

By the contraction of the muscular apparatus just described, the penis is constricted in the neighborhood of the pubic symphysis, and this further hinders the outflow of the blood from the corpora cavernosa, increasing the intensity of the state of erection of the penis. Should the relaxation of the corpora cavernosa, dependent upon the stimulation of the nervi erigentes, be incomplete, it is not possible for sufficient blood to pass into the cavernous spaces to exercise considerable pressure upon the efferent veins, and thus complete erection fails to occur. If, again, the contraction of the muscular apparatus at the root of the penis is insufficiently vigorous, complete erection likewise fails to occur; the organ becomes semi-erect only, or erect for a period too short to permit of the completion of intercourse.

Since, physiologically speaking, conception is the purpose with which copulation is effected, the ejaculation of the semen must be regarded as the principal object of that act; now in normal conditions, ejaculation takes place only when the penis is fully erect. Associated with the erection of the corpora cavernosa is a swelling of the caput gallinaginis, whereby the orifices of the ejaculatory ducts are directed forwards toward the membranous portion of the urethra, and at the same time the backward passage to the bladder is cut off. By this mechanism, the urethra, which usually serves as the canal for the outflow of urine, is made for the time being solely subservient to the purposes of the sexual act. That the outlet from the bladder is obstructed by the swollen caput gallinaginis when the penis is erect, is shown by the familiar fact that a man whose penis is erect cannot pass water, although the way is freely open for the ejaculation of the semen.

Before ejaculation begins, the urethral glands already begin to secrete; and when erection is powerful and prolonged, this secretion often makes its appearance at the urethral orifice in the form of drops of a clear somewhat tenacious fluid. Ultzmann considers that the function of this secretion is probably to moisten the walls of the urethra, over which the acid urinary secretion is continually flowing, with a protective alkaline fluid, and thus to prepare the canal for the passage of the semen. An analogy may be found in the secretion of the cervical glands of the uterus in the female, for this secretion has been found to enhance the activity of the movements of the spermatozoa. If now during copulation the moment of ejaculation begins, the male experiences at the same time a sense of voluptuous pleasure and a feeling of muscular spasm in the perineal region, and this indicates the commencing evacuation of the contents of the seminal vesicles through the ejaculatory ducts. Simultaneously, the secretion of the prostate is poured into the urethra. The semen now gradually passes out through the narrow ejaculatory ducts, and, since in consequence of the swelling of the caput gallinaginis, it cannot pass backwards towards the bladder, it runs forwards, and accumulates in the bulb of the urethra, the physiological excavation of that tube. As soon as a considerable quantity of the semen has collected in this situation, so that the bulb of the urethra becomes distended, reflex contractions of the bulbocavernosus muscles ensue, by means of which the seminal fluid is forced out of the urethral orifice. In cases in which this muscular apparatus does not function properly, as in the paralytic form of impotence, the semen during ejaculation is not ejected in a forcible jet, but rather flows slowly, as from a lax tube partially filled with fluid, from the urethral orifice.

We are indebted to Roubaud for a classical description of the phenomena of copulation, and this description is here appended. It runs as follows: “As soon as the penis enters the vaginal vestibule, it first of all pushes against the glans clitoridis, which yields and bends before it. After this preliminary stimulation of the two chief centres of sexual sensibility, the glans penis glides over the inner surfaces of the two vaginal bulbs; the collum and the body of the penis are then grasped between the projecting surfaces of the vaginal bulbs, but the glans penis itself, which has passed further onward, is now in contact with the fine and delicate surface of the vaginal mucous membrane, which membrane itself, owing to the presence of erectile tissue between its layers, is now in an elastic, resilient condition. This elasticity, which enables the vagina to adapt itself to the size of the penis, increases at once the turgescence and the sensibility of the clitoris, inasmuch as the blood that is driven out of the vessels of the vaginal wall passes thence to those of the vaginal bulbs and the clitoris. On the other hand, the turgescence and the sensitiveness of the glans penis itself are heightened by compression of that organ, in consequence of the ever increasing fulness of the vessels of the vaginal mucous membrane and the two vaginal bulbs.

“At the same time the clitoris is pressed downward by the anterior portion of the compressor muscle, so that it is brought into contact with the dorsal surface of the glans and of the body of the penis; in this way a reciprocal friction between these two organs takes place, repeated at each copulatory movement made by the two parties to the action, until at length the voluptuous sensation rises to its highest intensity and culminates in the sexual orgasm, marked in the male by the ejaculation of the seminal fluid, and in the female by the aspiration of that fluid into the gaping external orifice of the cervical canal; so true, indeed, is this, that it is a difficult matter to give a picture at once accurate and complete of the phenomena attending the normal act of copulation. Whilst in one individual the sense of sexual pleasure amounts to no more than a barely perceptible titillation, in another that sense reaches the acme of both mental and physical exaltation.

“Between these two extremes we meet with innumerable states of transition. In cases of intense exaltation, various pathological symptoms make themselves manifest, such as quickening of the general circulation, and violent pulsation of the arteries; the venous blood, being retained in the larger vessels by general muscular contractions, leads to an increased warmth of the body; and further, this venous stagnation, which is still more marked in the brain in consequence of the contraction of the cervical muscles and the backward flexion of the neck, may cause cerebral congestion, during which the consciousness and all mental manifestations are momentarily in abeyance. The eyes, reddened by injection of the conjunctiva, become fixed, and the expression becomes vacant; lids close conclusively, to exclude the light. In some, the breathing becomes panting and labouring; but in others, it is temporarily suspended, in consequence of laryngeal spasm, and the air, after being pent up for a time in the lungs, is finally forcibly expelled, and they utter incoherent and incomprehensible words.”

The impulses proceeding from the congested nerve-centres are confused. There is an indescribable disorder both of motion and of sensation, the extremities are affected with convulsive twitchings, and may be either moved in various directions or extended straight and stiff; the jaws are pressed together so that the teeth grind against each other; and certain individuals are affected by erotic delirium to such as an extent that they will seize the unguarded shoulder, for instance, of their partner in the sexual act, and bite it till the blood flows.

A period of exhaustion follows, which is the more intense in proportion to the intensity of the preceding excitement. The sudden fatigue, the general sense of weakness, and the inclination to sleep, which habitually affect the male after the act of intercourse, are in part to be ascribed to the loss of semen; for in the female, however energetic the part she may have played in the sexual act, a mere transient fatigue is observed, much less in degree than that which affects the male, and permitting far sooner of a repetition of the act. “Triste est omne animal post coitum, praeter mulierem gallumque,” wrote Galen, and the axiom is essentially true, at any rate so far as the human species is concerned.

The question has been mooted, and many earnest inquirers have devoted much thought thereto, whether in this moment of most intense sexual gratification it is the male or the female that experiences the greatest amount of pleasure. As in the case of all questions the data for the solution of which are at once very various and very variable, so in this case also, very different opinions have been put forward. “In fact,” writes Roubaud, “when we take into consideration all the circumstances by which the intensity of sexual sensation is influenced, it may well be doubted if it is at all possible to find an a priori solution for the problem. When we take into consideration the influence exercised by temperament, constitution, and a large number of conditions both general and special, on sexual sensibility, we cannot fail to be convinced that this problem, in consequence of all the complicated characteristics it presents, is actually insoluble.”

In regard to the pleasure experienced in the act of intercourse, a remarkable distinction is drawn by Gutceit. The male, in every case and with every woman, experiences the full degree of pleasure; and even though from the mental point of view this pleasure may be enhanced by inclination, attraction, and mutual love, from the physical point of view there is no difference between different acts of intercourse, so that the cynical old Roman was right when he wrote. “Sublata lucerna nullum discrimen inter foeminas.” But in the case of the female it is very different. Her first experience of sexual relations is a very painful one, and this pain prevents all enjoyment as long as it continues, as it does in many women for one, two, or even four weeks. And when this period is once over, not more than two women in every ten experience the pleasure of sexual intercourse in its full intensity. Of the remaining eight, four have indeed an agreeable sensation during the rubbing movements of the sexual act, but it is a long time before they experience a sensation analogous in its intensity to that which in man accompanies the act of ejaculation. In some women it may be six months after marriage before the true sexual orgasm is experienced, in others it may be a year, or even several years; in a considerable number this does not happen until after they have given birth to several children. As a result of numerous observations on this point, Gutceit asserts that in women sexual pleasure is experienced only in intercourse with a man who is beloved, or against whom, at least, no repulsion is felt; and that no pleasure is felt by a woman in intercourse with a man towards whom she feels an actual dislike. Further, he maintains, that a woman, loving another man, and feeling pleasure in intercourse with him, has on the other hand no voluptuous sensations during intercourse with her husband, whose embraces she permits only from a sense of duty. Thus in the male, intercourse is always pleasurable, while in the female, pleasure is experienced only when certain conditions are fulfilled.

Contact with the male genital organs stimulates in the female the sensory nerves of the vulva, the vestibule, and the vagina; the nervous stimulus is transmitted to the cerebral cortex, where it gives rise to the sensation of sexual pleasure, and causes, through the intermediation of the genito-spinal centre, a number of reflex actions. As sensory nerve terminals of such reflex arcs, the final ramifications of the pudic branch of the sciatic plexus play the most important part; in the clitoris these nerves are beset with a peculiar kind of end-bulbs, the genital corpuscles discovered by W. Krause; from their structure these corpuscles seem admirably adapted to respond to the very slightest stimulation, producing voluptuous sensations and perceptions, and giving rise to various reflex manifestations. The first part of the path of the afferent impulses by which sexual pleasure is aroused is constituted by the dorsal nerves of the clitoris. The reflex changes consequent upon sexual excitement begin already in the vestibule, inasmuch as the secretion of Bartholin’s glands, which are compressed by the action of the constrictor cunni muscle, is expelled during coitus, the secretion, owing to the situation of the orifices of Bartholin’s ducts, passing over the external genitals. The clitoris becomes erect; the blood in the bulbs of the vestibule, the venous plexus situated around the margin of the vestibule along the boundary between the labia majora and the labia minora, is pressed into the glans clitoridis, the erection and sensibility of this structure being proportionately heightened. By the action of the constrictor cunni and ischiocavernosus muscles, the clitoris, the distal extremity of which is bent downwards at a right angle, is drawn down and pressed against the penis.

At the entrance of the vagina is the sphincter vaginæ muscle, whose action is reinforced by muscular fibres running in the middle coat of the vagina itself. It is probable that the muscular activity of the vagina and the uterus facilitates the entrance of the semen into the cavity of the uterus.

Dorsal decubitus is rightly regarded as the most correct position, physiologically speaking, for the woman to assume during coitus. That from the earliest times and in the most diverse races, this position has been customary, is shown by numerous antique paintings and statues, and by the reports of those who have studied the customs of savage races. Various other positions are, however, occasionally assumed; thus, Ploss and Bartels report, that among the Soudanese, coitus is practiced in the erect posture, with the man standing behind the woman; that among the Inuits (Eskimo), the act is performed in the manner usual among quadrupeds; that among the Swahelis in Zanzibar, and among the indigens of Kamschatka, the lateral posture is customary; and that among the Australian blacks, coitus is usually effected in the crouching posture, both parties squatting on their hams. The same writers remind us, that in the old calendars of the fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, definite commands and prohibitions for the conduct of marital intercourse are to be found, and that lucky and unlucky days, respectively, are specified for the performance of the act. These recommendations would appear to be relics of antiquity, for in the Sanscrit work Kokkogam, under the heading “Sexual Intercourse According to the Days of the Month,” exact instructions are given for the proper performance of coitus.

In the Kamasutra (the Indian ars amatoria, a work only in recent days rendered accessible to European readers in the translation of R. Schmidt), several chapters are devoted to the detailed description of the various methods of copulation, and rules are given for the carnal union of man and wife. But, as the Indian author justly remarks, “Rules are of value only for the control of moderate desire; when the wheel of passion has once begun to roll, to prescribe a course is no longer of any avail.” In this work, sixty-four varieties of erotic enjoyment are enumerated, and we find an explicatio coitus secundum mensuram, tempus, naturam, de modis inter coitum procumbendi, de minis coitibus, de coitu inverso, de viri inter coitum consuetudinibus.

At times, in order that coitus may be effective, some other position than the natural one is indispensable. Such a necessity has been recognized even by theologians, by whom any divergence from nature in this matter has usually been regarded as sinful. For instance, in the work of Craisson, De Rebus Venereis ad Usum Confessariorum, we read: “Situs naturalis est ut mulier sit succuba et vir incubus, hic enim modus aptior est effusionis seminis virilis et receptioni in vas femineum ad prolem procreandum. Unde si coitus aliter fiat, nempe sedendo, stando, de latere, vel praepostere (more pecudum), vel si vir sit succubus et mulier incuba, innaturalis est.... Sed tamen minime peccant conjuges si ex justa causa situm mutent, nempe ob aegritudinem, vel viri pinquetudinem, vel ob periculum abortus; quandoque ait St. Thomas, sine peccato esse potest quando dispositio corporis alium modum non patitur.”

In certain pathological states, as for the prevention of sterility, an abnormal posture during coitus may advantageously be recommended, in order to favour the entrance of the semen into the cervical canal, and to allow the semen to stay longer in the vagina before it flows out. An old and often efficacious means for this purpose is the performance of coitus with the woman in the knee-elbow posture. In order to favour the entrance of the semen into the deeper portion of the genital tract, Hegar and Kaltenbach recommend that after coitus the woman should remain for some time in the knee-elbow posture, while the man from time to time gently presses up the anterior abdominal wall, and then abruptly relaxes the pressure.—In the Talmud, coitus was regarded as unfruitful if performed when the woman was in the erect posture.

Casper reports the case of a woman with severe scoliosis, who had long remained sterile, and who only conceived (and was subsequently happily delivered) after performing coitus in the abdominal decubitus.

Guéneau de Mussy suggests the following, very characteristic, method of ensuring fertilization, one which also certainly dates from great antiquity: “Sed haud illicitum mihi visum est, si post diversa tentamina diutius uxor infecunda manserit, ipsum maritum digitum post coitum in vaginam immittere, et ita receptum semen uteri osteo admovere. Et cum ostiolo uteri haeret, ut in pervium canalem spermatozoidum motibus faventibus, prodeat, sperare non absurdum.” Eustache reports a case, the wife of a physician, in which this manoeuvre was effective in ensuring conception.

A similar procedure has been employed with success by Kehrer, in a case of enfeebled potency on the part of the male, leading to premature ejaculation. A speculum was introduced into the vagina, and through this instrument the semen, ejaculated in consequence of sexual excitement, was introduced into the vaginal fornix; conception ensued. In an analogous manner, A. Peyer recommended, in a case of partial impotence, in which special manipulations were needed to bring about ejaculation, that conception should be favoured in the following manner: Erection having been effected by ordinary sexual contact, the manipulations needed to produce ejaculation were carried out, and the penis was intromitted into the vagina the moment before ejaculation occurred. This has been done with fruitful results. Englisch reports the case of a hypospadiac who, in order to render coitus effective, used a condom in the anterior extremity of which he made an aperture. In this way he became the father of three children.

In very obese men with extremely protuberant abdomens, we may recommend for the furtherance of conception that they should have intercourse with their wives a parte posteriori; and the same recommendation may be made in cases in which the wife herself is extremely obese. In Australia, it is said that among the indigens, coitus is usually practiced a posteriori; and there is a saying in the Talmud to the effect that sexual intercourse performed in the ordinary manner does not lead to the conception of infants so good, wise, talented, and promising as those whose conception is the result of coitus a posteriori. Mohammed, on the other hand, declares, “Your wives are your tillage, go therefore unto it in whatsoever manner ye will.”

In cases of retroflexion of the uterus, with a markedly forward direction of the vaginal portion of the cervix, I have recommended to the husband that he should perform coitus with his wife in the upright sitting posture. In this posture the fundus uteri passes downwards and forwards, whilst the vaginal portion of the cervix passes upwards and backwards.

In cases of retroversion of the uterus with the formation of a cul-de-sac in the posterior vaginal fornix, Pajot recommends, with the aim of temporarily restoring the uterus to a position in which the occurrence of conception is favored, that for three or four days prior to coitus the patient should retain the fæces, eating the while freely of eggs and rice, and taking a small opium pill every evening; in cases of anteversion, the patient should retain her urine for a considerable time—five or six hours—before coitus; and in cases of lateral version he recommends that the patient should have intercourse while lying on that side towards which the vaginal portion of the cervix is directed.

Edis recommends that in cases in which there is sterility dependent upon backward displacements of the uterus, that the organ should be replaced while the patient is in the genu-pectoral posture, and a pessary inserted; coitus should then be effected without the patient’s changing her posture.

In the human species as compared with the lower animals, there has been a notable diminution in the frequency of the separate acts of intercourse, a diminution dependent upon the higher vital aims of the former. Burdach formulates as a physiological law that the frequency of sexual intercourse is inversely related to the duration of the act.

Amongst all civilized races, sexual intercourse ceases during menstruation, since in the normal man there is aversion to intercourse with a menstruating female.

By the Mosaic law, intercourse with a woman during menstruation and for seven days after the cessation of the flow, was forbidden under pain of death. The Talmud further ordains that a purifying bath shall be taken by the woman a week after menstruation. By intercourse itself, moreover, both man and woman were rendered unclean to the evening; and, according to the Mosaic law, both must bathe after the act of coitus. In the Koran, also, intercourse is forbidden during menstruation, and until the woman has been purified with water. The law’s of Islam demand from a man who marries a virgin that he shall have intercourse with her the first seven nights in succession; whilst he who marries a wife no longer virgin, needs to visit her only the first three nights in succession. Subsequently, during married life, the Mohammedan shall have intercourse with his wife regularly once a week. Amongst many savage races, intercourse is forbidden with a woman during pregnancy, the puerperium, and lactation.

The first act of intercourse is difficult and painful to the virgin. At times the rupture of the hymen is exceedingly difficult. Even after this, it is some time before genuine pleasure is experienced in sexual intercourse.

To the female, intercourse is harmful when performed with undue frequency, or during menstruation, or indiscriminately throughout pregnancy, or during the puerperium, or incompletely or in an unnatural manner, or finally when performed in an unsuitable bodily attitude.

