INDEX
Achmin, glass from, [105], [163]
Agricola, De Re Metallica, [260-262]
Air-drawn stem, [326-327]
Alabaster, imitation of, in glass, by Egyptians, [22]
Alabastra, see Unguentaria.
Alchemists and glass in Germany, [288]
Alchemy, early mediæval works on, [119-124]
Aldrevandini beaker, [179]
Alembics of mediæval alchemists, [125]
Alembics and aludels of modern Indian glass, [346]
Alexandria, importance in history of glass, [44]
Alexandria, glass of mediæval time, [149] note
Alkali, source of, [12-13]
Almeria, glass made near, [246-247]
L’Altare, [174-175]
L’Altare versus Murano, [224]
L’Altare, glass-workers from, in France, [223-224]
Altarist families settled in France, [227]
Altarists, difficulties with, in France, [236]
Altarists in Netherlands, [240-241]
Aludels of mediæval alchemists, [125]
Alumina in glass, effect of excess of, [132]
Ammonitrum, [78]
Amsterdam, glass-houses at, [294]
Analyses of glass, [9], [26], [53 note], [151], [335], [353 note]
Anglo-Saxon glass, [107-113]
Anglo-Saxon glass, where found, [110-111]
Anglo-Saxon ‘prunted’ beakers, [110-111]
Anglo-Saxon drinking-cups, [112-113]
Anne Boleyn, glass with her initials, [306]
Anthology, Greek, poem on glass-furnace, [80]
Antimony as source of yellow in primitive glass, [29]
Antwerp, glass made at, [241-242], [262]
Antwerp, mediæval glass found near, [252 note]
Antwerp, metropolis for glass, [303]
‘Arena’ at Padua; lamps in fresco, [158]
Aristophanes, possible mention of glass in, [41]
Arles, Roman glass from, [81-82]
Ascension Day, display of glass at Venice, [216], [261 note]
Asiatic influence in Europe, [89-90]
Assyrian glass, [39-40]
D’Azeglio, Marquis Emanuele, his collection of painted glass, [142-143]
Azurro da vetro, [218]
Babylonia, turquoise-glass slabs from, [40-41]
‘Balance-pan’ lamp-stands, [97 note], [101], [104], [158]
Barbaro, Venetian ambassador to the Porte, [171]
Barcelona, glass of, [247-249]
Barcelona, opaque white glass, [249]
Barilla, term explained, [13]
Barilla, how prepared, [227]
Barilla, Howell’s account of, [312]
Barillet, or Baril, French form, [134], [238]
Bavaria, Dukes of, introduce Venetians, [270-271]
Bead, origin of English word, convenience of term, [184]
Beads of early Egyptian Dynasties, [20]
Beads from tombs of Mycenæan age, [35]
Beads from early Rhodian tombs, [38]
Beads in form of satyr masks, [38]
Beads from Frankish and Germanic tombs, [109]
Beads, guilds at Venice and Murano, [183]
Beads, early distribution from Venice, [183], [190]
Beads, Venetian, grinding by water-power, [185]
Beads, process of manufacture, [185-187]
Beads, process of manufacture from hollow cane, [185-186]
Beads, process of manufacture from solid rod, [186-187]
Beads, stores in London and Amsterdam, [189]
Beads made at Nuremberg; at Amsterdam, [292]
Beads, Bohemian industry, [292-293]
Beads from India, [343]
Beads, see also Chevron beads.
Bede on glass-workers brought from Gaul, [113]
Bekerschroeven, or ‘Beaker screws,’ [295]
Berovieri, his enamelled cup, [194-195]
Berthelot, M., on chemistry of Middle Ages, [120-125]
Bidoro, Japanese name for glass, [354]
Biringuccio on Venetian glass, [215]
Blancourt, de, Art of Glass, [316] [note, 319]
Blowing of glass, importance of discovery of process, [19]
Blowing of glass, probable origin in Western Asia, [42]
Blowing of glass, when and where discovered, [44], [59]
Blowing of glass, at first supplementary to moulding, [47]
Blowing of glass, first described by Theophilus, [128-130]
Blowing-iron, how used, [14]
Blown glass unknown in Ancient Egypt, [19-20]
Blown glass, when first made, [20]
Blown glass, early simple forms, [59]
Blue colours in Egyptian glass, [26-27]
Bohemia, engraved glass of, [286]
Bohemian frontier, German glass from, [258-260]
Bohemian frontier glass where made, [258-260]
Bohemian glass, properties of, [11]
Bohemian glass, imitated in Belgium, [242]
Bohemian glass, use of term, [258-260]
Bohemian glass, exported to East, [287-288]
Bohemian glass beads, [292-293]
Bohemian glass, pastes for false jewels, [293]
Bones, glass from human, [291-292]
Bonhomme, de, firm, [242], [287]
Bonhomme, de, at Amsterdam, [294]
Bonhomme, de, make flint glass, [315]
Bracken, ashes used for making glass, [136]
Briati, Venetian glass-worker, [212-213]
Bristol, glass made at, [334-336]
Bristol, enamelling on glass, [335]
Bristol, wine-glasses made at, [324 note], [328 note]
Bristol, opaque white glass, [334-335]
Britain, Roman glass in, [61], [81], [85-87]
Brocard, M. P., imitation of Saracenic glass, [152], [353]
Broken glass, hawkers of, [82 note], [228]
Buckholt Wood, glass furnace at, [304-305]
Buckingham, Duke of, his glass-houses, [314], [318]
Bushell, Dr., on glass in China, [347 note], [348 note]
Byzantine art, term, how used, [89]
Byzantine glass in St. Mark’s treasury, [99-102]
Byzantine glass from Egypt, [105], [149]
Byzantine glass from South-Saxon cemetery, [107]
Byzantine glass in illuminated MSS., [102-103]
Byzantine glass medallions, [94]
Byzantine influence in mediæval Germany, [114]
Byzantine mosaic workers, [96]
Byzantine stained glass windows, [96-97]
Calcedonio of Venetians, [206]
Calcedonio used in two senses, [206 note]
Calcedonio, preparation of, [218-219]
Cameos and intaglios of late Greek glass, [47-48]
Canosa, glass from tombs at, [45-46], [68]
Carré, Jean, [303-304]
Carving of glass unknown in later Middle Ages, [116]
Catalonia, glass made in, [247-249]
Catalonia, green enamels on glass, [247]
Catalonia, relation of enamels to Saracenic, [248]
Cemetery glass, [90-95]
Cemetery glass, where found, [91]
Cemetery glass, how made, [92-93]
Cemetery glass, enamelling on, [93-94]
Cemetery glass, Jewish symbols, [94]
Cemetery glass, stipple process, [93]
Chalices, early, of glass, [94-95], [97-98]
Chalices, early forms and materials, [97-98]
Champlevé enamel in Britain, [86]
Chandeliers of Venetian glass, [211-212]
Changes of colour in glass, [17]
Chardin, Sir John, on Persian glass, [341-342]
Charles VI. of France, interest in glass-workers, [137], [230]
Charnock on Chiddingfold glass, [302]
Chastleton, glass at, [321-322], [331]
Chevron beads, how made, [188]
Chevron beads, structure described, [188]
Chevron beads, still made at Venice, [189]
Chevron beads, found at Treviso, [189]
Chevron beads, where found, [190-191]
Chiddingfold, early glass manufacture, [139], [301-302]
China, relations with Roman empire, [347]
China, glass in, [347-354]
China, glass authorities, [347 note]
China, glass, Jesuits make glass, [348-349]
Chinese glass, [347-354]
Chinese glass, date-marks on, [349]
Chinese glass, the Von Brandt collection, [349]
Chinese glass, at South Kensington, [349-350]
Chinese glass, technical triumphs, [350]
Chinese glass, original methods, [350-351]
Chinese glass, native stones imitated, [351]
Chinese glass, snuff-bottles, [351-352]
Chinese glass, snuff-bottles, varieties of technique, [352]
Chinese glass, composition, [353]
Chinese glass, made in Shantung, [353]
Chinese glass, where made, [353]
Chinese glass, snuff-bottles, analyses of, [353 note]
Chinese glass, relation to contemporary French glass, [354]
Chinese motives on Saracenic glass, [155]
Chinese porcelain, enamelling on, [170]
Christian subjects on engraved Roman glass, [75], [94]
