THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE
1. Poetry. We have once more to distinguish between the earlier Beowulf stage and the later Cynewulf stage. In the earlier period the style is more disjointed, abrupt, and digressive, and is weighted down by the reliance upon the kenning. In the later stage there is greater passion and insight, less reliance upon the stock phrases, and a greater desire for stylistic effects.
2. Prose. In spite of its limited scope, Old English prose shows quite an advance in style. The earlier style, represented by the prose of Alfred, is rather halting and unformed, the sentences are loosely knit, the vocabulary is meager, and there is an absence of the finer qualities of rhythm and cadence. By the time of Wulfstan the prose has gained in fluency. It is much more animated and confident, and it freely employs alliteration and the commoner rhetorical figures.
But within this development both of prose and poetry there was already the seed of decay. During the last century of the period the poetical impulse was weakening; there is little verse after the time of Cynewulf. The prose too was failing, and the language was showing symptoms of weakness. The inflections were loosening even before the Norman Conquest, and the Old English vocabulary was being subtly Gallicized. The Norman Conquest was in time to put an abrupt finish to a process already well advanced.
EXERCISES
1. Examine the style of the following poetical passages. Point out examples of kennings, and mention the purposes they serve. Comment upon the type of sentence, the use of alliteration, and the nature of the vocabulary. Compare the style with that of the Beowulf extract given on page 4.
| (1) Us is riht micel, | For us it is much right |
| That we rodera weard, | That we the Guardian of the skies, |
| Wereda wuldor-cining, | The glory-King of hosts, |
| Wordum herigen | With our words praise, |
| Modum lufien. | In our minds love. |
| He is mægna sped, | He is of power the essence, |
| Heofod ealra | The head of all |
| Heah-gesceafta, | Exalted creatures, |
| Fréa Ælmīhtig. | The Lord Almighty. |
| Næs him fruma æfre | To him has beginning never |
| Ór geworden | Origin been, |
| Ne nu ende cymth | Nor now cometh end |
| Écean drihtnes, | To the eternal Lord, |
| Ac he bíth á ríce | But he is ever powerful |
| Ofer heofen-stolas. | Over the heavenly thrones. |
| Cædmon. |
| (2) Nis tháer on thám lande | There in that land is not |
| Láth geníthle, | Harmful enmity, |
| Ne wop ne wracu, | Nor wail nor vengeance, |
| Weá-tácen nán, | Evil-token none, |
| Yldu ne yrmthu, | Old age nor poverty, |
| Ne se enga death, | Nor the narrow death, |
| Ne lífes lyre, | Nor loss of life, |
| Ne láthes cyme, | Nor coming of harm, |
| Ne syn ne sacu, | Nor sin nor strife, |
| Ne sár-wracu, | Nor sore revenge, |
| Ne wædle gewin, | Nor toil of want, |
| Ne wélan ansýn, | Nor desire of wealth, |
| Ne sorg ne sláep, | Nor care nor sleep, |
| Ne swar leger, | Nor sore sickness, |
| Ne winter-geweorp, | Nor winter-dart, |
| Ne weder-gebregd | Nor dread of tempest |
| Hreóh under heofonum. | Rough under the heavens. |
| The Phœnix. |
2. Comment briefly upon the style of the following prose extract. How does it compare with modern English prose?
| Ðu bæde me for oft engliscera gewritena. And ic þe ne getiðode ealles swa timlice ær ðam þe þu mid weorcum þæs gewilnodest æt me þa ða þu me bæde for Godes lufon georne [-þ] ic þe æt ham æt þinum huse gespræce. And pu ða swiðe mændest þa þa ic mid þe wæs [-þ] þu mine gewrita begitan ne mihtest. Nu wille ic [-þ] þu hæbbe huru þis litle nu ðe wisdom gelicað. And pu hine habban wilt [-þ] þu ealles ne beo minra boca bedæled. God luvað pa godan weorce and he wyle big habban æt us. | Thou hast oft entreated me for English Scripture, and I gave it thee not so soon, but thou first with deeds hast importuned me thereto; at what time thou didst so earnestly pray me for God’s love that I should speak to thee at thy house at home, and when I was with thee great moan thou madest that thou couldst get none of my writings. Now will I that thou have at least this little, sith knowledge is so acceptable unto thee: and thou wilt have it rather than be altogether without my books. God loveth good deeds and will have them at our hands [of us]. |
| Ælfric, Introduction to the Old Testament | |
3. What appears to you to be the reasons why in Old English poetry appears before prose?
4. Mention some of the effects of translation upon both the poetry and the prose of the Old English.
5. “Old English prose is much nearer modern English prose than Old English poetry is to modern English poetry.” Discuss this statement.