“Unduly frequent performance of the act of coitus,” writes Hegar, “which is liable to occur either in marital or in illicit intercourse, gives rise to anæmia, defective nutrition, muscular weakness, intellectual and nervous exhaustion. Young and healthy individuals recuperate rapidly after excesses of brief duration, as is often seen in young married pairs. Sickly and elderly persons, on the other hand, are much more severely affected by sexual excess, and recover therefrom but slowly if at all. Long continued sexual excesses ultimately wear out even the strongest.”

Intercourse effected by force, or with a girl of immature age, is distinguished as rape, a punishable offence both in Germany and in Austria. The offence is defined as extra-marital intercourse with a female under the age of fourteen years, with or without the latter’s consent; or extra-marital intercourse with a female of any age against her will or deprived of the power of resistance—either by the use of actual force, by the employment of threats, or by loss of consciousness. With regard to the last specification, the law regards as rape intercourse with a woman unable to resist through loss of consciousness, whether that loss of consciousness is or is not produced by the direct action of the violator.

In the female, the act of intercourse, alike physically, in its natural consequences, and mentally, is at once more difficult and of more enduring results than in the male. A writer of the new school, who according to his own admission has no other interest than the study of the sexual life, writes of himself: “I have often enough had intercourse with members of the other sex, in a few cases, indeed, out of pure inclination; but in all cases alike the aim and the result were the same—as soon as I had gained my end, the affair was finished. Passion, a bestial act, exhaustion, commonly a feeling of loathing; in the best possible case a fugitive but not an agreeable memory; voilà tout.” To women, such a description, happily, is applicable only in the most exceptional cases.

With the completion of coitus, the voluntary and conscious action of the two parties to the act is at an end; the subsequent stages of the function of generation are independent alike of consciousness and will.

When complete intromission of the penis has been effected, and ejaculation takes place, the semen is usually deposited at the os uteri or in the immediate neighborhood of that orifice. During the act of ejaculation, a peristaltic contraction of the vagina occurs, by means of which the semen at the os uteri is subjected to a moderate degree of pressure; the contraction and the pressure may perhaps persist for some little time after the completion of the coitus. In rabbits on heat, such contractions of the vagina, by means of which the semen was forced under pressure into the interior of the uterus, have been actually observed.

During coitus, the uterine muscle is also active. During strong sexual excitement, the uterus descends in the pelvis, the downward movement being increased by the pressure on the woman’s abdomen. The os uteri externum is drawn open, and the aperture, hitherto flattened, now becomes rounded. At the same time, the secretion of the cervical glands is expelled, and small quantities of semen are sucked into the cervical canal. The plicae palmatae offer a certain hindrance to the entrance of the semen; but the surface of the interior of the canal is rendered much smoother by the free secretion of mucus by the cervical glands. Further, it appears highly probable that during the excitement of coitus, the mouths of the Fallopian tubes, ordinarily more or less tightly closed, become widely opened, so that the entrance of the spermatozoa is favored.

The muscular movements of the uterus were observed by J. Beck in a woman suffering from prolapse. During sexual excitement, the os uteri opened and closed rapidly five or six times in succession, remaining at last firmly closed. Further, in bitches on heat, Basch and Hoffmann observed the vaginal portion of the cervix to descend in the vagina, the os uteri opened, mucus was extruded, and the os was then retracted.

Hohl, Litzmann, and others have reported, that in women endowed with great nervous susceptibility, friction of the vaginal portion of the cervix with the finger arouses sexual sensation, with rounding of the os uteri externum, descent of the uterus, and hardening of the vaginal portion; this latter is regarded by Graily Hewitt and by Wernich as a necessary accompaniment of copulation. Henle believes that the hardening and protrusion of the vaginal portion of the cervix are due to a change in the tension of the delicate vessels of this structure, which have an exceptionally thick muscular coat; Rouget compares the mechanism with that by which erection of the penis is produced. These authors consider that sexual excitement is indispensable for the erection of the vaginal portion of the cervix.

Thus, Hohl writes: “Numerous observations have shown that in females endowed with a considerable degree of nervous susceptibility, and especially in nulliparae, during examination and during any increasing irritation, not only is there an increased secretion of the vaginal mucus, but also a momentary descent of the uterus and an opening of the os uteri externum, so that this orifice has the appearance for the instant of the open mouth of a tube.” Litzmann reports that during the vaginal examination of a young, extremely erethistic woman, the uterus suddenly assumed a more vertical position, and came lower down in the pelvis; at the same time, the lips of the cervix became equal in length, the os uteri externum became rounded, soft, and penetrable by the finger; whilst the breathing and the voice indicated the occurrence of intense sexual excitement. Rouget assumes that the body and the fundus of the uterus constitute an erectile organ, which however possesses capability for erection only during the period of ovulation; Hewitt, on the other hand, considers it extremely probable that the erection may occur at any time during sexual intercourse, whether ovulation is proceeding or not. A. Wernich considers, basing his views in part on personal observations, that erection of the lower segment of the uterus occurs, like erection of the penis, whenever a moderate degree of sexual excitement is experienced; in women, however, he believes that erection is seldom extreme, and that it declines with the other symptoms of sexual excitement, viz., flushing of the face, moisture and glistening of the eyes, peculiar groaning expiration, etc. Whereas during ovulation, erection is merely a necessary concomitant of the other menstrual processes; during coitus, erection not only occurs much more powerfully, but it is also an important—perhaps the most important—contributory factor in effecting fertilization.

It is no longer possible to accept the view of earlier physiologists that the purpose of this erection of the lower segment of the uterus is “to constitute with the penis a continuous canal between the male and the female genital organs.” Contact between the glans penis and the os uteri externum is not indeed an occurrence of extreme rarity; but, on the other hand, it is in no sense a constant nor even a frequent incident of sexual intercourse. It is ejaculation, especially, which is subserved by the erection of the vaginal portion of the cervix. In the female, ejaculation occurs at the moment of the most intense sexual pleasure, and is marked by the evacuation from the os uteri externum of a moderate quantity of mucous fluid with an alkaline reaction. In some cases, in which a chronic discharge of this cervical mucus occurs, it forms an elongated coagulum of delicate vitreous jelly, the “mucus-string” of Kristeller. The last-mentioned author is of opinion that the spermatozoa slowly, but by active movements, find their way along this string into the cavity of the uterus. This assumption, however, is met by C. Mayer and Marion Sims with the objection, that Kristeller’s observations were for the most part carried out on women who were out of health, and that a gelatinous secretion of this character obstructs the orifice of the cervical canal, and hinders the occurrence of conception. From the erection of the portio vaginalis during sexual excitement, and its sudden relaxation post cohabitationem, Wernich deduces the occurrence of a process of aspiration, by which the semen is drawn up through the cervical canal into the cavity of the uterus; a process which has been seen in actual occurrence in vivisected animals. It is said that to many women this feeling of a process of suction is so well known, that thereon, in association with the consequent almost complete absence of mucus and seminal fluid from the vagina, they are accustomed to base a belief that conception will occur. It is said that this aspiratory activity on the part of the uterus may be perceived during coitus by the male also (?). It is assumed by Grohe that the wave motion of the cilia of the epithelium lining the cervical canal, is of importance in promoting the ascent of the spermatozoa; it may be that the vibration of the cilia exercises a motile stimulus on the spermatozoa, it may be that the continually repeated stroke of the cilia serves to prevent the permanent agglutination of the spermatozoa into groups.

According to Sims, the aspiratory action of the uterus is effected in the following manner: By the contraction of the constrictor vaginae superior muscle, the cervix is pressed downwards against the glans penis, and by this pressure its contents are evacuated; the parts then relax, the uterus suddenly returns to its normal state, and thus the seminal fluid with which the vagina is filled is drawn into the interior of the cervical canal.

Eichstadt also attributes to the uterus an aspiratory force, dependent upon coitus, and competent to force into the interior of the uterus the semen ejaculated into the os uteri. The changes in the uterus which are the necessary antecedents of this aspiration, namely, an engorgement with blood whereby the flattened form of the uterus gives place to a more rounded form, and the cavity of the organ is increased in capacity, take place, in the opinion of this author, only when during intercourse the woman has attained the acme of sexual gratification, by which alone can the aforesaid change in the uterus be brought about. E. Martin and Chrobak have also directed attention to the fact, that some importance in this connexion must be attached to the facultative enlargement in the size of the os uteri externum.

Lott, by his researches into the behaviour of the cervix uteri in relation to the act of conception, is led to the conclusion that the locomotive capacity of the spermatozoa forms the principal factor in effecting a fertilizing contact between the spermatozoa and the ovum. This locomotive capacity may be increased or diminished by a number of conditions, among which the principal are: the activity of the cervix uteri (the ciliated epithelium); the character of the secretions; and the position, shape, and size of the cervix. Thus, this author concludes, the part played in conception by the normal cervical canal is a purely passive one, with the sole exception of the activity of the ciliated epithelium—and the influence of this factor must be regarded as extremely doubtful. That during ejaculation the external orifice of the male urethra and the os uteri externum are in close apposition, is denied by Lott, who adduces in support of his views data derived from comparative investigations on various animals. In the dog, the configuration of the genital organs is such that it is impossible to suppose that any apposition can occur; the same is the case with the sheep; and still more so with the rabbit, who possesses two quite distinct portions vaginales, projecting freely into the vagina. In the human species also, the character of the walls of the cervical canal, where in the normal state the plicae palmatae may almost be said to interlock, separated only by a thin stratum of mucus, offers a hindrance to the entrance of the ejaculated semen by the direct force of ejaculation itself. As regards the independent motile powers of the spermatozoa, the researches of Lott showed that not only can they overcome strong capillary currents, and can traverse the width of a coverglass (18mm.—about ¾ in.) in about five minutes; but further that they are capable of migration through the finest interstices (those of an animal membrane) provided that the fluid with which the membrane is moistened is one favourable to their vital activity.

Kehrer, who in general supports the view that the modus coeundi and an active attitude on the part of the female have an important influence on the occurrence of conception, assumes that independent contractions of the cervix occur, whereby is expelled the delicate plug of mucus that fills the cervical canal and offers an obstacle to the passage of the spermatozoa. He believes that the duration of the act of intercourse, the mechanical relations between the penis and the vagina, the activity of the uterine muscle, the secretory activity of the utero-vaginal mucosa during the act, and the posture of the female post coitum, are all important factors in the occurrence of conception. Thus, he believes that if during intercourse there is a failure of the uterine contractions, which should expel the plug of cervical mucus, the semen flows away without effecting fertilization; if an unsuitable posture is assumed during intercourse the woman remains sterile, but can be fertilized without difficulty by coitus effected in the proper manner.

Haussmann has shown, that in the same woman, and in similar conditions, spermatozoa will on one occasion be found in the cervical canal, and on another occasion will not be found there; and he has further shown, that in some women we fail to find spermatozoa in the cervical canal in circumstances in which, in other women, we regularly find them in that situation.

Far as we may be from a complete knowledge of the conditions upon which conception depends, this at least is certain, that the passage of spermatozoa through the os uteri externum is a sine qua non of fertilization. Indeed, it would seem that we must accept as true the assumption of Meyerhofer, that fertilization is possible only if the semen passes at once into the cervical canal, mingles, that is, at once with the alkaline cervical mucus—unless, indeed, the coitus takes place during the catamenial flow, when the blood has neutralized the acid reaction in the vagina, or takes place when some morbid condition has had the same result. The theory of Johann Müller, regarding the piston-like action of the penis during coitus, by which the semen is actually forced through the cervix, must be rejected; equally unsound is Holst’s assumption that during intercourse the semen is ejaculated through the enlarged cervical canal directly into the cavity of the uterus. It would appear, however, to be a necessary condition of fertilization, that the semen should be ejaculated into the uppermost segment of the vagina, so that the fluid comes into actual contact with the os uteri externum; it may be that the alleged aspiratory force of the uterus then comes into play, by means of which the semen is sucked into the cavity of that organ; it may be, on the other hand, that Beigel is right in his theory of the existence of a receptaculum seminis, formed by the anterior and posterior lips of the cervix uteri and the uppermost segment of the vagina—in this space, he supposes, a part of the semen is retained in contact with the orifice of the cervical canal.

It is, also, exceedingly probable that during coitus a reflex nervous mechanism becomes active, by means of which the uterine orifices of the Fallopian tubes are opened, the vaginal portion of the cervix descends in the vagina, the os uteri externum enlarges, the orifice becoming rounded where before it was flattened, and finally small quantities of semen may be aspirated into the cavity of the uterus.

I further regard it as important in promoting conception, that simultaneously with the changes above described, the reflex nervous stimulation should lead to the secretion by the cervical glands of a gelatinous material, alkaline in reaction, and therefore adapted to increase the locomotive powers of the spermatozoa, so that these latter, aided by the activity of the ciliated epithelium lining the cervical canal, will gain the interior of the cavity of the uterus, and thence pass onwards to the Fallopian tubes. The significance of the glands in the mucous membrane lining the cervical canal has hitherto been underestimated in this connexion.

Whereas in the primitive state of mankind, among savage races at the present day, as among our own prehistoric ancestry, nakedness is the rule, so also intercourse in these circumstances is effected altogether without any regulation by law or custom, on the mere prompting of unbridled natural passion, and, moreover, there is the fullest promiscuity in sexual relations; but civilization has led man to impose restraints upon sexual intercourse, and has introduced marriage as a sacred institution. Among certain primitive peoples, however, among whom the wives are common to all the men, transitory pairings nevertheless occur, especially when a woman becomes pregnant; to cease, however, during the period of lactation. “This is the origin of marriage, which has evolved from rape and prostitution, as law has evolved from crime” (Lombroso). This author makes an interesting observation when describing the entire freedom of sexual intercourse that obtains among the Red Indians of North America, to the effect that “often, times of general promiscuity occur, as with rutting animals, generally in the warm season of the year, when nutriment is abundant; it is difficult to indicate any distinction between the tumultuous orgies of the baboon, and those of the Australian Blackfellows, among whom the sexes keep apart during the greater part of the year, to intermingle like rutting beasts during the season of the yam-harvest.”

The paths of civilization, from the complete promiscuity of sexual intercourse to the lofty ideal of life-long monogamic union, has not been a straightforward one, but has been marked by various aberrations of sexual relationship; hetairism, prostitution, polyandry, incest, rape, the jus primae noctis, etc. The anthropologist is able to trace the successive stages of the development of the institution of monogamic marriage; the community of wives within the clan; free sale of wives and daughters; bestowal of a man’s wife or concubine for the honour of a guest; ritual prostitution for the honour of the gods and at numerous religious festivals; æsthetic and literary hetairism, with bestowal of favours according to free inclination; community of wives among all males of the same family; the claim of the wife to as many as five or six husbands; the right of brothers to their sisters; the defloration of virgins by the priests in heathen temples; the temporary possession of the wife by the chief of the community, prior to her possession by her permanent husband; defloration of the bride by the bonze before her marriage; the feudal right of the mediæval seigneur to the prima nox of the bride of his retainer.

In the lower stages of civilization, copulation appears so natural an action that it is performed in public entirely without shame. Thus, Cook, in his first voyage, describes having seen an indigen engage in sexual intercourse with a girl of eleven years, under the very eyes of the queen, with whom Cook was then having audience; the sexual act was, according to Cook, the favourite topic of conversation between the sexes. Herodotus reports that many peoples of antiquity had no regard for privacy in sexual intercourse, but that, like the lower animals, they had connexion in any company. In the Bible, also, it is recorded that sexual intercourse was practised in public: “So they spread Absalom a tent upon the top of the house; and Absalom went in unto his father’s concubines in the sight of all Israel.” (II. Samuel, XVI. 22.) According to Athenaeus, the Etruscans, at their public banquets, were equally unrestrained. Plutarch reports that among the Spartans the maidens and the young men went about naked together. Even, indeed, after the sense of modesty had begun to develop, it was long before any secret was made about the act of intercourse. In classical antiquity, it was very frequently the subject of pictorial and plastic representation. Even in more recent days, there have been artists who have not hesitated to depict the sexual act: thus we have the Venus with a Faun by Caracci; the Jupiter and Io of Correggio; the Leda and the Swan of Tintoretto; and similar pictures by Luca Giordano, Rubens, Titian, and Franceschini.

Even in the early centuries of the Christian era, the sect of the Adamites practised intercourse openly in the light of day, on the ground that that which was right in the dark, could not be wrong in the light. The same is reported of the sect of Turlupins, in France in the fourteenth century. We cannot refrain from quoting at length from Lombroso and Ferrero a passage relating to the evolution of sexual manners in the female sex (Woman as Criminal and Prostitute): “In the lowest stages of development, the feeling of modesty is entirely wanting; limitless freedom in sexual intercourse is the general rule; and even where no system of promiscuity prevails, marriage rather fosters than discourages prostitution, especially in countries in which husbands are accustomed to expose their wives for sale. This fact may be brought into relation with the well known lasciviousness of apes and other animals high in the scale, showing that sexual excitability increases pari passu with intelligence, so that to man it is as impossible as to an ape to satisfy his sexual needs with a single female. Whilst among the apes, a single male possesses a number of wives, we find in the gregarious life of primitive man that community of wives has taken the place of polygamy, which institution, however, reappears in a higher stage of culture for the benefit of the more powerful masculine natures.

“To the dominion of prostitution as a normal institution succeeds the period in which it persists as a variously metamorphosed survival: it may be as the duty of the wife to surrender her person to any other male of the same family; or the woman may have to bestow her favors on a religious or political chief, as in the institution of temple-prostitution, where the wife must give herself, it may be to any one and at any time, or it may be to defined persons only and at stated festivals. Frequently we meet with another development of prostitution, finding that while the wife must remain chaste, the unmarried woman is allowed unrestricted intercourse; or, again, the wife at certain definite periods may dispense with fidelity to her husband, and return to the primitive condition of promiscuity. In certain instances prostitution is combined with the duties of hospitality, and marriage, though approximating to the monogamic ideal, must tolerate the intrusion of the guest into the marriage bed.”

“In a third period, prostitution no longer fills the place of a traditional survival, but is a morbid manifestation confined to a certain class of the community. But bridging this transition of prostitution from a normal to a morbid manifestation, we have the remarkable phenomenon of æsthetic prostitution. Thus, in India and in Japan, an agreeable class of prostitutes practices the arts of singing and dancing, and forms a privileged caste; similarly, in the most flourishing period of Grecian culture, the leading men of the time formed a social circle around the hetairæ, from whom they derived a fruitful stimulus to intellectual and political activity. In this respect, history repeated itself in Italy in the sixteenth century. Alike in classical Greece and in mediæval Italy, this æsthetic prostitution fanned the flames of a period of intense spiritual activity—for in individuals as in races, intellectual quickening is ever accompanied by erotic excitability.”