Church, Professor, analyses of glass, [335], [353 note]
‘Claw’ handles on Roman glass, [62], [83]
Cluny Museum, Saracenic glass, [166]
Coal, use of, for glass furnace, [309-310]
Coal, involves ‘closed pots,’ [310]
Cobalt in Venetian glass, [218]
Cobalt blue of mediæval window-glass, [133]
Cogoli, white pebbles, [215], [317]
Coin-like discs of glass in Egypt, [146-147]
Colbert and plate-glass, [210], [235]
Colchester, Roman glass from, [86]
Colours of primitive Egyptian glass, [26-29]
Colours of Roman glass, [52-53]
Comarmond collection in British Museum, [81]
Composition of glass, [8-9], [12-13]
Composition, normal type, [9]
Compositiones ad Tingenda, quoted, [120-121]
Constantinople, influence of, [95-96]
Contemporary glass, [356-360]
Conterie, a class of Venetian beads, [183]
Coppa Nuziale, [194-195]
Copper, importance of, in colouring of ancient glass, [26], [35 note]
Copper, the red suboxide in Egyptian glass, [27-28]
Copper, the red suboxide in Roman glass, [52-53]
Coptic glass from Egypt, [105]
Coptic churches, lamps from, [106]
Coptos, enamelled glass cup from, [163]
Corundum or emery used in cutting glass, [74 note]
Cosmati mosaics, [140]
Crackle or frosted glass of Venice, [203]
Crimea, primitive glass from, [37]
Cristallo of Venice, [200]
Cristallo, how decorated, [201-202]
Cristallo, in pictures of Venetians, [202-203]
Cristallo, glasses broken at feasts, [203]
Cristallo, replaces verre de fougère, [220-221]
Cristallo, spread over Western Europe, [220-222]
Cristallo, in Low Countries, [241]
Cristallo, in Germany, [256-258]
Cros, Henri, his pâte de verre, [359-360]
Crotchet Friars, glass made at, [308]
Cuthbert on glass-workers brought from Mainz, [113]
‘Cylinder-process’ described by Theophilus, [128-129]
‘Cylinder-process’, used for mirror-glass, [209], [210 note]
‘Cylinder-process’, used by Lorrainers, [303]
Cyprus, primitive glass from, [36], [37-38]
Cyprus, enamelled glass from, [47]
Czihak, Von, Schlesische Gläser, [259 note]
Damas, verre de, [136]
Damas, façon de, [181]
Dante on glass mirrors, [138]
Decay of glass, [15-17]
Decay of glass, apparent capricious action, [15-16]
Decay of glass, chemical process involved, [16]
Decay of glass, follows internal structure, [16]
Decay of glass, iridescence, [16-17]
Decay of glass, fissuring or crackle, [17]
Denderah, primitive glass of Roman times from, [32]
Destruction of timber, outcry against, [309]
Diamond-scratched Venetian glass, [209]
Diamond ‘scratching’ on glass, [276], [277]
Diamond ‘scratching’ in Holland, [295]
Diatretum work, how made, [64 note]
Diatretum carving, [71-73]
Dispersion of light by glass, [320], [332]
Dossie, Handmaid to the Arts quoted, [333 note], [335 note], [353 note]
Dou, Gerard, engraver on glass, [296]
‘Doubled glass’ from tombs at Canosa, [46]
‘Doubled glass’, German, [274-276]
Dresden Hof-kellerei glasses, [269]
Drinking-glasses, English, [322-332]
Drinking-glasses, stem or shank, [314], [323], [326-327]
Drinking-glasses, form of stem, [315]
Drinking-glasses, development of form, [322-323], [325]
Drinking-glasses, how made, [323-324]
Drinking-glasses, division of English, [324-325]
Drinking-glasses, high quality of metal, [325]
Drinking-glasses, the foot, [325-326]
Drinking-glasses, the bowl, [327-330]
Drinking-glasses, engraving on, [328-330]
Drinking-glasses, inscriptions on, [329-330]
Drinking-glasses, the square plinth foot, [332]
Dudley, Bub, and pit-coal, [309]
Dutch glass, [294-298]
Dutch glass, diamond-scratched, [295-297]
Dutch glass, engravings on plaques, [296]
Dutch glass, engraved ‘flutes,’ [296]
Dutch glass, stip engraving, [297-298]
Dutch glass, how done, [298]
Dutch glass, prototype of English wine-glass, [298]
Dutch influence on English arts, [321]
Dutch school, glass in pictures of, [244], [254], [255]
Edkins, glass enameller of Bristol, [335]
Églomisé, verre, Gothic representative, [140], [142-143]
Églomisé, verre, late Venetian, [208]
Églomisé, verre, German type, [273-274]
Egypt, coin-like discs of glass only found in, [146-147]
Egypt, modern, conical lamps, [342]
Egypt, modern glass found in, [342-343]
Egyptian primitive glass, [19-33]
Egyptian primitive glass, earliest examples, [19]
Egyptian primitive glass, how made, [22-23], [24-25]
Egyptian primitive glass, possible foreign origin, [23-24]
Egyptian primitive glass, of XVIIIth Dynasty, [23-24]
Egyptian primitive glass, source of materials, [25]
Egyptian primitive glass, comparative rarity of, [26]
Egyptian primitive glass, colours of, [26-29]
Egyptian primitive glass, inlay, how applied, [31-32]
Egyptian primitive glass, of Ptolemaic times, [32]
Egyptian primitive glass, of Roman times, [32]
Egyptian primitive glass, ‘fused mosaic,’ [33]
Egyptian blue of ancients, [27], [56]
Ehrenfeld, modern glass made at, [356]
Enamelled glass from Greek tombs in Cyprus, [47]
Enamelled glass of French, [237-238]
Enamelled glass of Catalonia, [247-248]
Enamelled glass of Germany, [264-273]
Enamelling on glass, [65]
Enamelling on glass, origin of art, [170]
Enamelling on metal in Britain, [86]
Enamels on Saracenic glass, [151-153]
Enamels on Venetian glass, practical difficulties, [197-198]
Enamels on Venetian glass, compared to Saracenic, [198]
Enamels on Venetian glass, thinly painted enamels, [198-199]
English glass, [139-140], [299-336]
English glass, heavy taxes on, [10 note], [334]
English glass, mediæval, [139-140]
English glass, late development, [299]
English glass, momentary pre-eminence, [299]
English glass, Elizabethan period, [300-302], [308]
English glass, the wine-glass of the collector, [300]
English glass, Elizabethan period, what glass made, [302]
English glass, the Lorrainers, [303-305]
English glass, Venetian glass-makers, [307-308]
English glass, early examples, [308-309]
English glass, use of coal, [309-310]
English glass, patents, [311-314]
English glass, flint glass, origin of, [314-319]
English glass, rarity of early specimens, [321-322]
English glass, drinking-glasses, [322-331]
English glass, change towards end of eighteenth century, [332]
English glass, facetted glass, [332-333]
Engraving on glass, division of technique, [276-277]
Ennion, his name found on Syrian glass, [87]
Escurial, glazing of windows, [234 note]
Etching on glass by acid, [277], [281-282]
Evelyn, John, on English glass, [314], [331]
Facetted English glass, [332-333]
Facetting, how made, [332]
Facetting, when first in fashion, [332]
Fatimi caliphs, their engraved rock crystal, [145], [146]
Fatimi caliphs, glass coin-like discs, [146-147]
Fern ashes, used for making glass, [136]
Fiala, word, how used by Dante, [176 note]
‘Fiat’ or Jacobite glasses, [330-331]
Fichtelgebirge glasses, [267-268]
Fillon, Benjamin, on glass in Western France, [84-85]
‘Flashing’ or ‘spinning’ to form a disc of glass, [14]
Flemish school, glass in pictures of, [244]
Flints, early use in English glass, [317]
Flint-glass, à l’Anglaise, [242]
Flint-glass, beauty of English, [299-300]
Flint-glass requires ‘closed pots,’ [310]
Flint-glass, when first made, [314-319]
Flint-glass, composition, [319]
Flint-glass, optical qualities, [320]
Flint-glass, materials used, [334]
Flügel-gläser, [257]
‘Flutes,’ Dutch, diamond-scratched, [296]
‘Forest glass,’ see ‘Verre de Fougère.’