The unbridled passion of the primitive races of mankind, the coercive love of beauty felt by the ancient Greeks, the swelling flood of erotism of the great mass of people of all times, is gradually guided into the quiet channel of the marriage bed; and even though monogamic marriage is incapable of fully providing for all manifestations of sexual passion, still, from the medical point of view, we must maintain that marriage is for women the most hygienic and the most proper means of gratification of the sexual impulse.

Conception.

The union between ovum and spermatozoön, whereby fertilization is effected, appears to occur in the human species as a rule in the outer third of the Fallopian tube, the ampulla of this structure (receptaculum seminis in Henle’s terminology) serving to store the semen for a considerable period; in the lower animals, the usual occurrence of fertilization in this region has been established by direct observation. The open mouth of the tube receives the mature ovum, guided thither from the ovary by appropriate movements of the ovarian fimbriae; these movements have been seen in active occurrence in the guinea pig by Hensen. Once within the tube, the onward movement of the ovum is effected by the cilia of the epithelium lining of the canal.

His has formulated the theory that in the human species fertilization is possible only in the uppermost segment of the tube; an assumption that is probable enough, but cannot be regarded as definitely established. An analogy certainly exists among the lower divisions of the animal kingdom, for Coste, His, and Ohlschläger have proved that an ovum which passes through the Fallopian tube without being fertilized, undergoes notable alterations. Further, Coste has shown, in the case of the ovum of the domestic fowl, that this is no longer capable of being fertilized after it has passed through the upper segment of the oviduct. Other authorities, however, namely Löwenthal, Mayrhofer, and Wyder, oppose the extension of this rule to the human species. Löwenthal assumes that in the human female, fertilization ordinarily occurs in the cavity of the uterus, in the wall of which the unfertilized ovum has already embedded itself; and he supports his contention by the statement that spermatozoa are not to be found in the Fallopian tubes or on the surface of the ovaries. Mayrhofer and Wyder point out that the movement of the cilia of the ciliated epithelium is in the interior of the uterus in an upward direction, but in the Fallopian tubes is downwards in the direction of the uterus.

The contention of Löwenthal was disproved by Birch and Hirschfeld, who, in a prostitute dying during the act of intercourse, found, fifteen hours after death, living spermatozoa in the Fallopian tubes. On the other hand, more recent investigations, those, for instance, of Hofmeier, Mandl, and Bonn, have confirmed the data given above with regard to the direction of the ciliary movement in the interior of the genital passages. Moreover, O. Becker has shown that the ciliated epithelium of the tubes extends over the fimbriae and even on to the adjoining pavement epithelium of the peritoneum; and he believes that the ciliary movement of this region keeps up a constant current, the purpose of which is to sweep the ovum into the ostium of the tube, and thence down towards the uterus. Lode has adduced positive experimental evidence of the occurrence of such a movement of translation.

The general result of anatomical investigation is, that the conjugation of the ovum with the spermatozoön takes places in the ampulla of the Fallopian tube; but it is established that fertilization may also take place lower down in the tubes, or in the uterine cavity, or even on the surface of the ovary, i. e., in the abdominal cavity.

The fertilization of the mature ovum—maturation having occurred within the ovarian follicle before its rupture—has been shown by numerous researches on the ova of other animals to consist in the fusion of the male and the female nuclear substance; and it appears that of the enormous number of spermatozoa, estimated by Lode at 226 million at a single ejaculation, that enter the female genital passage, but a single one penetrates the ovum. Towards the head of this spermatozoön there extends from the surface of the ovum a process, flat at first, but becoming more and more prominent, until it surrounds the head, and fuses with it. The motile tail of the spermatozoön disappears, whilst the head, which has now passed through the vitelline membrane and entered the ovum, assumes the appearance of a nucleus, and is called the male pro-nucleus. The original nucleus of the ovum has previously prepared itself for fertilization by the extrusion through the vitelline membrane of portions of its substance (known as polar globules), and now constitutes the female pro-nucleus. Towards this latter, situated somewhere near the centre of the cell, the male pro-nucleus continues to move, the vitelline granules meanwhile being disposed round about it in radiating lines, forming a star-shaped figure. Having come into contact, the two pronuclei fuse completely to form a new nucleus, the nucleus of the now fertilized egg-cell. The result of fertilization is the formation of the first segmentation-sphere, from which, by further subdivision, the new individual is formed. Thus is effected that which Hippocrates describes in the words: “The seed possessed both by man and by woman, flow together from all parts of the body; the fruit is formed by the mingling of the two seeds.”

Fig. 55A.—First Stage.       Fig. 55B.—Second Stage.
Entrance of a spermatozoon into the ovum of ascaris megalocephala. After preparations by M. Nussbaum. (Half of the ova only are depicted.)

Fig. [56].—Ovum of Asterakanthion ten minutes after fertilization.

Fig. [57].—Fusion of male pro-nucleus and female pro-nucleus to form the segmentation nucleus of the fertilized ovum.

The most favourable period for the occurrence of fertilization appears to be when intercourse takes places from eight to ten days after the termination of the menstrual flow. In 248 instances in which the date of the fruitful coitus was exactly known, it was ascertained by Hasler that in 82½ per cent. of all cases, conception was effected in the fourteen days succeeding the menstrual period. In general it may be stated that the theory of the periodicity of ovulation and of the causal relation of this process to menstruation, has not been shaken by the result of researches recently undertaken by opponents of that theory; hence it appears that the fertilized ovum is the ovum of the last completed menstruation.

Already in the writings of the old Indian physician Susruta, we find expression of the view that the period that immediately succeeds the cessation of the menstrual flow is one most favourable to conception. “The time of generation,” he says, “is the twelfth night after the commencement of menstruation.” In the Jewish Talmud, the day before the onset of menstruation, and the days immediately succeeding the cessation of the flow, are indicated as those most favourable to the occurrence of conception; moreover, in the Talmud, notwithstanding the fact that intercourse during menstruation is prohibited on pain of death, and that coitus is not regarded as permissible until the lapse of twelve clear days after the cessation of the flow, nevertheless the assertion is made that intercourse during menstruation may lead to conception.

Fig. [58]. —Passage of spermatozoon through the zona pellucida of the ovum of asterakanthion.

Fig. [59].—Ovum of scorpæna scrofa thirty-five minutes after fertilization.

Fig. [60].—Male pro-nucleus and female pro-nucleus in fertilized ovum of frog, prior to the formation of the segmentation nucleus.

Hippocrates writes: Hae nempe post menstruam purgationem utero concipat. Aristotle says: Plerasque post mensum fluxum nonnullas vero fluentibus adhuc menstruis. Galen writes: Hoc autem conceptionis tempus est vel incipientibus vel cessantibus menstruis.

Soranus writes to a similar effect: Just as the soil is suitable only at certain seasons for the reception of the seed, so also in the human race intercourse does not always take place at a time suited for the reception of the semen. To be effective, coitus must occur at the proper time.... The act of intercourse that is to lead to conception may best occur either just before or just after the menstrual flow, when, moreover, there is strong desire for the sexual embrace, and neither when the body is fasting, nor when it is full of drink and undigested food. The time before menstruation is, however, unsuitable, for then the womb is heavy from the flow of blood, and two conflicting tendencies will come into operation, one for the absorption of material and the other for its outflow. During menstruation, again, conception is unlikely to occur, for then the semen is wetted and washed away by the flowing blood. The sole proper time is that immediately after the flow, when the womb has freed itself from its humours, and warmth and moisture stand in harmonious relationship.

Among many of the castes of Hindustan, it is a religious ordinance that on the fourth day of menstruation a man shall have intercourse with his wife, “since this day is that on which conception is most likely to occur.” Indian physicians advise, in order to bring about conception, “that coitus be effected always as soon as the menstrual flow has ceased, at the end of the day, and when the lotus has closed.” In Japan, medical opinion is to the effect that a woman is capable of conceiving during the first ten days after menstruation, but not later (Ploss and Bartels).

The view that the first days of the intermenstrual interval are those most favourable to the occurrence of conception, is further confirmed by the statistical data collected by Löwenfeld, Ahlfeld, Hecker, and Veit; and it appears that as the date of the next menstruation is approached, there is a continual decline in the frequency of conception; just before the flow, conception hardly ever occurs. Hensen, from the records of 248 conceptions in which the date of the fruitful intercourse was exactly known, draws the following conclusions:

1. The greatest number of conceptions follow coitus effected during the first days after the cessation of the menstrual flow.

2. When coitus is effected during menstruation, the probability of conception increases day by day as the end of the flow is approached.

3. The number of conceptions following coitus effected shortly before menstruation is minimal.

4. However, there is no single day either of the menstrual flow or of the intermenstrual interval, on which the possibility of the occurrence of conception can be excluded.

Feokstitow has drawn up from statistical data an ideal “conception-curve,” which teaches that conception most readily ensues upon coitus effected soon after the end of the menstrual flow, in the first week, that is to say, of the intermenstrual interval; moreover, the curve shows that the highest percentage of conceptions occurs on the very first day after the cessation of the flow, and that after this day the percentage of conceptions declines. The percentage frequency of conceptions from coitus effected on the last day of menstruation, and on the first, ninth, eleventh, and twenty-third days, respectively, of the intermenstrual interval, is expressed by the ratio 48 : 62 : 13 : 9 : 1; and between the points given, the course of the curve is almost rectilinear. The probability of the occurrence of conception on the twenty-third day of the interval (on which day the curve reaches its lowest point), is one-sixty-second of the maximum probability.

The proper performance of coitus depends upon the potentia coeundi of the male; the attainment of conception depends upon his potentia generandi. The potentia generandi demands from the man the functional competence of the testicles, the perviousness of the seminal passages (namely, of the vasa deferentia and the urethra), the secretion of a normal semen, and, finally, a proper formation of the penis, whereby during ejaculation the semen may be deposited in sufficient proximity to the os uteri externum.

Normal semen is a whitish, semi-transparent fluid, of the consistency of thin cream. It contains aggregations of a nearly spherical shape, consisting of a vitreous, transparent, colourless or light yellow, gelatinous, elastic substance. Under the microscope this substance has a hyaline appearance, and exhibits in its interior innumerable clear spaces of varying size, which are apparently filled with a clear fluid. Not infrequently, these spaces are extremely narrow and therewith greatly elongated and disposed in parallels, so that the whole substance thus obtains a striated appearance. When treated with water, this material becomes whitish and non-transparent, and assumes under the microscope a finely granular aspect. When allowed to stand without agitation for twenty-four hours, this substance dissolves and becomes so intimately mingled with the seminal fluid that it can no longer be clearly differentiated therefrom. In all probability it is merely a secretory product of the seminal vesicles.

The truly fluid portion of the semen contains the following morphological elements:

1. Microscopic aggregations of hyaline substance, variously shaped.

2. Very numerous granules, small and extremely pale, albuminous in their nature, and disappearing on treatment with acetic acid.

3. A small number of rounded or oval cells, about the size of leucocytes, containing one, or sometimes two small round nuclei.

4. Prostatic calculi. These are an inconstant constituent, but are very frequently met with after repeated coitus. According to some observers they are derived also from the bladder and urethra. They are distinguished by their yellowish colour, their irregular form (sometimes triangular, sometimes rounded or oval), and by their characteristic structure. They are composed of a substance arranged in concentric laminæ, which in the centre has a granulated appearance; they often exhibit one or more oval nuclei.

5. Spermatozoa in countless numbers.

In exceptional cases we find as additional morphological elements, especially in elderly people, scattered erythrocytes, cylinder-epithelium cells, and masses or granules of yellow pigment.

The spermatozoa are about fifty micromillimetres in length. Two parts may be distinguished in each, a head and a tail. The head, four or five micromillimetres in length, is flattened, and differs in apparent shape—though generally more or less pear-shaped—according as to whether it is seen sideways or on the flat.

The tail, which is about forty-five micromillimetres in length, narrows from before backwards. The fine posterior extremity is said to contain the contractile element, so that it is upon this portion that the familiar movements of the spermatozoa depend (Fig. [61]).

The spermatozoa are made up of a substance very rich in sodium chloride, and strongly resistent to reagents and to putrefaction. In consequence of their richness in mineral constituents, the ash, when they are calcined, retains their original form.

The movements of the spermatozoa can be properly observed only in fresh, pure semen (Fig. [62]).

If freshly ejaculated semen is treated with water, the movements of the spermatozoa very shortly cease, and their tails become rolled up in a spiral form.

Fig. [61].—a. b. c. Prostatic calculi from normal semen. d. Spermatozoa. e. Large and small cells, some containing granules, as morphological elements of semen. f. Spermatozoon distorted by imbibition of water. g. Crystals. (After Bizzozero.)

Fig. [62].—Normal semen.

If semen is left undisturbed for twenty-four hours or longer, the vitreous substance dissolves in the surrounding fluid, and this latter separates into two layers, an upper which is thinner, and a lower, which is thicker and non-transparent. In the former, the morphological elements are found but sparingly, whilst in the latter, they are plentiful. In addition to the elements already described, we find often two varieties of crystals. One of these varieties, which appears only when decomposition is far advanced, consists of ammonium magnesium phosphate. The other variety has a chemical composition not yet determined. These crystals belong to the monoclinic system, forming prisms or pyramids, often with curved surfaces; they are colourless or light yellow; they lie superimposed, often forming beautiful star-shaped figures. They are soluble in mineral and vegetable acids, and in ammonia, but are insoluble in alcohol, ether, and chloroform; they are remarkably resistent to the solvent powers of cold water, but not so to those of boiling water. Shreiner has proved that these crystals consist of a phosphate of a base which is represented by the formula C2. H5. N. According to Fürbringer, these crystals are produced as a result of the action of the semen upon the prostatic secretion.

The quantity of semen ejaculated during coitus is very variable, depending upon the age and size of the individual and the formation of his testicles, upon his individual sexual capacity, and upon the question whether antecedently there has been sexual excess on the one hand or long continued continence on the other. In general, the quantity of semen ejaculated at one time varies between 0.75 and 6 c.c. (10 to 100 minims).

If healthy, normal semen, with adequate fertilizing potency, is properly preserved from cold and light, we may, even after the lapse of twenty-four hours, find under the microscope spermatozoa still engaged in active movement. Ultzmann employs for the description of a drop of fresh semen, the comparison that it is full of movement, “like a stirred up ant-heap.” Influenced by the whiplike lashings of the tail, the spermatozoön moves steadily forwards, finding its way through the narrowest passages on the microscopic field without striking any of the cellular structures that may lie in its path. The longer the semen remains under observation, the less active are these movements of the spermatozoa, for after ejaculation they gradually die, exhibiting after death an extended, or at most a slightly curved tail; those spermatozoa, on the other hand, that were dead before ejaculation, have the tail spirally twisted, rolled up, or acutely bent. In the case of spermatozoa which have been destroyed by the action of some other deleterious secretion, as by urine or by acid vaginal secretion, such a condition of the tail is very commonly seen. When the semen is treated with water, the movements of the spermatozoa soon cease, and the ends of their tails frequently roll up to form loops. By the addition, however, of concentrated solutions of neutral salts, of albumen, of urea, etc., it is possible to reanimate these motionless spermatozoa, so that they once more are seen to perform active movements. Moderately concentrated animal secretions of an alkaline reaction are favourable to the motor activity of the spermatozoa, whilst on the other hand dilute and acid secretions, such as urine, acid mucus (including the acid vaginal mucus), and catarrhal secretions, even when alkaline in reaction, have a depressant influence on this activity. Caustic potash and caustic soda stimulate the movements of the spermatozoa. When they are cooled down to a temperature below 15° C. (59° F.), the movements cease entirely. Salts of the heavy metals, and mineral acids in solution, also bring their movements to a pause. Frequent repetition of coitus causes a diminution in the number and in the motor activity of the spermatozoa.

Semen which contains no spermatozoa, or in which the spermatozoa are motionless, is absolutely devoid of fertilizing power; in the case of such semen, it makes no difference whatever that the external genitals of the man generating it are strongly formed, that his testicles are of normal size, and that erection and ejaculation take place promptly. Of very little value, though not absolutely sterile, is semen containing very few living spermatozoa, or, among very numerous motionless spermatozoa, containing a few only that are engaged in active movement. Suspect, is semen which does not possess the normal light greyish white tint, but is brownish-red, brownish-yellow, yellow, or violet; these variations in colour indicating an admixture with the semen of varying quantities of blood or pus, in consequence of disease of the urethra, the prostate, the seminal vesicles, or some other part of the uropoietic system; such admixtures seriously impair the quality of the semen. An unfavourable judgment must also be passed on semen which, at each successive ejaculation, is voided in very small quantities only—from half a drachm to a drachm. When thus scanty, semen is often found to contain an exceptionally large proportion of dead spermatozoa. We may regard very favourably semen which is voided in quantities considerably in excess of the average; sometimes, when there is a veritable polyspermia, there may be an ounce or upwards, more than three times as much as normal—provided, of course, that this semen so richly voided is of a satisfactory quality, and contains an ample proportion of active spermatozoa. The most valuable characteristic in semen is exhibited when the spermatozoa it contains are not only very numerous and vigorously active, but when they are also very long-lived, when, that is to say, they retain the power of active movement sometimes for as long as three days. A decisive opinion as to the quality of a man’s semen can be given only as the result of precise and repeated microscopic examinations, and the medical man must be most careful, when in his first examination he has not been able to detect the presence of any living spermatozoa, to abstain from giving, on that account alone, an adverse decision—from pronouncing sentence of death on the man’s reproductive potency.

It has not hitherto been accurately determined how long spermatozoa can continue to live in the interior of the uterus, although the point is of great importance, not only in relation to conception, but also in regard to the theory of menstruation. Percy has published a case in which, eight and a half days after the last coitus, he saw living spermatozoa emerge from the os uteri externum. Sims bases upon his own researches the decisive opinion that in the vaginal mucus, spermatozoa can never survive longer than twelve hours, but states that in the mucus of the cervical canal they can live much longer. If thirty-six to forty hours after coitus, we examine the cervical mucus under the microscope, we commonly find living and dead spermatozoa in about equal numbers. Many of the living ones will survive their removal from the cervix for as much as six hours longer.