Fostat or Old Cairo, fragments of glass from, [173]
Frankish glass from the Meuse valley, [107-108]
Frankish princes in Syrian coast towns, [176-180]
Franko-Saxon glass, [107-108]
French glass of Renaissance, [220-239]
French glass, advance of cristallo, [220-223]
French glass, Altarists, [223-224]
French glass, rarity of, [225]
French glass, literature, [225]
French glass, hawkers of glass, street cries, [228]
French glass, claims to nobility, [230-231]
French glass, local glass-works, [232-234], [236], [238]
French glass, plate-glass, [235]
French glass, inscriptions on, [237-238]
French glass, enamelled glass, [237-238]
French glass, opaque white glass, [239]
French mediæval glass vessels, [134-135]
Friolaro, meaning of term, [176 note]
Frit-ware of early Egyptians, [21]
Frontinus, his name found on Gaulish glass, [88]
Frosted or crackle glass of Venice, [203]
Gallé, Émile, his glass, [358-359]
Garzoni on Venetian glass, [215-216]
Gaul, Roman glass in, [81-85]
Gentilshommes de verre, [230-231]
German mediæval glass, [137]
German mediæval glass mirrors, [138]
German glass, [251-293]
German glass, mediæval forms, [251-252]
German glass, green glass, [252-255]
German glass, Venetian influence, [255-258]
German glass, rivalry to Venice, [258]
German glass, from Bohemian frontier, [258-260]
German glass, glass furnaces, [261], [263]
German glass, how made, [263]
German glass, enamelling on, [264-273]
German glass, origin of enamelling, [264-265]
German glass, poorness of enamels, [265]
German glass, names of various glasses, [266]
German glass, South German glass, [270-273]
German glass, painted and gilt glass, [273-275]
German glass, cut and engraved glass, [276-288]
German glass, cut and engraved, introduced from Italy, [279]
German glass, machinery for engraving, [281], [283-284]
German glass, engraving, division of work, [281]
German glass, ruby glass, [289-294]
German glass, opaque white glass, [291]
German glass beads, [292-293]
Gilding on Saracenic glass, [153]
Gilding on Venetian glass, [195]
Gilding on German glass, [274-275]
Gilt glass of cemeteries, [90-95]
Glaze, relation to glass, [2]
Glaze, early use of, in Egypt, [20-21]
Glaze, applied to stone or fritty base by Egyptians, [21]
‘Goblet of Charlemagne,’ [161]
‘Goblet of the Eight Priests,’ [161]
Gold, ruby glass coloured by, [289-290]
Gottefle, nature of vessel so called, [135]
Graal, Holy, [98 note]
Gréau collection of glass, [51], [53]
Greek glass, of Mycenæan age, [33-36]
Greek glass, bowls moulded and turned, [45], [47]
Greek glass, intaglios and cameos, [47-48]
Greeks, glass little appreciated by, [33-34], [44]
Greeks, vague use of name for glass, [45]
‘Green Glass’ of Rhine and Netherlands, [252-255]
‘Green Glass’, colour specially added, [252]
Greene, John, orders glass from Venice, [314-315]
Greenwood, engraver by stip process, [297]
Grisaille painting of Schaper, [272-273]
Grüne Gewölbe, Saracenic enamelled glass in, [162]
Hæmatinon of Pliny, [53], [79], [94]
Hall, near Innsbruck, glass made at, [271]
Hampton Court, window and mirror glass, [321]
Hardness of glass, [11]
Hartshorne, Mr. Albert, Old English Glasses, [324 note]
Hartshorne, quoted, [111]
Hartshorne, on English drinking-glasses, [324]
Hebrew literature, doubtful mention of glass in, [41]
Hebron, glass made near, [42], [342]
Hebron, glass-works in Middle Ages, [148]
‘Hedwig glasses,’ so-called, [114-117]
Hedwig, patron saint of Silesia, [115 note]
Helbig quoted on term Kyanos, [34-35]
Henry VIII., his collection of glass, [306]
Heraclius or Eraclius, [121]
Heraclius on gilt glass, [92]
Heraclius, his treatise on Arts of Romans, [121-122]
Heraclius, on carving of glass, [121-122]
Heraclius, Pseudo, [121]
Heraclius, his glass furnace, [127]
Heraclius, on glass of lead, [130-131]
Hirshvogel family, [256], [271]
Holy Graal, [98 note]
Hope collection, enamelled beaker from, in the British Museum, [163-164], [179-180]
Houghton, John, on English glass, [317-319]
Howell, James, Epistolæ Ho-Elianæ, [312]
Hu, the glass made by, at Pekin, [349]
Humpen, cylindrical beaker, [266-268]
Hydrofluoric acid, used for etching glass in seventeenth century, [281-282]
Hydrofluoric acid, glass etched by, [287-288]
Indian glass, [343-347]
Indian glass, no early glass known, [343]
Indian glass, engraved glass of Mogul times, [343]
Indian glass, enamelled glass of Mogul times, [343]
Indian glass, contemporary native glass, [344-346]
Indian glass, how made, [345]
Indian glass, the furnaces, [345]
Indian glass, its artistic qualities, [346]
Industrial period in history of glass, [18]
Inlay of glass, Roman, [53-55]
Inlay of glass, Gothic, [140-142]
Inlay of glass, on church furniture, [140-141]
Inscriptions on Syrian glass, [58]
Inscriptions on Roman glass, [58], [87-88]
Inscriptions on French glass, [237-238]
Inscriptions on English glass, [329-330]
Intaglios and cameos of late Greek glass, [47-48]
Ireland, glass made in, [336]
Iridescence of glass, [16-17]
Iron oxides, colours derived from, [17]
Jacobite glasses, [329-330]
Japan, practically no native glass, [354]
Japan, glass from Dolmen tombs, [354 note]
Japan, glass in Shoso In treasury, [354-355]
Japan, Sassanian influence, [355]
Japan, glass from prehistoric tombs, [355]
Jasper-glass of Venetians, [207]
Jeremiah on the manufacture of soap, [41]
Jewish glass-makers in Syria, [118], [148]
Jewish pedlars of glass, [82 note]
Jewish symbols on cemetery glass, [94]
Junius Bassus, the opus sectile in his Basilica, [54-55]
Kent, North, Roman glass from, [86]
Kent, North, glass from Jutish tombs, [110], [113]
Khosrau, Nassiri, travels of, [149 note]
Khosroes, bowl of, [104-105]
Kinsky family and the Bohemian glass industry, [286]
Kouyunjik, glass from, in British Museum, [39-40]
Krautstrunk, a German form of beaker, [255], [262]
Kreybich, wandering glass-hawker, [286]
Kugler, a class of engravers on glass, [284]