Of especial interest are the conditions which are liable to deprive a man of the power to produce fertilizing semen. In the first place must be mentioned congenital absence of both testicles—a condition which, in otherwise normally formed male individuals, is one of extreme rarity. Congenital absence of one testicle is less rare, and is usually accompanied by absence also of the epidydimis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle of the same side. The potentia gestandi of a monorchid depends upon the proper development of his single testicle, and the functional capacity of this organ must be ascertained by a careful microscopic examination of his semen. Much more frequent than absence of the testicle, though still sufficiently rare, is the condition of cryptorchism, non-descent of one or both testicles, a state not necessarily associated with functional incapacity of the organ. Most commonly, however, an undescended testis is an imperfectly developed testis, and in the very great majority of cases the ejaculated fluid contains no spermatozoa.

A further cause of the lack of potent semen is atrophy of the testicles with notable diminution in the size of the glands, and more or less complete disappearance of the seminiferous tubules and their cellular contents. This state is rarely congenital, being nearly always acquired: in consequence of inflammatory conditions affecting the testicle proper or the epididymis (syphilitic inflammation, especially, is apt to lead to overgrowth of the interstitial connective tissue and to gradual destruction by pressure of the seminal tubules)[^[46]]; or in consequence of the pressure of a hernia, a varicocele, a hydrocele, or a tubercular, carcinomatous, or other new growth; or in consequence of constitutional disorders, especially long-lasting, severe, and exhausting diseases, such as diphtheria, diabetes, or chronic alcoholism; in consequence of diseases affecting that portion of the central nervous system from which the nerves supplying the genital organs arise; in consequence of degenerative changes resulting from sexual excesses; or, finally, in consequence of senile changes, such as fatty changes in the cells of the seminiferous tubules. Certain drugs also, digitalis, salicylic acid, mercury, iodide of potassium, arsenic, and morphine, have an unfavourable influence alike on the quality of the testicular secretion and on the potency of the individual. Von Gyurkovechky reports that in Bosnia a plant locally known as “neven” is employed among the peasantry for the temporary suppression of sexual potency, wives giving it to their husbands when the latter are about to leave them and go upon a journey, and sprinkling the leaves of the plant among the underclothing.

Fig. [63]—Semen consisting chiefly of sperm-crystals, cylindrical epithelium and small granules exhibiting molecular movement—but containing no spermatozoa.

By the name of azoospermia is denoted a condition whose existence can be determined only by microscopic examination.

The subject of this affection has normal potentia coeundi, the semen is ejaculated in quite normal fashion, and it is its constitution only that is faulty. In appearance it is extremely fluid, and is somewhat cloudy; its sediment contains molecular detritus and spermatic crystals, but no spermatozoa (Fig. [63]). If the medical man makes it his rule, in all cases in which he is consulted on account of sterility, in deciding how far this sterility is dependent on the condition of the husband, not to confine himself solely to the customary questions, whether intercourse is regularly practised, whether before or after menstruation, etc.—but if in every case he makes a careful examination of the semen under the microscope, he will be astonished to learn the comparative frequency with which he will note the complete or nearly complete absence of spermatozoa. This condition of azoospermia may be permanent or transitory.

To Kehrer belongs the credit of having pointed out that sterility is less often due to impotence or to aspermatism than to azoospermia—a condition often unsuspected by husband and wife, and one to be diagnosed by the physician only after repeated microscopic examinations of the semen. For this reason, indeed, its existence is often overlooked. Kehrer believes himself to be justified in asserting that one-fourth of all cases of sterility (if not indeed more) must be referred to conditions affecting the husband, and most often to azoospermia; hence he concludes, that the husband must still more often be regarded as the one to blame for the occurrence of sterility, when the cases are borne in mind in which a man marries with an imperfectly healed gonorrhœa, and infects his wife, giving rise to a chronic tubo-uterine blennorrhœa, and ultimately to sealing up of the tubes and to sterility.

Complete absence or marked scarcity of spermatozoa in the semen may occur also without any change in the testicle that can be detected by an external examination, as a consequence of contusions of the testicle, or of gonorrhœal inflammation of the epididymis or vas deferens; further as a sequel of severe general diseases, long-continued physical exertion, or great sexual excess.

In some cases, a microscopical examination reveals, not azoospermia, but oligozoöspermia, that is to say, the number of living spermatozoa in the semen is remarkably small. Or, again, the anomaly may be of this character that the spermatozoa are smaller than normal, that they are motionless, and that their tails are broken off—such are the peculiarities, as a rule, of the semen of old men.

A less common condition than azoospermia, but one the pathological importance of which is equally great, is aspermatism, in which the man, neither during coitus, nor in any other form of sexual excitement, is able to ejaculate any semen. This condition may be congenital or acquired; it may be permanent, or transitory (lasting a few weeks or months). In these cases we have to do with organic changes in the testicles, diseases of the prostate, gonorrhœal processes, or nervous disturbances resulting in a loss of irritability in the reflex centre for ejaculation. Aspermatism in the narrower sense of the term, a condition, that is to say, in which there is total suspension of the activity of all the three glands which combine to secrete the composite fluid known as semen, namely, of the testicle, the prostate, and the seminal vesicles—is, according to Fürbringer, probably non-existent. The pathological state underlying aspermatism would rather appear to be, not a failure to secrete semen, but a failure to ejaculate it.

Fig. [64].—Oligozoöspermia. a. Living spermatozoa, b. Dead spermatozoa, c. Pus corpuscles, d. Erythrocyte, e. Seminal granules.

Last of all, we have to speak of conception without copulation, of artificial fertilization. In consequence of the mechanical hindrances which in many cases prevent the entrance of the semen into the interior of the uterus, the idea has arisen to introduce the semen by means of instruments directly into the cervical canal, dispensing with the natural act of copulation. Experience long ago gained in artificial pisciculture, no doubt gave rise to this idea. Spallanzani and Rossi by means of a syringe injected the semen of a dog into the vagina of a bitch, the procedure resulting in impregnation. Girault appears to have been the first,[^[47]] in the year 1838, to introduce semen artificially into the human uterus, if we leave out of consideration the experiment of Léseurs, who introduced a tampon moistened with semen into the interior of the vagina. The procedure employed by Girault is thus described: The patient having been placed in the position usually employed for gynecological examination, a canula resembling a male catheter with the eye in its point, and with a funnel-shaped enlargement at the opposite extremity, is introduced into the uterus, this instrument having first been prepared by moistening its interior with mucilage and filling it with semen; by insufflation, the semen is now expelled into the uterine cavity. It is stated that neither uterine colic nor any other dangerous symptom has ever been brought on by this procedure. The experiments were made at various periods between the year 1838 and the year 1861; they were ten in number, and of these eight proved successful, two unsuccessful. In the ten cases, the total number of insufflations made was twenty-one—the minimum number in any single case being one, the maximum five. In one case, the insufflation was effected immediately after the cessation of menstruation; in the majority, from one to four days after the cessation of menstruation; in one case twelve days, in one case twenty-three days, after the cessation of the flow. Gautier, instead of insufflations, has employed injections of semen, using two injections in each case, one just before menstruation was expected, the other a day or two after the cessation of the flow. Marion Sims endeavoured in twenty-seven cases to bring about conception by the injection of semen into the uterus; in one of these cases only was the desired result obtained. In this latter instance the patient was twenty-eight years of age, had been married for nine years, but had remained barren. Throughout her menstrual life, she had suffered more or less from dysmenorrhœa, often accompanied by severe constitutional disturbance, such as syncope, vomiting, and headache. Local examination disclosed the existence of retroversion of the uterus with hypertrophy of the posterior wall, an indurated, conical cervix, with stricture of the cervical canal, especially in the region of the os uteri internum. In addition to all these mechanical obstacles to conception, it was found that the semen was never retained in the vagina after coitus. Sims examined the patient immediately after coitus had taken place, but never found a single drop of semen in the vagina, notwithstanding the fact that this fluid had been ejaculated in abundance. Sim’s first care was to bring about reposition of the uterus, and to keep the organ in its proper place by the insertion of a suitable pessary. Injections of semen were then undertaken, and were continued throughout a period of nearly twelve months. In two instances, the injection was effected immediately before the onset of the menstrual flow; in eight instances it was effected at varying times (two to seven days) after the cessation of the flow. At first, three drops of semen were injected, but later only half a drop. The semen (first ejaculated into the vagina during normal intercourse) was injected by means of a glass syringe, which was kept in a vessel of warm water at a temperature of 98° F. Since during the removal of the instrument from the water and its insertion into the vagina, some fall in temperature necessarily occurred in the vagina, Sims allowed the syringe to remain for some minutes in the vagina before he drew the semen into it, in order that he might feel assured that syringe and vagina had regained the temperature most adapted to the vital activity of the spermatozoa. The nozzle of the syringe was then carefully introduced into the cervical canal, and half a drop of semen was slowly injected into the uterine cavity. For two or three hours after the operation, the patient remained lying quiet in bed. After the tenth experiment, conception ensued—the first recorded case of artificial fertilization in the human species.

With right, however, this case of Sim’s was not regarded as conclusive, since both before and after the injection, ordinary coitus had been effected, and it is therefore impossible to determine whether the fertilizing spermatozoön was one of those introduced by means of the syringe, or in the antecedent or subsequent coitus—more especially in view of the fact that by the insertion of a pessary Sims had, previously to undertaking the injections, restored the uterus to a position more suited to the occurrence of conception in the natural manner.

In a case which a priori seemed exceedingly well adapted for the performance of artificial fertilization, one of marked hypospadias in a man whose semen was abundant and contained a large number of vigorously moving spermatozoa, I saw this experiment fail, in spite of all possible care in its performance. In fact, not a single conclusive instance of successful artificial fertilization in the human species is known to me, though I have seen reports of numerous disagreeable and even dangerous results of attempts to effect it. Both parametritis and perimetritis have occurred in such cases; and semen, being a material in a state of most intense molecular movement, may be regarded as extremely liable to noxious transformations.

Sim’s procedure has been modified by other gynecologists. Thus, Courty’s plan was that during coitus the semen should be collected in a condom, fitting not too closely, from which receptacle it was drawn up into a syringe and carefully injected into the cervical canal. Pajot’s plan was that the semen should be ejaculated into the vagina in natural coitus, and should thence be pressed into the uterine cavity by means of a piston-like instrument introduced into the vagina.

In London, Harley frequently made the experiment of injecting semen into the uterine cavity, but in all cases without any result.

P. Muller, in two cases, on account of extreme anteflexion of the uterus, performed this experiment. Though the general conditions were in both cases extremely favourable, in neither instance was there any result. It must, however, be mentioned that in one of his cases only had there been any preliminary examination of the semen under the microscope.

Fritsch reports a case in which gonorrhœal secretion was injected in place of semen. Peritonitis, which for a month endangered life, was the result.

In Paris, Lutaud has earnestly advocated artificial impregnation in cases of sterility in which all other means have failed. It is obvious that it would be useless to employ this measure after the menopause, or in women in whom menstrual activity has ceased prematurely, with simultaneous disappearance of all menstrual molimina. Equally useless would it be in uterine atrophy and in cases of irremediable malformation of the female genitals. Further contra-indications, according to Lutaud, are offered by chronic pelvic peritonitis, since here, on account of the obliteration of the lumen of the Fallopian tubes, the operation is foredoomed to failure. Chronic inflammatory states of the uterus and its mucous membrane, will also render the attempt useless. Moreover, it is a condition indispensable to success that the semen to be employed shall have been examined microscopically, and shall have been found to be thoroughly healthy. The operation has the greatest prospect of success when undertaken from three to two days before the due date of menstruation. The method employed is that of Sims. If after the first attempt, the due menstruation should begin, the injection should be repeated a week after the flow has ceased; the attempt should not, however, be repeated more than about six times in all, since the probability of success rapidly diminishes with each successive endeavour. Before the operation is undertaken, the permeability of the cervical canal must be ascertained. Further, in order that the spermatozoa shall be placed in conditions in which they have the best possible chance of survival, a weak alkaline solution, such as 1 per cent. of potassium bicarbonate, should as a preliminary measure be injected into the vagina.

Lutaud thus describes the procedure he employs. Immediately after the woman has had intercourse with her husband, a Fergusson’s speculum is introduced into the vagina, the patient remaining in the dorsal decubitus. As the speculum passes in, its margin scrapes the surface of the vagina, and by this means the semen is collected in the vicinity of the cervix. The semen is then drawn up into a Pravaz syringe or an analogous instrument, such as a uterine catheter armed at one end with a rubber ball. The fluid is then carefully injected into the cervical canal, or preferably into the uterine cavity, great care being taken not to injure the mucous membrane in any way, since the slightest bleeding may nullify the whole procedure. Finally, a small tampon of absorbent cotton-wool is inserted into the os uteri externum. For some hours the woman must remain quiet in bed; the tampon is not removed for ten hours. As regards results, Lutaud informs us that he has in this way treated twenty-six cases. In twenty-two of these, failure was complete; in one case, success was partial—the patient was impregnated, but abortion occurred two weeks later; in another case, abortion occurred after three months pregnancy; finally, in two cases, success was complete.

Indications for the employment of artificial impregnation are: first, the existence of stenosis in the upper part of the cervical canal, especially stenosis from flexion, provided, of course, that other measures are contra-indicated or have been fruitlessly employed; secondly, a deleterious character of the secretion of the cervical canal; thirdly, extreme cases of hypospadias in the male. Haussmann recommends the employment of artificial impregnation in cases in which the spermatozoa are found to enter the cervical canal, but fail to pass through the os uteri internum. Whilst artificial impregnation is theoretically a sound measure, yet in the practice the indications for its performance are by no means easy to establish. For, in cases in which there is some mechanical hindrance to the contact of the spermatozoön with the ovum (and it is for such cases only that this method of artificial fertilization can properly be employed), it is often extremely difficult, and may even be quite impossible, to exclude the possibility of there being some failure in ovulation itself, or in the maturation of the ova; or, again, sterility may depend, not on the fact that no ova are fertilized, but on the fact that when fertilized they always fail, for some reason, to find a resting place in the uterus; in a word, in any case in which sterility appears to be due to mechanical obstacles to conception, it may in reality be due to some other disease which has escaped recognition, some organic disease of the uterus, the tubes, the ovaries, of the periuterine tissues.

Finally, it must be remembered that the manipulation is far from easy in its performance. Above all, the semen must be subjected to a most rigorous microscopical examination in respect of its fertilizing capacity. But this examination cannot be made in the case of the semen that is actually used for the attempt at artificial fertilization; it can only be done with an earlier specimen from the same man. If the semen contains no living spermatozoa, or very few only and these sluggish in their movements, still more if it contains pus corpuscles or gonococci, all idea of its employment for artificial fertilization must be rejected.

The method employed by Sims, in which the semen is drawn into a syringe inserted into the vagina post coitum, is one which I am not able to recommend, since in this way together with the semen some vaginal mucus is drawn up, thus, instead of pure semen, we inject into the vagina semen mixed with various impurities, and more especially with an acid secretion known to be unfavourable to the life of the spermatozoa—a circumstance that will doubtless explain many of the failures that have hitherto taken place. It is certainly better that the semen of the husband should be collected in a rubber condom. The preservation of the material to be injected at a suitable temperature (the normal body-temperature), is by no means easy. The syringe, an ordinary Braun’s uterine syringe, is first disinfected, and then lies ready in water of the proper temperature. The semen is rapidly drawn up into the syringe, the nozzle of which is then passed down to the fundus uteri. Quite a small quantity of semen will suffice. After the manipulation, which should of course be undertaken at the time most favourable to conception, just after menstruation, the woman should lie quiet in bed for some hours.

In considering the probability of a successful issue to any such attempt to secure artificial fertilization, we cannot leave out of consideration the likelihood that that result may be prejudiced by the lack of all normal sexual feeling on the part of the wife; concerning the significance of such feeling in relation to the sexual act, we have however as yet no certain knowledge.

That this procedure of artificial fertilization is extremely disagreeable to all concerned therein, the physician not excepted, and that various moral and social considerations can be alleged against it, is incontestable. It is indeed recorded that in Bordeaux a legal penalty was inflicted on a medical man who undertook to bring about artificial fertilization. The Society of Medical Jurists debated this matter, and came to the conclusion that, whilst a medical man was not justified in recommending the practice, neither was he justified in refusing to undertake it when requested by his patients. In Paris, a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Medicine made artificial fecundation the subject of his thesis, and maintained that its practice, when effected with all proper social precautions and according to scientific principles, was possible, reasonable, useful, and moral, and that in many instances it should be recommended by the physician. After a long and stormy debate, the Faculty of Medicine determined to reject the thesis and to destroy all specimens of it already printed, on the ground that “they feared, if they gave their sanction to the practice, that a number of more or less unscrupulous physicians would make that sanction the basis of improper practices, dangerous alike to the family and to the state, since the operative method under consideration was one likely to be eagerly exploited by the whole tribe of medical charlatans.” This weighty pronouncement would appear to be sufficient ground for rejecting artificial fecundation as a matter of routine practice; still, very exceptional cases may be encountered in which it may be seized as an ultimum refugium.

Pathology of Copulation.

The act of copulation may be interfered with or entirely prevented by pathological conditions affecting the genital canal of the woman, and also by disturbances of the nervous system—naturally also by any abnormality affecting the performance of the male partner in the act.

Abnormality of the hymen, such as excessive strength and rigidity, rendering the organ unduly persistent, is a not infrequent hindrance to intercourse, one that sometimes is not overcome even after years of married life; to such a state of affairs ignorance on the part of the married pair in respect to the proper method of intercourse, lack of sufficient sexual power on the part of the male, or inflammation of the fossa navicularis brought on by maladroit attempts at penetration, may contribute, likewise undue passivity on the part of the female partner.

Fig. [65].—Septate Hymen, the septum having a tendinous consistency.

A notable and sometimes an insuperable obstacle (of which it has been written, nec Hannibal quidem has portas perfringere valuisset) is constituted by that abnormality of the hymen in which the aperture in that membrane is guarded by a sagittally placed or sometimes oblique septum, dense and almost tendinous in structure. In a woman of twenty-four years, who for two years had lived in sterile wedlock, I found such a tendinous hymen septum. She had menstruated regularly since the age of seventeen years, but always painfully. She complained that her husband was “very weak,” inasmuch as on her bridal night he was unable to succeed in completing intercourse, and since then whenever he attempted intercourse, premature ejaculation resulted, before penetration of the penis had been effected. In consequence of this repeated ineffectual sexual excitement, she had herself become very nervous. On local examination, I found an elongated oval hymen, not completely covering the vaginal orifice, rather strong and thick, and divided in two halves by a median sagittal septum, of a densely tendinous consistency. On either side of the septum, the vaginal orifice would admit no more than the head of an ordinary uterine sound. I divided this septum, and was informed later that the woman had become pregnant as a result of the first subsequent act of intercourse (Fig. [65]).