Kundmann’s glass from bone and tobacco ash, [292]
Kunckel, Johann, [288-291]
Kur-fürsten Humpen, [267]
Kyanos, probably blue glass, [34-35]
Lace glass, [40], [46], [205-206]
Lace glass, how far made in Germany, [269-270]
Lamp, master form in Saracenic glass, [156-157]
Lamp, conical cup, the typical form in glass, [157]
Lamp, Saracenic, wick, how fixed, [157], [342]
Lamps of St. Sophia, [97]
Lamps in Venetian pictures, how suspended, [156]
Lannoy, Cornelius de, [307]
Lapis lazuli, imitation of, in glass, [22], [32], [35], [56]
Lapis lazuli, enamel on Saracenic glass, [152]
Latticinio or Lattimo, [203-205]
Latticinio imitating porcelain, [204-205]
Latticinio, festooned, [205]
Latticinio, recipe for preparation, [217]
Lattimo, see Latticinio.
Lattisuol, see Latticinio.
Lead, amount in flint-glass, [319]
Lead-glass made by Jews, [118], [131]
Lead-glass, Neri and Merret on, [316-317]
Lead-glass, see also Flint-glass.
Lehmann, Caspar, engraver on glass, [279-280]
Lennard collection, glass from, [332]
Liao, Chinese name for glass, [353 note]
Liége, glass made at, [242], [315]
Lily of the Valley, on enamelled glasses, [267]
Lime, importance in composition of glass, [8-9], [227-228]
Literature of glass, essentially French, [226]
Liu-li, old Chinese name for glass, [347]
Lorraine, charter granted to glass-workers, [230]
Lorraine, importance in history of glass, [231-232]
Lorraine, tables quarrées of, [234 note], [303]
Lorrainers in England, [303-305]
Lorrainers driven from Sussex, [304]
Lorrainers, their wanderings, [304-305]
Lotus decoration on Saracenic glass, [154]
‘Luck of Eden Hall,’ [161-162]
‘Lustre’ and lustro, [212 note]
Lyons, Roman glass from, [82]
Magic, early mediæval works on, [119]
Magnesia in Pliny means manganese, [77 note]
Magnesia in Saracenic glass, [151]
Malleable glass, [78-79]
Manganese in glass, changes of colour, [17]
Manganese purple in primitive glass, [28-29]
Manganese in Roman glass, [77]
Manganese and Magnese, [218 note]
Mansell, Sir Robert, [311]
Mansell, Sir Robert, his patents, [305], [311-314]
Mansourah, glass made at, [149], [167]
Mappæ clavicula, notices on glass, [121]
Mariegole, rules of Venetian glass-workers’ guilds, [181-182]
Martial on Roman glass, [73-74], [82 note]
Mathesius quoted, [253], [262], [264]
Mathesius, Sermons for Miners, [262-263]
Matricole, rules of glass-workers’ guilds in Venice, [181-182]
Mazer-like forms in glass, [252]
Mediæval treatises on alchemy, etc., [119-124]
Mediæval glass, rarity of, [133-134]
Memlook Sultans, art of, [147-148]
Merret, Art of Glass quoted, [7]
Merret, on properties of glass, [7]
Merret, on glass of lead, [316-317]
Mesomedes on glass-houses, [80]
Milanesi, treatises on preparation of glass, [217]
Milch-glas, [291]
Millefiori glass of Romans, [49-52]
Millefiori glass, Madrepore patterns, [49]
Millefiori glass, relation to Egyptian ‘fused-mosaics,’ [49]
Millefiori glass, how built up, [50-51]
Millefiori glass, peacock patterns, [51]
Millefiori glass, agate patterns, [51]
Millefiori glass of Venetians, [207]
Mirror of Catherine of Arragon, [306]
Mirrors of glass from Roman tombs, [55-56]
Mirror of glass in Middle Ages, [138-139]
Mirror Venetian, [209-211]
Mirrors, Venetian, imitated by Germans, [209]
Mirrors, Venetian, frames of, [210]
Mirrors, Venetian, of ‘steel,’ [210 note]
Mirrors, Venetian, exported to East, [211]
Mirrors of plate-glass, [210], [235-236]
Monza, glass in treasury, [99]
Mosaic-workers from Constantinople, [96]
Moret collection in British Museum, [85]
Moselle district—Roman glass, [83]
Mosque lamps or lanterns, [155-156]
Mosque lamps suspended from spheres, [156]
Mosque lamps from Sultan Hassan mosque, [156], [168]
Mosque lamps from Cairo, [167-169]
Mosque lamps inscription on, [167-169]
Mosque lamps abnormal types, [169-170]
Mosque lamps made in Venice for the Turks, [171-172]
Moulded glass of Phœnicians and Romans, [56-58]
Munich Schatzkammer, glass in, [280]
Murano, furnaces stopped in late summer, [182]
Murano, the guilds, how organised, [182-183]
Murano, description of, [201], [216]
Mycenæan age, glass of, [33-37]
Mycenæan glass from bee-hive tombs, [35-36]
Nailsea glass-works, [336]
Natron as a source for soda in glass, [13], [26], [77]
Natron Lakes of Lower Egypt, [106]
Neri, Antonio, his Arte Vetraria, [219]
Neri, various translations of, [289]
Neri, upon glass of lead, [316-317]
Nesbitt, Mr., catalogues by, [51 note]
Netherlands, glass of, [240-244]
Netherlandish glass, mediæval forms, [252]
Netherlandish school, glass in pictures of, [243], [244], [251-252]
Nevers, glass made at, [232-234]
New Testament, allusion to glass in, [42 note]
Nineveh, glass from, [39-40]
Nobility, claims to, by glass-workers, [230-231]
Norman versus Lorraine glass, [234 note]
Normandy, glass made in, [234-235]
Normandy, glass-workers from, in England, [304-305]
Nuppen or ‘Prunts,’ [253]
Nuremberg mirrors, [138-139]
Nuremberg, Venetian glass imitated, [256]
Nuremberg, enamelled glass of, [271-272]
Ochsenkopf humpen, [268]
Onyx glass, Greco-Roman, [68-70]
Opus sectile as wall-covering, [54-55]
Oriental influence, in Europe, [89-90]
Oriental influence, on Germanic jewellery, [107-108]
Oriental influence, on Mediæval German glass, [114-117]
Orleans, glass made at, [238-239]
Orschall’s Sol sine veste, [290]
‘Painted’ enamels on Venetian glass, [208]
‘Painted’ enamels on German glass, [273-274]
Palissy on cheapness of glass, [228]
Paraison, term explained, [14]
Papyrus of Leiden, [120]
Pass-glas, narrow cylinder, [269]
Passini, on the Treasury of St. Mark’s, [100 note]
Pâte de Verre of Henri Cros, [359-360]
Patents and licences to ‘adventurers,’ [311-314]
Paternoster Kugel, [292]
Paternosters, a kind of bead, [184]
Paul the Silentiary quoted, [97]
Pax, Gothic, how painted at back, [141-142]
Percivall, Thomas, [309], [310], [311]
Perle a rosette, see Chevron beads.
Persian glass, [172], [338-342]
Persian glass, rarity before seventeenth century, [172]
Persian glass, Venetian origin, [338-341]
Persian glass, earlier examples, [339]
Persian glass, enamelling on, [339]
Persian glass, shapes of blown glass, [339-340]
Persian glass, engraved glass, [340-341]
Persian glass, Chardin quoted, [341-342]
Petrie, Dr. Flinders, on manufacture of glass in Egypt, [22-23], [24-25]
Phœnician coast towns, early moulded glass, [57-58]
Phœnician glass-makers, Pliny on, [76-78]
Physical properties of glass, [10-12]
Pictures of old masters, glass in, [202-203], [243], [244], [251-252], [254-255]
‘Pillar moulding’ on early Roman glass, [63]
‘Pillar moulding’ on Byzantine glass from Egypt, [106]
Plate-glass, [210]
Plate-glass, French invention, [235]
Pliny on preparation of glass, [76-79]
Pliny on magnes lapis and magnesia, [77]
Podgoriza bowl, [95]
Pointillé engraving on glass, [297-298]
Poitou, Roman glass found in, [84-85]
Po-li, Chinese name for glass, [347]
Pompeii, glass from, [60], [69-70]
Pontil or punto, [14]
Porcelain, relation to glass in history, 3
Porcelain, imitated by lattimo glass, [205-206], [239], [249], [290], [291], [334]
Portland or Barberini vase, [68-69]
Potash used for inland glass, [11], [136]
Potash, source of, [13]
Potash, glass maintained in Germany, [257-258]
Pottery, relation to glass in history, [2-3]
Pretender, the, his head on wine-glasses, [330]
Primitive glass, [18-42]
Primitive glass, restricted use of, [20]
Primitive glass, Greek and Egyptian names, [20]
Primitive glass, of Egyptians imitates native stones, [21-22]
Primitive glass, late survivals, [37-38]
Primitive period in history of glass, [18]
Procello or ‘spring-tool,’ [15]
‘Prunted’ beakers, of Anglo-Saxons and other Germanic tribes, [110-112]
‘Prunted’ beakers, how made, [111]
‘Prunted’ beakers, found in Illyria, [111]
‘Prunts,’ on German glasses, [253]
‘Prunts,’ restriction of term, [253 note]
‘Prunts,’ practical use of, [253 note]
Rabanus, Maurus, glass furnace in MS. of, [124-25]
Ravenscroft, his flint-glass, [318]
Red colours in Egyptian glass, [27-28]
Red opaque glass confined in Egypt to inlays, [28]
Reichenau, Byzantine glass on island of, [114]
Reichs-adler Humpen, [267]
René, King, patron of glass-makers, [135], [229]
Retabulum from Westminster Abbey, [141]
Reticelli, vetro a, [205-206]
Rhages or Rhé, fragments of glass from, [173]
Rhodes, primitive glass from, [36], [37-38]
Rhodes, glass from, [342]
Riaño, Don Juan, on Spanish glass, [246], [247]
Rib-twisted stem, [326]
Rings (Annuli) of glass, [131]
Rock-crystal, glazed by Egyptians, [20]
Rock-crystal, carvings in, [70]
Rock-crystal, Byzantine school of carving, [103-104], [118]
Rock-crystal, carvings from Western Asia, [118]
Rock-crystal, engraved by Saracens, [145-146]
Rock-crystal, Italian engravers on, [279]
Roemer, how built up, [254-255]
Roemer, a form exceptional in England, [315]
Roemer, in pictures of Dutch school, [244]
Roemer-shaped goblets, [254-255]
Roemer Vischer, his three daughters, [295]
Roman glass, [48-88]
Roman glass, the earliest Hellenistic in character, [48]
Roman glass, in the main not dependent on Greece, [48-49]
Roman glass, Millefiori glass, [49-52]
Roman glass, colours of, [52]
Roman glass, glass in floor-mosaics, [53 note]
Roman glass, wall decoration, [53-54]
Roman glass, Opus sectile in glass, [54-55]
Roman glass, window-glass, how made, [55]
Roman glass, mirrors, [55-56]
Roman glass, coloured pastes, Lapis lazuli, [56]
Roman glass, moulded glass, [56-58]
Roman glass, moulded ‘hollow-ware,’ [57-58]
Roman glass, from Britain, blown into moulds, [58]
Roman glass, blown into silver casing, [58 note]
Roman glass, spread of manufacture, [60-61]
Roman glass, in Britain, [61], [81], [86-87]
Roman glass, cinerary urns, [61]
Roman glass, early spread in Gaul and Spain, [61], [78]
Roman glass, relation of shapes to pottery, [63]
Roman glass, stringings and threadings, [64]
Roman glass, enamelled glass, [65-67], [102]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, [67-75]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, from Canosa, [68]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, onyx or cameo carved, [68-70]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, ‘Diatretum’ carved, [71-73]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, late carvings in low relief, [74-75]
Roman glass, engraved and sculptured, engraved by wheel, [74-75]
Roman glass, method of preparation, [76]
Roman glass, Pliny quoted, [76-79]
Roman glass, first made near Cumæ, [78]
Roman glass, glass-houses, [80]
Roman glass, in Gaul, [81-85]
Roman glass, abundance in Eastern and North-eastern Gaul, [81]
Roman glass, in West German Museums, [83-84]
Roman glass, chronological classification, [83-84]
Roman glass, in Western Gaul, [84-85]
Roman glass, inscriptions on, [87-88]
Roquetta, term explained, [13]
Rothschild, Lord, carved cup of Roman glass, [73]
Ruby-red, perhaps known to Ancients, [52]
Ruby-red, in mediæval window-glass, [133]
Ruby glass of Kunckel, [289-291]
Ruby glass examples of, [291]
Rudolph II. patronises carving of rock-crystal, [278-279]
Rui or rulli, small window-panes, [182]
Ruimer or roemer of Dutch, [295]
Sabellico on Venetian glass, [201]
Sacro catino of Genoa, [98-99]
Saladin brings new influence to Egypt, [171]
Salviati, [214], [227 note]
Samarkand, glass-makers transported to, [168]
Samarkand, description of glass of, [339]
Sandrart on engraving of glass, [279-282]
‘Sapphirus’ altar of St. David’s, [98 note]
Sapphirus, term used for blue glass paste, [131]
Sapphirus, see Lapis lazuli.