A remarkable case of abnormality of the hymen is recorded by Heitzmann, having been observed by him in a woman aged twenty-seven years. In this instance, the hymen was represented by a swelling, smooth on the surface and separated from the nymphæ by a deep furrow. Behind this swelling, between it and the posterior commissure, there was a deep depression, into which the finger could be passed to a depth of an inch and a half or more. Anteriorly, the very firm and fleshy prominence was bounded by a ridge, from the middle of which to the urethral orifice ran a short but strong and tense septum. Right and left of this septum were small apertures, with difficulty admitting the point of a probe. Between the anterior extremity of the septum and the urethral orifice was a nodular representative of the swelling normally present in this situation. Surrounding the urethral orifice were two or three additional small nodules. The two lateral margins of the hymen were prolonged around the urethral orifice, and united in front thereof to form a raphe, which could be traced as far as the base of the clitoris. The young woman had been married for some months, and asserted that she had repeatedly had intercourse. With such a condition of the female genitals, penetration of the penis into the vagina was however quite impossible. During coitus, the penis must have been inserted into the aforesaid depression behind the swelling, which was sufficiently extensible for the purpose.

A less serious hindrance to intercourse, but one more frequently encountered, is a partial persistence of the septum of the hymeneal orifice, in such a manner that there is a projecting tongue of membrane from the anterior and posterior margins of the orifice, partially blocking this latter; or there may be a single median projection only, either in front or behind. Such processes may be remarkable alike for their size and their shape. Liman describes a cordiform hymeneal orifice, constituted by an anterior or posterior protection of the kind here described.

In cases of imperforate hymen in which the occlusion of the vagina is not complete, impregnation may in rare instances occur, even though proper intromission of the penis is quite impossible. Cases of this kind have been observed by Scanzoni, Horton, K. Braun, Leopold, Brill, Breisky, and others.

Fig. [66].

In most of these cases there was a thick, dense, “imperforate,” or rather persistent hymen, with an orifice no larger than the head of an ordinary probe, notwithstanding which pregnancy had occurred. The cases reported by Brill were of a different character, being those of two young unmarried Russian girls, with normal undestroyed hymens, who were found to be pregnant. According to Brill, such cases are by no means uncommon among the peasantry of Little Russia, where the barbarous practice prevails of adolescent girls and boys sleeping together. In these circumstances, sexual intercourse takes place, but, from fear of consequences, it is often incomplete. Hence, in occasional cases, results pregnancy in a young girl with intact hymen.

In the first complete act of intercourse, the defloration of the virgin, the hymen is as a rule torn in several directions, and in consequence there is usually moderate bleeding. The lacerations of the hymen soon skin over. When the initial coitus is effected maladroitly or roughly, more extensive lacerations are apt to occur, and the injury may not be limited to the hymen, but may extend longitudinally along the vaginal wall, and even involve the posterior vaginal fornix. Or, again, without any such extensive laceration, there may result very profuse bleeding, in consequence of abnormally profuse vascularization of the hymen. Cases are also recorded in which (presumably not from normal coitus alone, but from other, unacknowledged manipulations), whilst the hymen has been left intact, false passages have been made, leading to the formation of fistulæ, with subsequent death from haemorrhage or sepsis.

Apart from impotence in the male, the hymen may remain intact when it is not touched at all during coitus. Inexperience, as Veit remarks, will in this matter lead to results almost incredible. This author has been informed by such inexperienced married couples, that in attempts at intercourse “the penis of the man is introduced between the thighs of the woman, which are closely pressed together, the man having his legs on either side. Naturally, in this method of intercourse, the hymen escapes destruction. In such attempts at coitus, things are done which can hardly be compared with the normal act of copulation.”

In isolated instances, the introduction of the penis is prevented by congenital or acquired defects in the formation of the external genitals. Adhesion between the labia majora and the labia minora is sometimes met with a congenital deformity, which may or may not be associated with atresia of the urethral orifice; in some cases the adhesion is dependent merely upon a superficial epithelial continuity, but in others the labia are firmly adherent throughout. Less rare are acquired adhesions, the result of accident, between the labia majora and the labia minora, leading to atresia of the vulva, and thus making copulation impossible.

Intromission of the penis may be rendered quite impossible by excessive size of the labia majora, consequent upon elephantiasis, in which disease there is enormous hypertrophy of the subcutaneous connective tissue. New growths may have the same result, fibroids, for instance, lipomata, and cysts, which may attain a remarkable size in the cellular tissue of the labia, the mons veneris, and the perineum, and also in the nymphæ and in the cellular tissue between the clitoris and the urethral orifice. In a very obese woman twenty-eight years of age I saw a lipoma attached to the right labium majus. In the course of six years it had grown to such an enormous size, that it extended downwards over the thigh, blocked the entrance to the vagina, and made coitus absolutely impossible (Fig. [67]). Various forms of labial hernia are also competent to occlude the vaginal orifice.

Fig. [67].—Lipoma of the right labium majus, occluding the vaginal inlet.

Hypertrophy of the nymphæ, which, as the so-called Hottentot Apron has to be regarded as a racial peculiarity, is known also in Europe as a pathological condition which may at times constitute a hindrance to sexual intercourse (Fig. [68]). According to Otto there are three fundamental forms of the Hottentot apron, viz., excessive enlargement of the nymphæ, overgrowth of the labia majora, and, lastly, the formation of a peculiar lobe of flesh and skin, attached to the mons veneris by a pedicle, containing the clitoris, and covering the genital fissure as with a valve. Hypertrophy of the nymphæ is said to be common also in Turkish and in Persian women. Owing to the obstacle to intercourse presented by hypertrophied nymphæ, it is among certain races an established custom to amputate clitoris and nymphæ together. Virey writes: “The Portuguese Jesuit missionaries to Abyssinia in the sixteenth century, endeavoured to abolish this practice of the circumcision of women, which they regarded as a relic of Mohammedanism; the uncircumcised maidens, however, could find no husbands, owing to the inconvenient length of their nymphæ. The pope sent surgeons to the country, to enquire into the matter, and their reports were in such sense that circumcision was permitted as necessary.” Davis reports observations made by Sonini on the female indigens of lower Egypt, in whom the vulva hangs down in the form of a loose, flabby mass of flesh, of striking length and thickness, completely covering the genital fissure. He believes that the circumcision that was practised on the women of ancient Egypt consisted in the removal of this hypertrophied vulva.

Fig. [68].—“Hottentot apron” in an adult woman, hanging down between the thighs. (After Zweifel.)

Courty saw a case in which the remarkable length of the labia minora, which when an attempt was made to introduce the penis, covered the vaginal orifice, had rendered coitus ineffective, and had caused sterility for five years. Resection of the labia minora was followed by successful intercourse and conception.

The lipomatous form, especially, of elephantiasis vulvae often attains a gigantic size. Growths of this nature, of the size of a child’s head, weighing six or seven kilo (thirteen to fifteen pounds), and reaching down to below the knee, are by no means rare. I have known several cases in which an excessive accumulation of fat in the vulva associated with pendulous belly has constituted a mechanical obstacle to the completion of sexual intercourse.

Fig. [69].—Elephantiasis of the labia majora

Hypertrophy of the clitoris may constitute an obstacle to coitus. In exceptional cases, this organ is as large as the male penis, and hangs down over the genital fissure like a valve. Hyrtl relates that in certain African races, this congenital enlargement of the clitoris is so enormous, that the organ, made fast to the perineum with rings, serves for the protection of virginity. Schönfeld describes the case of a woman aged twenty-eight years, in whom the vaginal orifice was almost completely occluded by a dry and firm growth, with a granulated surface. Close observation proved this growth to be produced by a hypertrophied and degenerated clitoris, which had attained the size of a child’s head. Elephantiasis of the clitoris is especially inconvenient in consequence of the hindrance which the enlarged organ offers to sexual intercourse. Bainbridge describes a case of tumour of the clitoris measuring 8 cm. (3.2 in.) in length and 5 cm. (2 in.) in width. The following remarkable case is recorded by Oesterlen: A young man wished to break off his engagement on the ground that his intended wife was a hermaphrodite. Examination, however, disclosed the existence of a strong intact hymen, a very large clitoris, and pregnancy of the twentieth week.

Injuries of the vagina resulting from coitus are, generally speaking, rare. The usual cause of such injuries is disproportion in size between the erect penis and the calibre of the vagina, or else brutal violence in the performance of coitus; sometimes, however, it is dependent on the pathological state of the female genital organs, which have undergone senile atrophy.

To the first group belongs the case reported by Albert, in which a girl of eleven years was found to have a laceration of the vagina communicating with the peritoneal cavity, the injury resulting from coitus. To the second group belongs the case reported by Böhm, of lacerations of the vaginal mucous membrane resulting from forcible coitus in elderly women. E. Frank reports a case of injury due to violent coitus in a woman in whom the vagina was already greatly stretched by retroflexion; and another case in which injury occurred during intercourse in a woman with vagina duplex—in this case, not only was the hymen of the right vagina torn, but also the septum between the two vaginae.

By no means extremely rare are injuries to the vagina in the act of defloration, causing severe hemorrhage. Martin records a fatal case of this nature. Maschka and Hofmann, the authorities on Forensic Medicine, deny that vaginal laceration is the result of simple coitus, and Hofmann maintains that such serious injury can occur only from digital manipulations; in fact, these writers believe that the penis alone cannot be employed with sufficient force to cause laceration. Barthel and Anderson, however, saw vaginal lacerations in nulliparous women; and Zeis records a case of vaginal laceration in a woman twenty-five years of age, with whom, six weeks after parturition, her husband, then in a state of intoxication, had had intercourse in the position à la vache.

Anomalies of the vagina, absence, stricture, duplication, and abnormal apertures, also diseases of the vaginal tissues, may induce incapacity for sexual intercourse. In frequency as in significance, among these disorders, absence of the vagina and stenosis and atresia of the canal, stand in the first rank. Congenital atresia may be complete or only partial, according as the two ducts of Müller from the fusion of which the tube is formed, remain totally or only partially solid—or, having duly canalized, subsequently, by a foetal inflammatory process, become transformed into a thick, more or less solid cord. If the obliteration of the vagina is at the lower extremity of the canal, coitus is impossible, unless, as sometimes happens, by frequent attempts at intercourse, the short blind sac representing the lower end of the vagina has been stretched upwards in the form of a pouch. When the obliteration of the ducts of Müller is complete, we have total atresia of the vagina, in which case the uterus is also as a rule wanting, or is but imperfectly represented. In some cases, from the ducts of Müller, instead of the normal vagina, there is formed a tract of membrane of varying density and width, through which passes a small canal for the passage of the menstrual discharge; this condition is known as atresia vaginalis membranacea.

When, notwithstanding malformation of the external genital organs and partial absence of the vagina, there is no defect in the internal genital organs, conceptions may sometimes be effected through some abnormal channel, as for instance through a communication established per anum; or, again, some operative procedure may bring relief. Rossi reports a case of congenital absence of the external genital organs, in which an incision was made in the region of the absent vagina, and an artificial vagina was thus constructed; copulation was in this way rendered possible, and conception ensued. In this connection, we may turn with interest to the essay by Louis, entitled Deficiente Vagina, Possuntne per Rectum Concipere Mulieres? Here we are told of a case in which vulva and vagina were absent, and there was a monthly discharge of blood per anum; the woman’s lover employed this passage also ad immissionem penis, and the woman became pregnant. Pope Benedict XIV expressly allowed to women suffering from imperforatio vaginae the practice of coitus parte posteriori.

Further, in cases of atresia vaginae in which the genital canal terminates in the urethra, conception can result from urethral coitus, as is proved by cases recorded by K. von Braun, Weinbaum, and Wyder. In Weinbaum’s case, the obliteration of the vagina was complete, neither eye nor finger could detect the slightest aperture; the woman having become pregnant after coitus per urethram, delivery was effected by Caesarian section. In Wyder’s case, the vaginal orifice was closed, with the exception of a minute aperture, by means of dense fibrous tissue; the woman was in labour and the head of the child was in the pelvis. Under anæsthesia, the septum, which was nearly an inch thick, was divided, the opening was enlarged, and the child was extracted by forceps. An investigation disclosed that the husband had always had intercourse by introducing his penis into the dilated urethra; it was evident that the semen had passed through the urethra into the bladder, and thence had found its way through a vesico-vaginal fistula into the vagina and uterus.

Acquired obliteration and stricture of the vagina from the contraction of scar tissue, in consequence of deep ulceration, especially when croupous or diphtheritic in nature, following typhus or typhoid, pyaemia, puerperal sepsis, and the acute exanthemata (especially variola)—may likewise serve as obstacles to coitus. Syphilitic affections also, through contraction of exudations, the adhesion of ulcerated opposing surfaces, condylomata, etc., may give rise to stricture or obliteration of the vagina. The same conditions may be induced by trauma, as by wounds, by attempts at rape, or by the use of caustic acids and alkalis.

Thus, Ahlfeld saw severe stricture of the vagina as a sequel of the excision of four large condylomata. Hennig the same, after variola, and again in lunatics who had introduced caustic fluids into the vagina. By L. Mayer, atresia vaginae was seen as a sequel of typhoid; by Weiss as a sequel of diphtheria; by Martin from the action of irritant secretions in cases of uterine tumour; by Billroth as a result of continued irrigation of the vagina with alkaline urine after lithotomy or urethrotomy, and in cases of vesico-vaginal fistula. Ulcerative processes set up by the long continued action of a vaginal tampon, a pessary, or some other foreign body, have been noted as leading to consecutive obliteration of the vagina.

Such stenosis, when partial only, may prevent complete coitus, and yet allow conception to occur. Cases illustrating this fact have been numerously recorded. Thus, van Swieten already reported the case of a girl aged sixteen years, whose vagina was strictured to such an extent that the passage would barely admit a crow-quill; nevertheless she became pregnant, and was successfully delivered. Similar cases are mentioned by von Scanzoni, Kennedy, Devilliers, Varge, Moreau, and Plenk.

Serious obstacles to coitus, of a nature analogous to acquired stenosis of the vagina, are constituted by the irregular ligamentous bridges which sometimes arise in the vagina from the adhesion of a strip torn from the mucous membrane on one side of the vagina to the other side of that tube—or, again, a portion of a lacerated cervix may adhere to the wall of the vagina. An interesting case of this nature came under my own observation. It was a woman aged thirty-two years, who had twice had difficult deliveries, the last time nine years before. Since then she had been barren. On local examination I found in the vagina a fleshy bridge, about 4 cm. (1.6 in.) wide and 6 cm. (2.4 in.) long, extending from the left side of the portio vaginalis to the right wall of the vagina; this mass of tissue was so placed that the intromitted penis must necessarily have slipped past it into a blind sac, such as the French name une poche copulatrice. Similar membranes in the vagina have been described by Breisky, Murphy, and Thomson.

Various tumours may narrow or even completely close the vaginal passage, myoma, sarcoma, carcinoma, and especially the polypoid form of fibromyoma, which may even project without the vaginal orifice. And even when tumours of or in the vagina do not actually hinder coitus by the space they occupy, they may affect that operation by bleeding whenever it is undertaken, a manifestation extremely alarming to young married persons.

The vagina may also be partially occupied, and coitus may be impeded, by elongation of the hypertrophied cervix uteri, by inversion or prolapse of the uterus, by cystocele or rectocele, and by uterine polypi. Horwitz records the case of a woman aged twenty-two years in whom impotentia coeundi was dependent upon the occlusion of the vaginal orifice by a rounded, strongly projecting body, which proved on closer examination to be a hypertrophied vaginal bulb.

Tumours of the rectum and other intrapelvic growths may encroach upon the vaginal passage and impede coitus. Closure of the vagina has been brought about even by abnormal size and abnormal toughness of the perineum.

Finally, in extreme degrees of pelvic contraction, the vagina may be so much narrowed as to interfere with coitus. Von Hofmann records a case of this nature: In a woman thirty years of age, affected with kypho-scoliosis, who suffered extreme pain whenever her husband attempted sexual intercourse, the pelvis was twisted and narrowed to such an extent that the conjugate measured barely one inch, and the vagina was so small as barely to admit the finger.

Duplication of the vagina will constitute an obstacle to coitus when both halves of the passage are too narrow to allow of intromission of the penis. Difficulty in intercourse will also be caused by abnormal termination of the vagina, as by its termination in the rectum, likewise by severe perineal laceration which has converted the lower parts of the vagina and rectum into a cloaca, likewise by recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal fistulæ; in the case of all these latter states a feeling of disgust is apt to be aroused in the male which may effectually check sexual desire. Still, coitus, and even conception, are quite possible in these conditions. Kroner, among sixty cases of vaginal fistula, observed six in which conception took place while the fistula was actually open.

Apart from all local pathological conditions, coitus may be interfered with by general nervous disturbances, manifesting themselves locally, and depriving the woman so affected of potentia coeundi. First among such states must be mentioned vaginismus, a condition so important as to demand discussion in a separate chapter.

An important and by no means rare obstacle to the completion of intercourse, affecting the male partner in the act, is partial or complete incapacity for erection of the penis. Even excessive smallness of the penis may render coitus inadequate; still more so, however, organic diseases of the membrum, such as obliteration of the corpora cavernosa, or of some of the trabecular channels of these bodies, nodular formations resulting from injury, or cavernitis from gonorrhoea. In such cases, erection is extremely irregular, and the erect penis is sharply bent (chordee) instead of being straight, a condition which renders intromission mechanically difficult if not impossible. A similar effect is produced by ossification of some part of the tunica albuginea of the corpora cavernosa—the so-called penis bone. Mechanical obstacles to coitus are also offered by inguinal and scrotal hernias; and by excessive obesity, where the increase in thickness of the panniculus adiposus of the abdominal wall and the mons pubis, whilst the penis itself remains as slender as before, causes the organ almost to disappear from view.