St. Anastasia, Rome, glass bowl at, [98]
St. Gobain, plate-glass of, [210], [235]
St. Ildefonso, royal glass-works, [250]
St. Mark’s treasury, enamelled Roman glass, [66-67]
St. Mark’s treasury, Diatretum glass, [71-73]
St. Mark’s treasury, description of glass in, [99-102]
St. Sophia, lamps and windows, [96-97]
Saracenic art, revolution in twelfth century, [170-171]
Saracenic art, influence of Mongol invasion, [171]
Saracenic carved glass, earlier than enamelled, [144-146]
Saracenic enamelled glass, where made, [149]
Saracenic enamelled glass, nature of ‘metal,’ [150-151]
Saracenic enamelled glass, composition of, [151]
Saracenic enamelled glass, magnesia in, [151]
Saracenic enamelled glass, nature of enamels, [151]
Saracenic enamelled glass, use of Lapis lazuli, [152]
Saracenic enamelled glass, use of gold in decoration, [153]
Saracenic enamelled glass, motives of decoration, [154-155]
Saracenic enamelled glass, ‘canting badges’ of Sultans, [155]
Saracenic enamelled glass, Chinese motives in decoration, [155]
Saracenic enamelled glass, signatures of artist, [155]
Saracenic enamelled glass, forms of lamps, [157]
Saracenic enamelled glass, wick of lamps, how fixed, [157]
Saracenic enamelled glass, beakers of lamp-like form, [158-160]
Saracenic enamelled glass, construction of base of beakers, [159]
Saracenic enamelled glass, famous beakers, [161-164]
Saracenic enamelled glass, vessels filled with holy earth, [164-165]
Saracenic enamelled glass, long-necked bottles, [165-166]
Saracenic enamelled glass, bowls and dishes, [166-167]
Saracenic enamelled glass, mosque lamps, [167-169]
Saracenic enamelled glass, decline of, [168-169]
Saracenic enamelled glass, origin of art, [170]
Saracenic enamelled glass, found in China, [348]
Sargon, glass engraved with name of, [40]
Saroldo family at Nevers, [233]
Sassanian glass, [104-105]
Sassanian influence in Japan, [355]
Scarpaggiato making glass in Bavaria, [271]
Schaper, Johann, painter on glass, [272-273]
Schmelz glass of the Venetians, [207-208], [218-219]
Schmoranz, G., work on Saracenic glass, [150 note]
Schuermans, Judge, [222], [241]
Schurman, Anna Maria van, [295]
Schwanhart family, engravers on glass, [280-283], [288]
Schwinger, Hermann, engraver on glass, [283]
Shantung, glass made in, [353]
Sherbet-jugs of opaque white glass, [342-343]
Sidon, Pre-Roman glass, [57], [59], [78]
Sidon, inscription on glass from, [87]
Sidon, Venetians at, [176]
Signatures of makers on Roman and Phœnician glass, [87-88]
Signatures, rarely found on glass, [88]
Signatures on Saracenic enamelled glass, [155]
Silesia, engraved glass of, [285]
Silica, amount of, in glass, [9-10]
Singer, Mr. J. Webb, his collection of glasses, [324 note], [328]
‘Singing glasses,’ [331]
Slade collection, catalogue of, [51 note]
Slavonic tombs, no glass in, [114 note]
Snuff-bottles, Chinese, [351-352]
Soap-making, its relation to glass, [41-42]
‘Soap of glass’ (manganese), [77]
Soda, the normal alkali of glass, [9-10]
Soda, or maritime group of glass, [10-11]
Soda, source of, [12-13]
Soda, in Venetian glass, [214]
South-Saxon Cemetery, Byzantine glass from, [107]
Southwark, early glass-houses, [302], [312]
Spanish glass, [245-250]
Spanish glass, green glass of south, [245-246]
Spanish glass, literature, [246 note]
Spanish glass, Catalonia, [247-249]
Spanish glass, Altarists and Muranists, [249-250]
Spanish glass, decline in eighteenth century, [250]
Spanish Netherlands, glass of, [240-244]
‘Spear-butt’ shaped lamps, [97]
‘Spear-butt’, in use in Italy, [158]
Spechter, cylindrical beaker, [266]
Specific gravity of glass, [12]
Spessart forest, glass from, [266]
Spheres in connection with suspended mosque lamps, [156-172]
‘Spinning’ or ‘flashing’ to form a disc of glass, [15]
Splashed decoration on Egyptian cosmetic pots, [31]
Splashed decoration on Roman glass, [64]
Splashed decoration on Venetian glass, [208]
Splashed decoration on French Renaissance glass, [238]
Splashed decoration on glass made at Bristol, [335-336]
Stained glass windows, of St. Sophia, [96]
Stained glass, French, composition of, [131]
Stained glass how coloured, [132-133]
Steinschönau, glass industry, [286], [293]
Stimpler, bungling workman, [281], [285]
Stip engraving of Dutch, [297-298]
Strabo on Roman glass, [60-61], [80]
Strabo on glass of Alexandria and Syria, [80]
Sulphur in glass, changes of colour, [17]
Suppialume process, [187]
Susa, glass from, [41 note]
Susa, Sassanian or Byzantine glass from, [104]
Sussex glass-work, [139-140], [301-302]
Switzerland, glass painters of, [263-264]
Synesius, treatise on alchemy, [120]
Syria, glass early made in, [38-39], [44-45]
Syria, importance in history of glass, [122-123]
Syria, glass made during Frankish occupation in coast towns, [180-181]
Syrian glass of Middle Ages, [118], [148-149]
Syrian glass-workers in Gaul and Rome, [82-83]
Syrian tombs, glass from, [59-60]
Syrian treatises on alchemy, etc., [122-124]
Syrian manufacture of glass vessels, [123-124]
Syrian glass-furnace described, [124]
Tassie, James, his glass paste, [336]
Tell-el-Amarna, glass from, [22], [23-25]
Theophilus, his Schedula Diversarum Artium, [126-130]
Theophilus on gilt glass, [92-93]
Theophilus, his glass furnace, [127-128]
Theophilus, materials for glass-making, [128]
Theophilus, blowing of glass, [128-129]
Theophilus, the ‘cylinder process,’ [128-129]
Theophilus on enamelling of glass vessels, [130]
Theophrastus on the word Kyanos, [35]
Tiffany, Messrs., favrile glass, [357], [359]
Timur or Tamerlane, his conquest, [168]
Timur transplants glass-workers, [338]
Tobacco ash, glass from, [292]
Treviso, discovery of chevron beads, [189]
Trionfi di Tavola, [213]
Turkish element in later Saracenic art, [147-148]
Tyre, glass-works in Middle Ages, [148-149]
Tiryns, glass inlay in alabaster slabs, [34]
Ultramarine, source of blue in Saracenic enamels, [152]
Unguentaria or Phialæ of primitive glass, [22], [23], [29-30], [33], [36-37]
Unguentaria, wavy decoration of, [23]
Unguentaria, inscriptions on Egyptian, [30-31]
Unguentaria from tombs in Southern Italy and Greek islands, [36-37]
Unguentaria from Crimean tombs, [37]
Uranium, opal glass from, [206 note]
Urinalia of glass, [134], [139 note]
Varpelev, enamelled glass from tombs at, [66]
Veneer of glass used by Romans, [52-54]
Venetian glass, [174-219]
Venetian glass, made for Turks, [171-172]
Venetian glass, sources of information, [176 note]
Venetian glass, early mention of, [177]
Venetian glass, German pedlars, [177]
Venetian glass, manufacture forbidden in Venice, [177]
Venetian glass, early manufacture of beads, window-glass, and spectacles, [178]
Venetian glass, Germans export glass, [178-184]
Venetian glass, competition with crystal-cutters, [178-179], [184]
Venetian glass, early commerce with Syrian ports, [179]
Venetian glass, early enamelled glass, [179]
Venetian glass, little Oriental influence in fifteenth century, [181]
Venetian glass, Muranese and Venetian guilds, [183]
Venetian glass, manufacture of beads, [185-187]
Venetian glass, exported to England and Low Countries, [192]
Venetian enamelled glass of fifteenth century, [192-199]
Venetian enamelled glass imitates enamels on copper, [193]
Venetian enamelled glass, semé gilding, [195]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, [200-202]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, varieties of, [203-209]
Venetian glass, Cristallo plaque engraved in intaglio, [209]