Psychical impotence in the male is much more frequently observed than organic impotence. We meet with this condition especially in neurasthenically predisposed individuals, or in men who have been given to excessive venery or have masturbated excessively in youth, and who, when entering upon married life, fear they will be unable to satisfy the legitimate desires of their wives; or in newly married men who have suffered often from gonorrhoeal inflammations, such as prostatitis, vesical catarrh, and epididymitis. The fear and anxiety from which such persons suffer has an inhibitory influence upon the erection of the penis. In some instances, this inhibitory influence is partial only, and the man thus affected, while perfectly competent in intercourse with a prostitute, who employs means of sexual stimulation to which he has become accustomed, is unable to complete intercourse with his wife, who is ignorant and innocent, and assumes a purely passive role; or it may be that erection is not sufficiently powerful to bring about rupture of the hymen, and thus to overcome the difficulties primae noctis.

As regards gonorrhoeal infection, it appears that in men who in other respects are perfectly competent, this disease has an inhibitory influence upon the nervous mechanism concerned in producing erection of the penis.

Psychical impotence is usually transitory, but it may endure for a very long time; and it may be many months before the husband, whose nervousness has led to failure in the decisive moment at the outset of married life, is able to command an erection sufficiently powerful to bring about the defloration of his wife. Occasionally such psychical impotence is not absolute but relative, it relates, that is to say, to one particular woman—unfortunately, as a rule, a man’s own lawful wife,—whilst coitus with another woman, even in default of any measures for artificial sexual stimulation, is easily effected. This fatal misfortune is especially liable to occur in cases in which a man fully experienced in sexual matters marries a woman whom he dislikes or for whom he has no regard; the marriage being determined by material considerations. From such women I have heard the painful confession that the husband, a man renowned for his gallantries, played a very poor part in the bridal bed.

The impotence of irritable weakness is characterized by premature, and therefore fruitless ejaculation. A man thus affected has a powerful erection of the penis, preparatory to coitus, but at the moment of contact with the female genital organs, before there has been time for penetration to occur, ejaculation takes place, and is immediately followed by relaxation of the penis. Such irritative impotence is often met with in young men at the outset of their sexual career, in beginners, whose sexual passion is very readily excited, whose imagination shoots forward to the goal, and who are unable to restrain themselves. This form of impotence can also be cured by wisely chosen measures.

The paralytic form of impotence, on the other hand, is characterized by the entire absence of erections of the penis, both overnight in bed, and during the early morning hours; the penis always remains flaccid, or at most becomes semi-erect only, insufficiently rigid for penetration. Ejaculation is much retarded or altogether wanting.

Impotentia coeundi in the male may be complete, in cases in which the erection-apparatus is entirely inactive, and in which even an attempt at intercourse is out of the question; or, and this is more frequently met with, it may be partial only, and manifests itself in various degrees of imperfection in the performance of coitus.

This latter form may often escape the woman’s notice. Whilst complete impotentia coeundi, in which intromission of the penis is impossible, is a state about which neither husband and wife can fail to be fully informed, cases of partial impotence, with semi-erection of the penis or premature ejaculation, are often glozed over by the husband, ignored by the wife, and underestimated by the physician—and yet such incomplete intercourse entails a series of ill-consequences alike upon the genital organs and upon the nervous system of the wife. Erection is incomplete, and thus the penis passes into the vestibule only, and not deep into the vagina; even if penetration is more thorough, the venous return of the blood from the corpora cavernosa is not checked sufficiently to distend the penis to its full size, and to bring it into close contact with the vaginal walls; or ejaculation occurs prematurely, before the sexual organism of the wife has attained that supreme degree which is needful alike for the attainment of sexual gratification and for the occurrence of conception.

Vaginismus.

Vaginismus is a disordered state, characterized by hyperaesthesia of the hymen and of the entrance to the vagina, so extreme that, even though the organs may be entirely free from any anatomical abnormality, coitus is prevented, whenever attempted, by violent, involuntary spasmodic contractions of the constrictor cunni and the other muscles of the urogenital and anal region.

The centripetal paths of the reflex spasm characteristic of vaginismus, run through the branches of the inferior hypogastric plexus, and especially through the utero-vaginal plexus. The spinal nerves connected with this part of the sympathetic are the 2d, 3d, and 4th sacral. The plexuses are constituted by fibres in part from sympathic and in part from the 2d, 3d, and 4th sacral nerves. Through the same nerves passes the centripetal motor tract for the transversus perinei muscle, and for the sphincter and levator ani muscles. According to Eulenburg, the centre for this reflex is to be found at the level of the first sacral nerve; when the disturbance irradiates more widely, the lumbar and sacral plexuses as a whole are involved. The constrictor cunni (sphincter vaginæ or bulbocavernosus muscle) is supplied by the perineal branch of the pudic nerve. The symptom-complex of vaginismus consists of violent spastic contraction, for a term varying greatly in duration, of the constrictor cunni (bulbocavernosus), sphincter ani, levator ani, and transversus perinei muscles, the spasm spreading, in severe cases, to other muscles in the neighbourhood, and especially to the adductor muscles of the thigh; the spasm comes on when any attempt at intercourse is made, and even when the genitals are merely touched.

In young married couples especially, vaginismus is an extremely distressing condition, and one that entails very serious consequences, inasmuch as the pains and reflex spasms which result from any attempt at coitus, and even from the mere approximation of the penis to the female genital organs, render sexual intercourse absolutely impossible. The cause of this pathological manifestation is in part to be found in unskilful attempts at intercourse, which have stimulated the female genital organs at some improper region. It may be that the young husband is not fully instructed in sexual matters, and does not really know how coitus ought to be effected; in other cases there is some abnormality of the hymen, which has rendered the rupture of that membrane extremely difficult; in some cases there is partial impotence in the male, whose penis becomes semi-erect only, so that ever-renewed attempts at intercourse are followed by ever-renewed failure. Any of these causes may suffice, in susceptible women, to originate vaginismus. The sufferer in these cases will usually be found on enquiry to be hereditarily predisposed to nervous disorder, and to be extremely sensitive to pain. By the fruitless efforts of her ignorant or partially impotent husband, she is sensually excited without ever being satisfied; the injured nervous system responds by these local spasms, whilst ultimately, in some of these cases, an actual psychosis ensues.

In a certain number of cases, however, the husband is in no way responsible for the origin of vaginismus, which may depend on pathological states of the female external genitals, leading to hyperaesthesia; or, again, on primary hyperaesthesia of the pudic nerve and its branches; or, finally, on general neurasthenia and hysteria, on excessive sensibility and lack of self-control on the part of a young girl, who has entered upon married life under the dominion of extravagant ideas. Vaginismus dependent upon general neurasthenia especially in cases in which there is no strong affection for the husband to give the spur to desire, and to enable the woman to bear with fortitude the pangs which form the necessary introduction to the joys of wedded life. It must not be forgotten, as throwing light on the origin of vaginismus, that in the digital vaginal examination of a virgin or even of a young wife, unless extreme care is taken, pain and painful muscular spasms are liable to be evoked.

The local pathological conditions of the female genital organs that are most often met with in cases of vaginismus are: a very rigid state of the hymen; inflammation and excoriation of the hymen and its surroundings; fissures at the vaginal orifice; inflammatory affections of the vaginal follicles; inflammation of the carunculæ myrtiformes; a peculiar formation of the vulva, which extends forwards over the pubic symphysis, whereby the urethral orifice and the hymeneal aperture come to lie upon the pubic symphysis or the subpubic ligament; vulvitis; herpes or eczema of the vulva; colpitis; urethritis; fissure of the anus; papillary growths; pruritus papules; urethral caruncle; inflammation of Bartholin’s glands; at times gonorrhoeal infection.

A case came under my own observation in which a newly married woman suffered from vaginismus. The husband believed the cause of the trouble was his own partial impotence, consequent upon youthful venereal excesses, and yielded to the desire of his wife and her relatives that a divorce should be obtained. A year later, the woman remarried, when, to her horror, the symptoms returned in full force. Now for the first time she consulted me, and on local examination I could detect no abnormality whatever. The vaginismus was in this instance a pure neurosis, the only possible cause of which was to be found in bygone overstimulation of the vaginal orifice, the wife admitting previous onanistic excesses. In another case known to me, vaginismus in the wife made the husband an involuntary sodomite. The movements of the wife when the spasm came on led to the introduction of the penis per anum, and coitus had repeatedly been effected by this abnormal route, when the fact first became apparent as the result of a local examination.

Le Fort reports the case of a young Russian wedded pair who were spending their honeymoon in Paris. The husband took so much to heart his inability to fulfil his marital obligations in consequence of the vaginismus from which his wife suffered, that he shot himself through the heart. The distressing situation of a husband whose wife suffers from vaginismus, rendering coitus impossible, is depicted in the well-known French romance, “Mademoiselle Giraud, Ma Femme.” From a false shame, women often continue to suffer from vaginismus for months and even years, without a single effective coitus having ever taken place; it is only the consequent sterility which at last leads to medical advice being sought. The physician then usually ascertains that the hymen is still intact, or at least incompletely destroyed, that on this membrane and on various parts of the vulva there are erosions, and that the whole of the external genitals outside the hymen are in a state of inflammation more or less acute. In other cases, however, neither excoriations, erosions, nor inflammation can be detected, and the existence of vaginismus can be proved only by the pain and the muscular spasm set up by contact with the vagina. Often, indeed, the cause of this most distressing affection cannot be discovered.

Introduction of the penis may be rendered impossible by spasm of the constrictor cunni (bulbocavernosus) muscle, but equally so by spasm of the transversus perinei or the levator ani muscle. Sometimes the spasm affects all three muscular groups; in which case the narrowing of the vagina is extreme, and extends for some way up into the canal. When the levator ani alone is affected by the spasm, the penis can, indeed, be introduced into the vagina, to encounter a powerful obstacle in the interior of that canal; and it may happen, when the spasm comes on and affects the levator ani only after complete intromission of the penis, that the glans is retained in the vaginal fornix by the active contraction of the pelvic floor.

More or less credible instances of penis captivus thus brought about are on record. The following history is by Davis: A gentleman entering his stable found therein his coachman and a servant-maid in a most compromising position. All endeavours of the pair thus surprised to separate proved ineffectual, and their attempts to draw apart caused them intense pain. Davis was sent for, and ordered an iced douche, which, however, failed to liberate the imprisoned penis. Release was impossible until the woman had been placed under chloroform. The swollen and livid penis exhibited two strangulation-furrows, a proof that two distinct areas of the levator ani muscle had been spasmodically contracted.

Hildebrand records three cases observed by himself in which there was spasm of the upper part only of the vagina, unaccompanied by vaginismus (i. e., by pain). In two of these cases, the spasm was originated by the contact of the examining finger with very painful ulcers of the portio vaginalis; the third patient had a very sensitive prolapsed ovary. Fritsch reports having had on one occasion to give a woman chloroform for the release of a swollen and imprisoned penis.

Hildebrand suggests that vaginismus may be caused by an abnormal size of the penis, or by a condition occurring in weaklings and alcoholic subjects, in whom the greatest swellings of the glans penis occurs before intromission, whilst this greatest swelling is normally deferred until towards the end of the act, when the glans is in the vaginal fornix.

Schröder writes as follows regarding the etiology of vaginismus: “The affection is dependent upon trauma, sustained in maladroit, frequently repeated attempts at sexual intercourse; for this reason it is met with, in the great majority of cases in young, newly married women. Impotence in the male is by no means necessary for its production, and such impotence is not even a frequent antecedent. Abnormal narrowness of the vagina, or extreme firmness of the hymen, is occasionally found, but neither is in any way necessary; all that can be said in this connection of a small vaginal orifice is, that it predisposes to vaginismus. If the husband is devoid of previous experience in sexual matters, maladroit attempts at intercourse are exceedingly likely to occur. The penis is thrust in the wrong direction, pressing against either the anterior or the posterior commissure of the vulva. Very often, moreover, the position of the vulva, which is subject to very striking individual variations, is concerned in the production of vaginismus. There are many women in whom the vulva lies in part in front of the symphysis pubis, so that the lower border of the symphysis lies below the urethral orifice. In such cases the penis is directed too far backwards, and instead of passing into the vaginal orifice, slips into the fossa navicularis. The frequent repetition of such maladroit attempts at intercourse gives rise to a gradually increasing sensitiveness of the parts concerned, with the formation of excoriations. It now results that, on the one hand, the woman dreads attempts at intercourse on account of the pain to which they give rise; she shrinks away from the man, so that penetration of the vagina by the penis is rendered even more difficult than it was before; and, on the other hand, ungratified sexual desire leads to the frequent repetition of attempts at complete intercourse (from which, moreover, if conception should ensue, a cure of the trouble is expected). In this way, the trauma is rendered more severe, the congestion and excoriation of the fossa navicularis or of the urethral region are aggravated, and the sensitiveness of the parts increases to such a degree that the woman thus affected screams out when the vulva is merely touched. Ultimately reflex cramps set in whenever intercourse is attempted, and we then have the fully developed clinical picture of vaginismus.”

Winckel maintains that in most cases there are two principal elements in the causation of vaginismus. In the first place, in consequence of more or less pronounced anatomical changes, there is undue sensitiveness and tenderness of the vaginal inlet and its neighbourhood, and in exceptional cases also of the upper part of the vagina, the uterus, and the ovaries. In the second place, the patient manifests an increased general sensitiveness and nervous irritability; this is in some cases primary, but in others it is entirely the result of the repeated stimulation; and in either case it is heightened by the effects of ungratified sexual desire.

A. Martin points out that the spasm of the muscles of the pelvic floor, and especially of the levator ani muscle, upon which vaginismus depends, may be due in some cases to the influence of chill, since the same cause will lead to pathological contractions in other muscular areas. But in such cases it is always open to question if masturbation or some other sexual perversion is not the true cause of the disorder. In some instances vaginismus is merely a symptom, in extremely sensitive women, of various diseases of the reproductive organs, and is brought on by the increased pain which in such cases is caused by attempts at intercourse; when produced in this way, vaginismus is usually a transient manifestation.

Veit considers that among the pathological conditions giving rise to vaginismus, we must also enumerate diseases of the internal pelvic organs, such as chronic metritis, displacements of the uterus, oöphoritis, etc.; but he also attaches great importance to nervous predisposition, consequent upon previous sexual stimulation, and upon pre-existing inflammatory changes due to gonorrhœal infection. A peculiar form of vaginismus is, according to Veit, sometimes observed after the birth of the first child; happily the duration of this is usually brief. After parturition the vulval mucous membrane remains for a time very tender, and when cohabitation is resumed, often too soon, and perhaps, after the enforced abstinence, too frequently repeated at brief intervals, fissures are readily produced. Moreover, vaginismus which has existed prior to parturition may, in some cases, recur after that event. An unusual position of the vulva, undue smallness of the vaginal inlet, and relative impotence of the man, may combine to cause such a recurrence. Finally, vaginismus often persists throughout pregnancy, and manifests itself during parturition. The magical effect which chloroform has in some primiparæ, when the head is delayed at the vulva, is explicable only by the supposition of vaginismus.

According to Arndt, vaginismus is not purely a local disorder, but is in many cases the local manifestation of a neuropathic diathesis, which may in some instances lead to general mental disorder.

Olshausen regards hyperæsthesia and vaginismus as different stages of a single disease; he believes that the excessive sensitiveness is seated chiefly in the hymen; he explains the spasm as the reflex result of fissures and inflammatory changes. Pozzi considers that excessive nervous irritability and an irritable state of the vulva are the indispensable preliminaries to the occurrence of vaginismus. Herman distinguishes between excessive smallness of the vaginal inlet and vaginismus; he regards the latter as a nervous disorder, characterized by hyperæsthesia of the vulva, and by spasmodic contraction of the levator ani and adjoining muscles. Frost distinguishes vaginodynia from vaginismus; in vaginodynia the pain is so intense as to cause syncope, and the muscular spasm involves the entire length of the vagina.

It is a notable fact, to which Veit has especially drawn attention, that among the poorer classes of the population, vaginismus is practically unknown. Among women of these classes, their sexual needs, not having been so much lessened by “culture,” suffice to withdraw their attention even from the pains of defloration, which would otherwise often be very severe; whereas the sexually neurasthenic woman of the upper classes, filled with dread at the idea of the pain she expects to suffer, and not infrequently in a condition of hyperexcitability or hypersensibility dependent upon previously employed abnormal means of sexual gratification, is unable to endure the pains of defloration even when these might be expected to prove far from severe.

In some cases, painful contractions of the vagina, to which we cannot properly give the name of vaginismus, arise from organic diseases of the uterus and the uterine annexa; these painful contractions render copulation impossible. Von Hofmann reports the case of a young prostitute, who found herself unable to continue the practice of her profession owing to the severe pain she suffered during intercourse; she died, and the post mortem examination disclosed bilateral salpingitis, with reproductive organs in other respects normal.

Maladroit and incomplete attempts at intercourse, and the consequent repeated failure to obtain complete sexual gratification, affect a woman’s nervous system to a varying degree; but apart from this, in women who have long cohabited with men of deficient sexual potency, we often find a remarkable condition of complete relaxation of the genital organs, associated with great hypersecretion of the mucous membrane, flaccidity of the muscles of the pelvic floor, and displacements of the uterus. Moreover, the nervous shock to which the repeated but unsatisfying attempts at intercourse give rise, affects the spinal cord in such a manner that symptoms of spinal irritation ensue. The patient complains of pains in the back, the loins, and the nape of the neck; these pains also radiate round the front of the abdomen and along the intercostal spaces; hyperæsthetic points may be detected when the finger is passed along the spine; there is weakness of the limbs with a sensation of numbness; and neuralgic manifestations of varying nature occur.

The dangers which sexual intercourse may entail upon women—over and above the irritable conditions and inflammatory disorders of the female reproductive organs, dependent upon impetuous or unduly frequent coitus, or upon coitus practised during menstruation—are principally due to gonorrhœal and syphilitic infection transmitted by the cohabitating male.

Cardiac Troubles Due to Sexual Intercourse.

Among the troubles from which women at times suffer as a result of sexual intercourse, certain cardiac disorders are especially worthy of attention.

Every act of sexual intercourse in a young and sensitive woman exercises an exciting influence on the nervous mechanism controlling the cardiac movements, and this influence is more clearly manifested in a degree directly proportional to the intensity of the sexual orgasm. The heart’s action is markedly increased in frequency, the cardiac impulse is more powerful, the large arteries of the neck are seen to pulsate far more vigorously, the conjunctiva is markedly injected, the respiration is increased in frequency, the respiratory movements are more superficial and have a panting character.

But when, in a woman who is sexually irritable in an excessive degree, the peripheral stimulation occurring in the act of sexual intercourse is unusually powerful, there may result a notable increase or modification of the reflex manifestations which normally occur during sexual intercourse in the province of cardiac activity; similar results ensue when there is a summation of stimuli owing to excessive sexual intercourse, or contrariwise when the act of intercourse is broken off just before its physiological climax and the natural termination of the orgasm fails to occur.

The former cause is not infrequent in young wives during the period of the honeymoon. The latter cause is in operation when there are diseases of the female reproductive organs preventing the physiological completion of intercourse; but especially in consequence of the modern practice of coitus interruptus, in which the man breaks off the act of intercourse the moment he feels that ejaculation is imminent, without troubling himself regarding the natural course of sexual excitement in the woman. Yet another cause of excessive cardiac reflex manifestations in women is incomplete potency of the male, which may either cause a premature ejaculation of semen, or may lead to incomplete penetration of the penis.

In all such cases, as a result of sexual intercourse, there may arise cardiac disorders of various kinds; among these, tachycardial paroxysms are the most frequent, occurring either inter actum, or at a longer or shorter interval after intercourse.

In several cases of vaginismus occurring in young married women which have come under my notice, it was observed that the attempts at intercourse gave rise to violent involuntary spasmodic contractions of the constrictor cunni and the other muscles of the urogenital and anal regions, and in addition it was found that these attempts were followed by tachycardial paroxysms with dyspnœic manifestations, lasting for a considerable period, it might be as long as one or two hours.

In women who had practised coitus reservatus for a prolonged period, in fact for several years, in such a manner that, notwithstanding the occurrence of intense voluptuous excitement, complete sexual gratification rarely, if ever, occurred—in such women, in whom these marital malpractices seemed to have profoundly influenced their psychical life, I have frequently witnessed a form of reflex cardiac disorder which I must regard as a variety of the multiform neurasthenia cordis vasomotoria. In such women, still at the climax of their physical powers and of their sexual needs, attacks of palpitation suddenly occur at irregular intervals, several times daily or less frequently. Associated with this increased frequency of the cardiac activity are an extremely distressing feeling of anxiety, a sensation of faintness, headache, vertigo, a weakness of the muscular system, and at times actual attacks of syncope. Physically, the women are extremely depressed, irritable, inclined to weep, unhappy, and weary of life. At the same time, digestion is impaired, the appetite is small, and there is constipation. The pulse is in most cases feeble, small, of low tension, easily compressible, increased in frequency, often intermittent, sometimes more distinctly arhythmical. The heart is found to be sound on physical examination, nor can any abnormality be detected in the great vessels. The lower extremities are free from œdema; the urine does not contain albumen.

Women thus affected are sometimes believed to be suffering from cardiac disorder, in other cases they are subjected to various modes of gynecological treatment; until at length the physician, by appropriate questions, becomes enlightened regarding the true cause of the cardiac disorder, namely, coitus interruptus. If it is possible to prohibit effectually this unwholesome practice, the cardiac symptoms soon cease to recur.

Finally, in women at the climacteric age, cardiac troubles sometimes ensue, which are dependent on interference with sexual intercourse in consequence of anatomical changes in the vagina; changes of this character frequently occur at the time of the menopause; owing to hyperaemic or inflammatory processes, a partial or general stricture of the vaginal passage results; in many cases this passage becomes narrower, shorter, and almost conical in shape, whilst the vaginal inlet is greatly diminished in size. Such a vaginal stricture, which Hegar has also seen in younger women after an artificial climacteric (oöphorectomy), interferes with sexual intercourse; and the incomplete sexual gratification gives rise to a series of nervous manifestations, and, among others, to the above described reflex cardiac neurosis.

Whether, and in which cases, the cardiac disorders evoked as a result of the local stimulatory influences of sexual intercourse, are dependent on a reflex stimulation of the sympathetic nerve on the one hand, or upon a transient paresis of the inhibitory centre of the heart and of the vasomotor centre on the other, cannot here be fully discussed; just as little can we consider in what manner the psyche is sympathetically affected by the irritative processes in the genital organs, and its functional activity thus impaired.

Here I can do no more than briefly state that experience has taught me that sexual intercourse is competent to originate cardiac troubles in women.

1. In extremely sensitive, sexually very irritable women, tachycardial paroxysms may result from sexual excesses.

2. Tachycardial paroxysms with dyspnœa occur in young women affected with vaginismus; also in women at the climacteric with constrictive changes in the vagina.

3. Cardiac troubles, characterized mainly by symptoms indicating diminished vascular tone, occur in women who have long practised coitus interruptus with incomplete gratification of their voluptuous desires.

Dyspareunia.

In normal conditions the act of sexual intercourse is accompanied in women, as in men, by a voluptuous sensation, and this sensation must be regarded as a necessary link in the chain of those processes by which gratification of the sexual impulse—the most powerful of all our natural impulses—is obtained. The absence of this voluptuous sensation in a woman, the state in which she experiences during coitus no voluptuous sensations, but feels either apathy, or positive distaste, is termed dyspareunia: in former times it was also known as anaphrodisia. This abnormal state of sexual sensibility, which up to the present is hardly alluded to in gynecological textbooks, has received remarkably little attention from the medical standpoint, and its importance has been underestimated. Most unfortunately so, for dyspareunia is an important symptom, exercising a powerful influence on the general health of the woman who suffers from it, upon her social status in marriage, and, as is easy to understand, upon her procreative capacity.

Dyspareunia must be clearly distinguished from two somewhat similar conditions, with which at first sight it is liable to be confused, namely, from anæsthesia sexualis, and from vaginismus. By sexual anæsthesia we understand, as previously explained, the absence of the sexual impulse, a symptom which, when the reproductive organs are normal in structure and function, is either of central nervous origin, a result of disease of the brain or spinal cord, or else is due to general nutritive disorders such as diabetes, morphinism, or alcoholism. A woman affected with dyspareunia does, however, experience the sexual impulse, it may be very actively, but sexual intercourse brings about no gratification of her desires. In vaginismus, on the other hand, the introduction of a foreign body, that is to say of the membrum virile, into the vagina, gives rise to painful reflex cramps of the sphincter vaginæ, or of the muscles of the pelvic floor, whereby the completion of coitus is rendered impossible: whereas in dyspareunia coitus can be effected, but gives rise to no voluptuous sensations.

The pleasure which normally occurs in woman during sexual intercourse is brought about in this way, that contact with and friction by the penis stimulates the sensory nerves of the clitoris, the vulva, the vestibule, and the vagina; this stimulus is propagated to the cerebral cortex, where it gives rise to voluptuous sensations, and then, by reflex stimulation of the genito-spinal centre, gives rise to a series of reflex discharges. The pudic nerve, a branch of the sacral plexus, supplies the female external genital organs. Some of its branches pass in the clitoris to a peculiar form of nervous end-organ discovered by W. Krause, Krause’s genital corpuscles: the structure of these corpuscles appears to fit them exceptionally well for the transmission of stimulatory waves to the nerve centres. “When this stimulus,” says Hensen, in his work on the physiology of reproduction, “in addition to other effects, also gives rise to a voluptuous sensation, the cause must be sought in central nervous connections and apparatus. Similar relations are to be found in connection with the mechanism of nutrition, for example, in the association of hunger, appetite, agreeable sensations of taste, the act of mastication, and the secretion of saliva.” By means of this stimulus, several reflex processes are originated in the reproductive canal, the most notable of which are the erection of the clitoris, and the ejaculation of the secretions of various glands. The cavernous tissue of the clitoris is connected with that of the bulbus vestibuli, and the dorsal nerve of the clitoris is one of the principal nerves of voluptuous sensation. The venous plexus constituting the bulb of the vestibule lies at either side along the margin of the vestibule at the boundary between the labium majus and the labium minus, and laterally it is covered by the constrictor cunni[^[48]] muscle. During coitus the blood is driven out of this bulb into the glans clitoridis, and thus the sensibility and the erection of the glans are increased. The constrictor cunni and ischiocavernosus muscles draw the clitoris, which is bent at a right angle downwards, into contact with the penis. By means of the pressure of the constrictor cunni, the mucous secretion of Bartholin’s glands, which open into the vulva at the back of the labia majora, is expressed.

As additional reflex actions, dependent upon the activity of the reflex centre in the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord, there ensue contractions of the vagina, peristaltic movement of the tubes, some descent of the uterus, relaxation of the os uteri and rounding of this orifice, and induration of the portio vaginalis, whereby the tubal and uterine mucus and the secretion of the cervical glands are expressed. This process of ejaculation constitutes the culminating point of the voluptuous sensation occurring in the sexual act; this act thus exhibits two phases, the sensation of friction, and the sensation of ejaculation.

With regard to voluptuous sensations, and processes analogous to pollutions, occurring in women, we append an extract from von Krafft-Ebing.

“The occurrence of voluptuous excitement during coitus is dependent in the women, just as in the man, upon:

“1. The peripheral influence of the intensity and duration of the sensory stimulation (anæsthesia of the genital passage may be the cause of the absence of voluptuous sensation). 2. The condition of excitability of the reflex (ejaculation) centre in the lumbar spinal cord. The activity of this centre varies within wide limits, not merely in different individuals, but in the same individual at different times. There are, indeed, women in whom it seems as if this centre were always in vigorous activity. In normal women, the irritability of the centre appears to be most marked at the menstrual epoch, and to decline rapidly soon after menstruation. In pathological conditions, the activity of the centre may be temporarily in abeyance (organic inhibitory processes, such as are seen in certain cases of hysteria with temporary frigidity); or again the centre may be abnormally active owing to irritable weakness (neurasthenia sexualis), in consequence of which ejaculation may, just as in the male in similar circumstances, occur too easily. 3. The occurrence of the voluptuous sensation in woman is unfavourably influenced by psychical inhibitory perceptions (analogous to the inhibitory influence of psychical processes in the male, such as, for example, fear of incapacity to perform sexual intercourse). As examples of such inhibitory perceptions in women may be mentioned, dislike of the man, physical loathing to sexual intercourse, etc.”

Gutceit records interesting experiences, which are readily intelligible in view of what we have already quoted. He finds that of ten women after defloration, two only immediately experience full sexual pleasure. Of the eight others, four only have an agreeable sensation produced by the friction during coitus: but the sensation of ejaculation does not make its appearance until the lapse of at least six months, or it may be even several years, after marriage. In the remaining four women, pleasure during sexual intercourse may never become properly established. The women of the first class are described by the author as being of a very ardent temperament, and passionately attached to their husbands. In such women, the sensation of ejaculation occurs during intercourse with any man toward whom they are sympathetic. Women of the second class are of a less ardent temperament, and are often comparatively indifferent toward the man with whom they cohabit. Women of the third class have little or no amatory feeling, and they either hate the man with whom they are cohabiting, or at least feel physical repulsion to the idea of intercourse with him. Gutceit considers that meretrices usually belong to the third category. In the practice of their trade, they make a counterfeit of voluptuous enjoyment, and only experience real sexual gratification in intercourse with the man of their choice.

It is of great practical interest, alike from the gynecological and from the neuropathological standpoint, to determine the consequences in women of ungratifying sexual intercourse. In the present state of our experience it must be assumed that the effect of abnormal sexual intercourse, that is of intercourse which does not culminate in gratification produced by the sensation of ejaculation, is deleterious. This is explained by the fact that, owing to the absence of the muscular contraction of the genital passage, the latter remains engorged with blood; the resultant hyperæmia passes away very slowly, and, when frequently repeated, gives rise to chronic tissue changes, manifesting themselves as diseases of the reproductive organs. Injury to the nervous system ensues, partly in consequence of these organic changes, partly also in consequence of psychical non-gratification in the widest sense of the term. The nervous disorders thus produced are typical forms of (sexual) neurasthenia; and in cases in which the pathogenesis is predominantly psychical (antipathy to the husband, etc.) hysterical types of disorder are especially frequent. Von Krafft-Ebing believes that incomplete coitus, that is, coitus not culminating in the sensation of ejaculation, is a frequent cause of hysterical disorders in women.

When once the clinical picture of neurasthenia sexualis is fully developed, each act of intercourse (like pollutions or coitus in the sexually neurasthenic male) gives rise to renewed troubles, which are easily recognized as symptoms of venous stasis in the reproductive organs (sacrache, sensations of weight and bearing-down in the pelvis, fluor albus): in addition we observe exacerbations of the lumbar spinal disorder, in the form of spinal irritation, irradiating pains in the sacral plexus, etc. In this way general neurasthenia develops. The conditions found in such cases on gynecological examination (chronic endometritis, metritis, oöphoritis, etc.) are produced by the same cause as the nervous symptoms, namely, by an unhygienic mode of sexual intercourse. They are not the cause of the neurosis, but important concomitant disorders; and their effect in rendering the nervous disturbances more severe must be freely admitted.

Among important causes of ungratifying coitus must be enumerated: weak erection and ejaculatio praecox in the male, rendering the stimulation inefficient; in addition, coitus reservatus, coitus interruptus, and coitus condomatus. If the noxious influence is frequently repeated, the occurrence of neurasthenia sexualis and its consequences is greatly to be feared, and in women of neuropathic constitution it is practically inevitable.

Unsympathetic coitus appears to act, not merely in a somatic manner, but mainly upon the psyche, and to originate states of hystero-neurasthenia or pure hysteria. If the influence of such unhygienic conditions of the vita sexualis co-operates with that of inherited or acquired sensuality, further dangers ensue: in cases of ungratifying sexual intercourse, the danger of manustupration; in cases of unsympathetic intercourse, the danger of psychical onanism, or that of marital infidelity.

Although until recently the matter received but little attention, it must now be regarded as a well-established fact, that in the female (as in the male) the climax of voluptuous sensation in sexual intercourse is normally characterized by a process of ejaculation, accompanied by a voluptuous sensation of ejaculation, dependent upon the acme of excitement of a reflex centre in the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord.

Just as in the male, this centre may be excited to action, not only by local stimulation of the genital organs, but also by (psychical) stimuli proceeding from the brain (pollutions), so also in the female a similar process may occur, and for this reason it is correct to speak of “pollutions in the female.” Rosenthal appears to have been the first writer to speak of pollutions in women. In his clinical study of nervous diseases, Rosenthal described processes of the nature of pollutions, originated in erotically over-stimulated women by lascivious dreams. In one case he detected the outflow of a “mucus-like” fluid from the apparently intact genital organs; he believed this to proceed from the ducts of Bartholin’s glands, and from the mucous glands surrounding the urethral orifice. Féré reports the case of a patient who had an erogenic zone in the region of the upper part of the sternum; pressure on this zone gave rise to a profuse secretion of vulvo-vaginal fluid. In this connection we may also recall the “clitoris-crises” to which tabetic women are subject. Gutceit described the process of pollution in women in the following words: “It is remarkable that in dreams such women experience the sensation of ejaculation.”

The psychical preliminary is invariably constituted by lascivious dream perceptions. It merely remains open to question whether this process, which in the male is indisputably physiological, in the female may be said to occur within physiological limits. The researches published by von Krafft-Ebing more than twenty years ago, under the title “Concerning Processes Analogous to Pollutions Occurring in the Female,” gave negative results as far as healthy individuals were concerned; on the other hand, the phenomenon in question was by no means rare in nervously disordered, and above all in sexually asthenic women. The neurosis was in part found as a result of psychical or manual onanism in virgins with morbidly intensified libido: in part in married women, as a result of ungratifying coitus, as previously described: in part, also, in married women with powerful libido and enforced abstinence from intercourse, owing to acquired impotence or death of the husband.

Just as in the case of the neurasthenic male, these pollutions made the primary neurosis more severe, and relief from the nervous trouble was not obtained until the factor of the “pollutions” had been recognized, and made the object of special treatment. In exceptional cases the “pollutions” appeared to be the starting point of the entire neurosis.

It was further remarkable, again here displaying analogy with what occurs in the male, how much stronger and more deleterious was the shock-effect of an inadequate process of ejaculation occurring in a sexual dream, as compared with the far less deleterious influence of similar incomplete ejaculation when occurring viâ coitus. In very severe degrees of neurasthenia sexualis, just as in the male, the waking imagination may give rise to a “pollution.” In such cases the shock-effect on the nerve centres tends to be excessively severe. A still higher degree of irritability of the genital system appears to exist in cases in which excitement and orgasm of the reproductive organs may culminate in a “pollution” by purely spinal paths, without the intervention of the imagination. The significance of this fact would appear to be considerable for the proper comprehension and for the treatment of certain conditions of neurasthenia (sexualis) in the female. The “pollution” may here be the actual cause of the neurosis. But in any case, in the female, the occurrence of pollutions is an extremely important symptom as regards both diagnosis and therapeutics. It is extremely probable that hallucinations of coitus, and the complaints made by insane women of attempted violation during the night, are really dependent upon such “pollutions.”