Venetian glass, Cristallo mirrors, [209-211]
Venetian glass, Cristallo chandeliers, [211-212]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, attempts to check decline, [212-213]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, cut and engraved, [213]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, revival of nineteenth century, [213-214]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, special qualities of, [214]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, literature of, [214-219]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, preparation, [215], [217-219]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, early practical treatises, [217]
Venetian glass in Western Europe, [220-223]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, early importation to Germany, [256]
Venetian glass, Cristallo, importation into England, [314-315]
Venetian glass-workers, restrictions on emigration, [222-223]
Venetian glass-workers, in Netherlands, [240-241]
Venetian glass-workers, in England, [307-308]
Venetian school, suspended lamps in pictures of, [156]
Venetian school, glass in pictures of, [202-203]
Verre or voirre, use of the French word, [135-136]
Verre de fougère, [221], [234]
Verre de fougère, in mediæval times, [113-114]
Verre de fougère, in France, [134-135], [136]
Verrerie, term explained, [1]
Verroterie, term explained, [1], [19]
Verzelini, Jacopo, [307-308]
Vetro di trina from Nineveh, [40]
Vetro di trina from Canosa, [46], [50 note]
Vetro di trina of Murano, [205-206]
Vienna, Saracenic enamelled glass in cathedral, [164-165]
Vienna, Schatzkammer, glass from, in Museum, [280]
Waddesdon collection, glass in, [163], [193], [206], [252 note]
Walloon Church at Southampton, [304-305]
Warmbrunn in Silesia, glass engraving, [285-286]
Waterford, glass-houses at, [336]
Webb of Stourbridge, his cameo glass, [358]
Weights for coins in glass, [146-147]
Westminster retabulum, inlay of glass, [141]
Willkomm humpen, [266]
Windows of French churches, composition and colours, [132-133]
Wine, when first bottled, [322]
Wine-bottles, early English, [322]
Wine-bottles, stamps on, [322]
Wine-glasses, see Drinking-glasses.
Winter, Friedrich, Silesian glass engraver, [285]
Wolf, engraver by stip process, [297-298]
‘Würzburg’ flask in British Museum, enamels on, [153]
Yard, a form of drinking-glass, [331]
Yellow from antimony in primitive glass, [29]
Yellow, source of, in mediæval window-glass, [133]
Zozimus, treatise on alchemy, [120]
Zunft-becher or guild glasses, [270]
Zwischen gläser, [274-275]
Printed by T. and A. Constable, Printers to His Majesty
at the Edinburgh University Press
| [1] | It would be quite beside the mark to search for a chemical formula to express such a combination of silica, soda, and lime. I have little doubt that one of the causes of this remarkable uniformity of composition is to be looked for in the very fact that such a mixture is not a definite silicate, and is therefore the less likely to assume a stony or crystalline structure on cooling. |
| [2] | The alumina here is probably not to be regarded as a base, but rather as taking the place of the silica. Hence the exceptionally low percentage of the latter. |
| [3] | It had its origin in great measure in the arbitrary regulations laid down by the fiscal authorities at the beginning of the last century. This side of the subject is well treated in the article on glass in the original edition of the Penny Cyclopædia. |
| [4] | In the Museum at Kew may be seen specimens of Spanish barilla made from the Halogeton sativa, as well as large crude cakes of roquetta from Aden and Bagdad prepared from the Suæda fruticosa and the Salsola kali respectively. |
| [5] | ‘The Processes of Decay in Glass’ is the subject of an elaborate paper by Mr. James Fowler, to be found in the forty-sixth volume of Archæologia. |
| [6] | Good instances of both these changes may be observed in the windows and chandeliers of the Galerie des Glaces at Versailles. |
| [7] | I know at least of no example of a vessel or bead of glass of an earlier date. That the molten material of the glazes—known from the earliest period—may even in very early times have been rolled into slabs and subsequently cut up into pieces for inlay-work, would seem to be proved by a fragment of a wooden box, bearing the name of a king of the First Dynasty, found by M. Amélineau on the site of Abydos. This box (it is now in the Ashmolean Museum, where it was pointed out to me by Mr. Bell) is decorated with small triangular plaques of what is apparently a blue translucent glass, with an uneven but undecomposed surface. |
| [8] | It should be borne in mind that colourless rock crystal was at all times ‘taboo’ to the Egyptians, and this fact may partly account for the absence of clear white glass in Egypt. |
| [9] | In most cases, I think, the comparatively hard arragonite, the carbonate, and not the sulphate of lime that we know by that name. |
| [10] | There is, however, some reason to believe not only that the salt lakes of the Delta were exploited at a very early date, but that the natron, an impure carbonate of soda, may well have been exported thence by an old caravan route, perhaps even in pre-dynastic times. |
| [11] | Professor Buckman, in a paper in the Archæological Journal so long ago as 1851 gives some valuable analyses of ancient glass, the main result of which is to show the absence of lead and the general use of copper as a source of blue, in pre-Roman times at least. In many of these older analyses, as in those made by Sir Humphry Davy, there always remains an element of doubt, not so much as to the accuracy of the chemist’s work, but as to the provenance of the specimen that he is examining. Professor Buckman dwells upon the light that properly conducted analyses would throw upon the origin and classification of the glass of the ancients. He does not, unfortunately, distinguish the nature of the alkali, whether soda or potash, in his own analyses. Little work of this kind has been accomplished in the fifty years that have since elapsed. |
| [12] | Antimony has been found in the glaze of Assyrian bricks, as well as in the yellow enamel of mediæval Saracenic glass. The Egyptian name was mestem, whence the word stibium (antimony), but other minerals such as galena, hæmatite, and pyrolusite (oxide of manganese), have also been found in their kohl-pots; at one time indeed, during the early empire, a copper-green was in fashion for painting the angles of the eyes. I may mention that in the twisted rods—of a comparatively late date, however—that fitted into these kohl-pots, we have some of the earliest examples of a transparent white glass. |
| [13] | This, however, is not quite certain, for the prænomen of Thothmes III.—Men-cheper-Ra—was assumed, I am informed, by one of the priest kings of the Twenty-second Dynasty. Indeed, the technique in this case would point rather to a late than an early period. |
| [14] | I had proposed to include this example and the two little vases previously described among my coloured illustrations. I have, however, not been able to obtain the requisite permission from the keeper of the Egyptian Department. |
| [15] | This is the expression used in the official catalogue of the Museum, from which I borrow this description. |
| [16] | Glass-workers’ moulds have been found at Mycenæ, and it has been claimed for this glass that it was made as well as melted on the spot. But that, I think, is unlikely. |