Von Krafft-Ebing reports the following characteristic case. Miss X., thirty years of age, belonging to a family predisposed to insanity, and herself neuropathic since early childhood, declared that since she was six years old she had been subject to lascivious imaginations, to which she became continually more liable as she grew older. Ultimately, typical psychical onanism developed, and in recent years her trouble assumed the form of sexual neurasthenia. The patient herself suspected there was a connection between her nervous disorder and her evil habit. The popular work by Bock finally brought her full enlightenment, associated with severe emotional disturbance. This latter was now increased by misfortunes from which the family suffered. The patient then relinquished her bad habit, but her state of health nevertheless became worse. She was nervously extremely irritable; her sleep was insufficient, unrefreshing, and disturbed by lascivious dreams; she suffered from spinal irritation, anæmia, scanty and painful menstruation. Inclination toward the opposite sex and toward marriage, hitherto but slight, now sank to a minimum: on the other hand, the patient, in spite of all efforts to the contrary became more and more subject to a condition analogous to priapism in the male, a genital orgasm by no means voluptuous in character, and often indeed actually painful. Associated therewith, nocturnal pollutions occurred, the patient awaking from lascivious dreams with a voluptuous sensation and moistness of the external genital organs. After such pollutions, throughout the ensuing day, she felt extremely weary and depressed and suffered from severe spinal irritation. After a time, the nocturnal pollutions occurred without being preceded by lascivious dreams, and ultimately analogous states were experienced in the daytime. With much difficulty the patient now made up her mind to seek medical advice. She was anæmic, emaciated, emotional, and moody. The lumbar and cervical regions of the spine were extremely sensitive to pressure. Sleep was scanty and unrefreshing, the patient felt weary and miserable, she complained of dragging sensation and other paralgic sensations, in the regions supplied by the lumbar and sacral plexuses. The deep reflexes were increased. She dreaded the onset of disease of the spinal cord, and believed that the cause of her illness was to be found in the prolonged indulgence in psychical onanism. The perusal of Bock’s book had first made her understand the true nature of her misconduct. She had never practised manual masturbation. Her principal complaint was of an almost unceasing uneasiness and excitement in the genital organs. She compared it to the uneasiness in the stomach produced by hunger. In the genital organs (which on examination appeared quite normal), she had a distressing sense of burning heat, of pulsation, of disquiet as if there were a clockwork mechanism working there. Very rarely now were these sensations associated with voluptuous ideas. This sexual neurosis had an intensely depressing constitutional effect. She had transient relief only when the local sensations culminated in pollution; but this, on the other hand, increased her general neuropathic troubles. She suffered most severely during the menstrual period. She was ordered sitz-baths at a temperature of 23° to 19° R. (84° to 75° F.), suppositories of monobromide of camphor, 0.6 (9 grains), with extr. belladon. 0.04 (⅗ gr.), sodium bromide 3.0 to 4.0 (45 to 60 grains), every evening; also powders containing camphor 0.1 (1½ grains), lupulin 0.05 (¾ grain), extr. secal 0.08 (1¼ grains), twice daily. This treatment gave the patient great relief, and secured complete ease during the daytime. Therewith returned her greatly impaired trust in the future, and her emotional calm was restored.

The frequent occurrence of pollutions in women, the so-called vulvo-vaginal crises and clitoris-crises, is regarded by Eulenburg as a striking manifestation of sexual neurasthenia in woman; in such cases a lascivious dream is spontaneously followed by a more or less abundant discharge of the clear gelatino-mucous secretion of Bartholin’s glands. In women who masturbate, and in tribadists, a profuse and even violent secretion of these glands is produced by touching the clitoris or the erogenic zones at the entrance to the vagina, close to the orifices of Bartholin’s ducts.

Dyspareunia, the absence of voluptuous sensation in women during coitus, may be referred to three fundamental causes:

1. Insufficient or completely wanting peripheral stimulation of the sensory nerve terminals in the female reproductive canal: in these cases the conducting tracts to the nerve centres never become active.

2. Diminution or cessation of the excitability of the reflex centre in the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord: this leads to failure of the sensation of ejaculation.

3. Inhibitory influences proceeding from the cerebral cortex whereby voluptuous sensations and perceptions are checked.

The first-named of these etiological influences is in my experience the commonest. Incomplete or quite inadequate stimulation of the sensory nerves of the genital canal may be due to the maladroit performance of copulation on the part of the male, owing to inexperience, or it may depend on gross disproportion in size between the reproductive organs of the man and the woman; in other cases it may be due to disease of the reproductive organs in either sex, influencing unfavourably the sensibility to stimulation of the nerves of the genital canal. Awkward or incomplete performance of coitus may thus lead to failure of voluptuous sensation, and this may ultimately pass into permanent dyspareunia. Temporary dyspareunia is very common in young wives during the first months of married life, ensuing on the pains of defloration; and very gradually gives place to normal voluptuous sensation. It may be one or two years after marriage before the sensation of ejaculation is first experienced. Not infrequently, dyspareunia depends on incomplete potency in the husband, who is incompetent to arouse voluptuous sensation in his wife. For this reason, dyspareunia is common in young women married to elderly men; but is common also, where (as so frequently among Russo-Polish Jews) the men also marry very young, at an age of from sixteen to seventeen years, and where, moreover, the husband has often before marriage impaired his potency by masturbation: finally dyspareunia is common when girls still undeveloped sexually are married to powerfully built men.

Regarding the pathological conditions of the female reproductive organs which counteract the peripheral sensory excitants of voluptuous sensation, we exclude from further consideration the obvious causes, absence and atrophy of the reproductive organs, and senile marasmus. Of prime importance as a cause of the failure of sexual sensibility in the early period of married life must be mentioned inflammation of the fossa navicularis, due to awkward attempts at intercourse. Other causes of deficient sensibility are: complete or partial persistence of the hymen, lesions of the vaginal inlet, acute or chronic vulvitis in consequence of irritating abundant secretion, especially as a sequel of gonorrhœal vaginitis. The last named infective disorder is especially harmful, because Bartholin’s glands are involved in the associated vulvitis. Even after the cure of the vulvitis, permanent dyspareunia may remain. Perineal fissures may result in the stimulant effect of coitus being insufficient, owing to the slight friction possible at the vaginal inlet in these cases. Not less serious sometimes are small, hardly discernible fissures in the vagina. Additional causes of deficient sexual sensibility are recto-vaginal, and vesico-vaginal fistulæ.

The second cause of dyspareunia, diminution or complete lack of irritability of the reflex centre of the lumbar enlargement of the spinal cord, appears to be less frequently operative. We must, however, assume that certain nervous disorders, such as hysteria and pathological changes in the spinal cord, are responsible in this connection. The activity of the lumbar sexual centre appears in women to be normally subject to variation within certain limits; and seems usually to attain its maximum irritability during menstruation. But normally these variations are never so great as to produce in women complete though merely temporary dyspareunia; in this respect offering a marked contrast to what occurs in other animals at other times than the rutting season, and of which every bitch not on heat furnishes an example when she refuses the sexual advances of the dog.

As regards the third causal influence in the production of dyspareunia, the influence of the brain, this, though important, is less frequently in operation. Diseases of the brain, degenerative processes, may constitute a cerebral cause for the failure of sexual sensation. But more frequently, certain cortical perceptions, such as dislike or hatred of the cohabiting male, an ardent passion for some other lover, grief and trouble, exercise inhibitory influences, which render the occurrence of voluptuous pleasure during the sexual act difficult or quite impossible.

A condition like dyspareunia, our knowledge of which depends entirely upon the subjective sensations of the woman concerned, is naturally one regarding whose existence accurate information is difficult to obtain. Very rarely does it happen that women spontaneously approach the physician with complaints of this condition; indeed, in my experience, they do so only when they are sterile, and when they assume, in accordance with the widespread popular belief, that their sterility is connected with the absence of voluptuous sensation during sexual intercourse. More commonly, however, it is the husband who feels it his duty to confide to the medical man the remarkable apathy of his wife in sexual intercourse. But when once the medical man’s attention has been directed to this question, and when he institutes enquiries among his patients in a scientific, passionless manner, one making due allowance for a woman’s modesty, as the moral importance of the subject demands, he will be astonished at the frequency of dyspareunia, and he will find herein the explanation of many obscure phenomena in the life of women. On the other hand, it must never be forgotten that a certain number of women complain of dyspareunia without any justification whatever, in order to arouse interest and sympathy, by representing themselves as unwilling sacrifices on the marital altar: the experienced gynecologist will readily detect the cases in which he is being misinformed; he can, moreover, always check the wife’s statements by conversation with the husband.

The constant sign of dyspareunia is the failure of ejaculation during coitus. We have previously described the muscular contractions which lead to ejaculation of the secretion of Bartholin’s glands and to the expulsion of the uterine and cervical mucus, as reflex actions evoked by the sensory stimulus dependent on friction of the female genital organs. The voluptuous sensation of ejaculation, associated with these muscular contractions, which the woman whose sensibility is normal experiences as the culminating point of her sexual “gratification,” is either quite unknown to a woman affected by dyspareunia, or is experienced by her only in a voluptuous dream, as a pollution, in which the sexual dream-perceptions act as the psychical stimuli by which the reflex discharge is originated. It has repeatedly happened to me, that on enquiring of women suffering from dyspareunia regarding their experience of the sensation of ejaculation, I have been informed that such sensations are known to them only from the descriptions of their female friends, or occasionally from dreams from which they have awakened with a feeling of moisture in the external genitals. Von Krafft-Ebing refers this process to a peristaltic contraction of the muscular fibres of the Fallopian tubes and the uterus, “whereby the tubal and uterine mucus is expressed;” whereas, for my part, I am of opinion, that ejaculation affects in the first place and principally the glands of Bartholin, the secretion of which is expressed by the contraction of the constrictor cunni muscles, and secondarily only affects the cervical glands of the uterus.

As a second sign of dyspareunia, I recognize a remarkably rapid outflow of the male semen from the female genital canal, immediately after coitus (profluvium seminis). The woman thus affected complains, when suitably questioned, that she is unable to retain the semen, and that it flows out of the vagina immediately after ejaculation. The cause of this remarkable phenomenon no doubt lies in the fact, that, owing to the absence of the voluptuous sensation, the reflex contractions of the muscles of the female genital organs, normally accompanying this sensation during intercourse, fail to occur. At the vaginal inlet, in normal conditions, the constrictor cunni muscle contracts, and farther up in the vagina a peristaltic contraction of the circularly disposed muscular fibres of the tunica media occurs: in this way the semen ejaculated into the vagina is for a time retained under a certain pressure. But in the absence of these muscular contractions, as well as of the muscular contraction of the pelvic floor, retention of the semen fails to occur. Cattle-breeders and horse-breeders have made similar observations regarding cows and mares, namely, that these animals are sometimes unable to retain the semen after coitus, and it is suggested that in these cases the animals are not properly on heat. Experienced cattle-breeders recommend in such cases that the retention of the semen should be promoted by douching the root of the tail and the external genitals with cold water. It is well known that by stimulating the peripheral sensory nerves in the neighbourhood of the genital organs, a reflex excitement of the lumbar sexual nerve centre is produced, as is seen, for example, in the practice of flagellation of the buttocks, for the increase of sexual desire.

Passing to the consideration of the pathological changes to be found in the reproductive organs of women suffering from dyspareunia, the nature of these will for the most part be obvious in relation to the etiology of the disorder. Most frequent, in my experience, were chronic inflammatory states of the vulva and of the vaginal and uterine mucous membrane, chronic metritis and parametritis. A very frequent appearance, and one practically characteristic of dyspareunia when of long standing, is a marked total relaxation of the reproductive apparatus. The uterus is extremely mobile, usually retroverted and partially prolapsed, thin, with lax walls, and usually an enlarged cavity; the portio vaginalis is flaccid, and runs to a point; the vagina is roomy; there is marked hypersecretion of the mucous membrane of the entire genital canal; there is great flaccidity of the constrictor cunni and levator ani muscles, and of the perineum. In several women with dyspareunia, I found old unhealed lacerations of the perineum. In some cases, the very small size of the clitoris is noteworthy. In one case amenorrhœa was present with an infantile uterus. In a large proportion of the cases I was able to detect a diminution both of the tactile and algic sensibility of the vaginal mucous membrane. The women were for the most part anæmic; many were extremely obese, and of lymphatic constitution. In some cases, however, no pathological changes whatever could be detected in the reproductive apparatus.

Dyspareunia is a condition which affects a woman’s whole nature, powerfully influences her mental life, and thus gives rise to greater psychical than physical damage. The consciousness of being deprived of the greatest joy of physical love produces great emotional depression, even in a woman by no means sensually inclined, and gives rise to a hypochondriacal state, at times even to melancholia. In other cases, the idea, not infrequently suggested by more happily situated women friends, that the woman herself is not to blame for this condition, has a demoralizing effect upon her, and destroys the happiness of married life. (It has been confessed to me, in isolated cases, that the dyspareunia was relative only.) Apart from this, the absence of sexual gratification gives rise to a series of nervous troubles, presenting either the variable characters of hysteria, or else the symptoms of neurasthenia. Finally, the frequently repeated incomplete coitus, incomplete inasmuch as the woman does not experience the sensation of ejaculation, induces chronic hyperæmia in the female reproductive organs, passing on into blood stasis, and ultimately into chronic inflammatory tissue changes; in this way arise metritis, perimetritis, and parametritis, salpingitis, oöphoritis, disorders of menstruation, menorrhagia, and atypical uterine hæmorrhages. The possibility cannot be disproved, that in this way new-growths of the reproductive organs may also originate. The act of sexual intercourse, which at first may be to the woman a matter of comparative indifference, and in which she plays her part merely from a sense of duty, becomes, in cases of long-standing dyspareunia, something to which she feels a positive dislike, and is recognized by her as the actual cause of the troubles that ensue upon intercourse, such as sacrache, sensations of weight and pressure in the pelvis, strangury, fluor albus, a feeling of exhaustion, etc.

At times, perverse sexual sensation is associated with dyspareunia. Women who find no enjoyment in normal sexual intercourse with a male, sometimes masturbate, sometimes indulge in amor lesbicus, etc.

Of great importance appears to me the relation between dyspareunia and sterility in women. As already pointed out, dyspareunia comes chiefly under medical observation in cases in which it is associated with sterility. The husband, seeking advice concerning his wife’s failure to conceive, complains of her frigidity in sexual intercourse as the probable cause; or the wife comes to seek advice, saying that she never experiences sexual gratification, and that for this reason she has failed to become pregnant. As a matter of actual fact, dyspareunia and sterility are associated with such remarkable frequency, that my own experience leads me to believe in the existence of an etiological connection between the two conditions, at least in a certain proportion of the cases. Among 69 sterile women whom I questioned regarding dyspareunia, the latter condition was present in 26, that is to say, in 38% of the cases. Matthews Duncan reported that of 191 sterile women, 62 did not experience sexual enjoyment. Sexual excitement of the woman during copulation would certainly appear to have a definite bearing upon the occurrence of conception, for we know that by the voluptuous sensation reflex actions are aroused in the genital canal, favouring the retention of semen and its passage through the os to the interior of the uterus, and perhaps also giving rise to reflex changes in the cervical secretion which favour the passage of the spermatozoa into the uterine cavity.

In cases of relative dyspareunia, the influence of this condition in producing sterility is also manifested, the unfaithful wife being impregnated by her lover though she has remained sterile in intercourse with the husband to whom she is indifferent. To dyspareunia of this nature (dependent upon sexual disharmony), we may also refer the sterility of a married pair who have for some time lived together in unfruitful intercourse, whereas, after divorce and the contraction of fresh unions, both the man and the woman prove normally fertile. Such cases have been personally known to me; and similar instances aroused the attention of the natural philosophers of antiquity, for instance, that of Aristotle. The importance of voluptuous sensation in promoting conception is also manifest from the fact that in the majority of women, after the pains of defloration, dyspareunia usually persists for a season during the early period of married life; and, corresponding with this, the first conception is usually deferred for some little time after marriage, to a period corresponding with the awakening of the sensation of ejaculation. In this connection, Courty reports the case of a lady who, although in blooming health, remained sterile during the first fifteen years of her married life; she then gave birth to a child whose father was unquestionably her lover; and after this in succession to two other children whose progenitor was the legal husband. This lady had never experienced voluptuous sensation in intercourse prior to the time of her first conception. Similar circumstances with an even clearer significance have been frequently observed among the lower animals; and Darwin records several striking observations of this character. Taking all the evidence into consideration, we are compelled to regard dyspareunia as a condition capable of causing sterility in women, although the sequence is not an absolutely necessary or invariable one.

In order to excite voluptuous sensation during intercourse, savage races make use of various means, some of which we here transcribe from the work of Ploss-Bartels. In Abyssinia, and on the Zanzibar coast, young girls receive instruction in certain rotary muscular movements known by the name of duk-duk, which they employ during coitus for the increase of sexual pleasure. Many Daiaks perforate the glans penis with a silver needle from above downwards; this needle is kept in place like a seton, until a permanent canal is formed through the glans: in order during coitus to stimulate the woman more powerfully, into this canal, just before coitus, various small articles are inserted, such as little rods of brass, ivory, silver, or bamboo, or silver instruments ending in small bundles of bristles; these project from the surface of the glans, and exercise a more powerful friction of the vagina, thus increasing the sexual pleasure of the woman. Men without such an apparatus are rejected by the women, whilst those who have made several such canals in the glans, and can therefore insert several instruments, are especially sought after and prized by the women. Such an apparatus is known as an ampallang, and in a symbolic manner the woman indicates to a man of her choice her desire that he should make use of one; he finds in his bowl of rice a rolled-up leaf, enclosing a cigarette which represents the size of the desired ampallang. Among the Alfurs of North Celebes, in order to increase the voluptuous pleasure of the woman during intercourse, the men bind round the corona glandis the eyelids of a goat, beset with the eyelashes, thus forming a bristly collar; in Java and in Sunda, before coitus, the men surround the penis with strips of goat-skin, leaving the glans free. In China they wind round the corona glandis torn fragments of a bird’s wing; these also project like bristles and increase the friction. Among the Batta of Sumatra, travelling medicine-men perform an operation by means of which they insert, beneath the skin of the penis, small stones, sometimes to the number of ten, at times also angular fragments of gold or silver; these heal in beneath the skin, and increase the stimulus of coitus for the women. Among the Malays of Borneo the penis is perforated, and some fine brass wire with the ends turned inwards is inserted: before coitus, the sharp ends of the wire are drawn out so as to project from the skin.

In our own part of the world, voluptuaries make use of an india-rubber ring beset with spines, which before coitus is passed over the corona glandis, in order to promote sexual gratification in the woman during intercourse. In cases of diminished potency in the male, in order to produce sufficient sexual excitement in the female by more powerful erection of the penis, various mechanical means are now employed. For instance, in such a partially impotent man, a constricting band of india-rubber may be passed over the root of the penis, whereby the reflux of blood from the corpora cavernosa is hindered, and a more complete and more enduring erection is induced. Elderly men have frequently declared to me that they were well satisfied by the employment of this simple measure, whilst behind their backs, their wives have assured me that the results were far from satisfactory. The apparatus described by Roubaud for the enlargement of the penis is no longer employed. Partially impotent men make use, however, of an instrument known by the name of “schlitten,” made of gold, silver, or white-metal; it consists of two delicate laminæ, united at the base by a metal ring, and at the upper end by an india rubber ring. This small apparatus, which must be made exactly to measure, renders possible the introduction of the imperfectly erect penis into the vagina; it supports the penis, and readily accommodates itself to the change in size of the organ as it slowly becomes erect.