| [17] | All this bears out what I have said above upon the relation of the earliest glass to the metallurgy of copper, and the probability that the earliest glass was a blue glass (p. [26]). |
| [18] | It is a remarkable fact that somewhat similar beads, of clear, colourless, facetted glass, evidently of great age, have lately been brought from West Africa. (See a paper by Mr. C. H. Read in Man, May 1905.) |
| [19] | Such a comparison may indeed be made in the case of the bulk of the ‘primitive’ glass of which we treat in this chapter, and may help to accentuate the difference between it and the blown glass of later days. |
| [20] | Some fragments of a conical vessel of clear thin glass, evidently formed by the blowing-tube, have lately been found by M. de Morgan at Susa. They are said to bear a cuneiform inscription of the time of the Achæmenidæ. These fragments are now in the Louvre, but considerable doubt exists as to the nature of the markings. The glass certainly resembles suspiciously that used by the Arabs for their small hanging lamps. |
| [21] | See [Chapter XXI.] for some further account of this glass. |
| [22] | On the other hand, in the First Epistle to the Corinthians and in the Epistle of James, there are references to mirrors that may have been of glass. Again, in Revelation we find ‘a sea of glass like unto crystal’ (iv. 6), and what is more important, glass in other passages (xxi. 18 and 21) is referred to as ‘pure’ and ‘transparent’ (the words in the original being ὓαλος, καθαρός, and διαφανής). In view of the question, discussed below, of the date when clear glass came into general use, this contrast between the Gospels and the, on the whole, later books is of some interest. |
| [23] | This arrangement in spiral coils is very characteristic of the glass of this period, though it is generally only to be seen on close examination. We have noticed it in the case of the ‘lace-glass’ from Canosa. It may give us some clue as to the method of manufacture. |
| [24] | This collection, which contains many fine examples of ancient glass, has been bought en bloc by Mr. Pierpont Morgan, and is likely to follow the still more famous Charvet collection (so carefully described in M. Froehner’s great work), and to find its way to America. |
| [25] | The basis of this collection was formed by Mr. Nesbitt many years ago; it was presented to the Museum, in 1887, by his brother-in-law, the late Sir A. W. Franks. Mr. Nesbitt was the compiler of the catalogues both of the Slade collection (privately printed, 1871) and of the glass at South Kensington (1878)—magnificently illustrated works, but now in a measure out of date. |
| [26] | The evidence, however, on this point is very conflicting. |
| [27] | The pale rosy tint seen in a few rare specimens of classical glass, as in some pieces lately brought from Egypt, I should rather attribute to a skilful use of manganese. |
| [28] | The presence of tin in this glass which I have already mentioned in speaking of its Egyptian prototype (p. [27]), has been confirmed by analyses made at Sèvres by M. Salvétat. I do not know whether the researches of this chemist into the composition of the glass of the ancients have ever been published. |
| [29] | In the Roman floor mosaics the tesseræ are almost invariably of stone, but occasionally fragments of glass are found, as in the famous ‘Mosaic of the Philosophers’ in the museum at Cologne. Here the ground is built up of a smeltz-like greenish glass. |
| [30] | We may compare this use of glass with the kyanos studs of the Mycenæan period, or again with the blue glass inlaid between the volutes of the capitals in the temple of Minerva Polias at Athens, described long ago by Hamilton. |
| [31] | In the glass coffin from the Temple collection in the British Museum we have an example of the use of such glass on a comparatively large scale. |
| [32] | Mr. Kennard has a plaque of clear white glass, some six inches in length, with the bust of a faun in high relief. This plaque is pierced on either side, as if for fixing upon some object of furniture. |
| [33] | We may regard the little ovoid vase in the British Museum, made by blowing a thin vesicle of deep blue glass into a casing of silver, pierced by oval apertures, as an example of moulded glass where the mould has not been removed. If the silver casing were stripped off, we should have a good imitation of ‘prunted’ glass; not that this is to be taken as a model of the way in which these prunts were made (see below, p. [110]). |
| [34] | How far the so-called diatretum work is based upon such appliqué or added portions of glass is a much disputed point. Mr. Nesbitt appears to have regarded all such work as so formed (Catalogue, Slade Collection, pp. xiv.-xv.), and the imitations now made at Murano are certainly built up in this way; not so, however, some of the genuine ancient pieces, I think. (See below, p. [71].) |
| [35] | The Egyptians, too, as we have seen, sometimes decorated their glass with similar splashes, but we never find that these are distorted. |
| [36] | There are many allusions to the painting of glass, in some cases merely by varnishes, in the early mediæval treatises on glass (see [Chap. VII.]). Some of these recipes, as we shall see, may have been handed down from classical times. |
| [37] | The contents have been described by the late Canonico Passini, in a magnificent work published by Ongania of Venice, in which nearly every piece of importance is reproduced in colour or by photography. |
| [38] | There is among the Roman glass in the museum at Cologne a shallow bowl about a foot in diameter, painted on the back, as in the later verre églomisé, with a female head. The colours—black, red, and white—are but slightly burnt in, and therefore much decomposed. |
| [39] | This part is stated to be a distinct piece cemented on to the bottom of the vessel. So at least says Mr. Apsley Pellatt in his Curiosities of Glass-making, writing, I think, before the vase was broken. In the same book will be found a careful account of the process of ‘casing’ as now practised. It was probably by some such plan, in the case of the Portland vase, that the paraison of blue glass was blown into the previously prepared vessel of opaque white. |
| [40] | I shall return to this sculptured work when treating of Byzantine glass in the next chapter. |
| [41] | By the courtesy of Lord Rothschild I have had an opportunity of examining this wonderful cup. It is undoubtedly carved from one piece of glass. The spirited execution would seem to point to a date hardly much later than the beginning of the third century. The internal depressions were made perhaps with the object of lighting up the external figures. The glass by transmitted light is of a fiery red, tending to purple, but the figure of Lycurgus is exceptionally of a fine amethystine tint. I think that in both cases the colour is probably due to a skilful use of manganese. |
| [42] | The abrading material employed along with the wheel was probably in most cases corundum or emery (the adamas of the ancients) in a powdered form; not the diamond, which was excessively rare, nor the emerald, as is sometimes stated. This last stone is not only much rarer than corundum, but it is also not so hard. |
| [43] | Compare what is said below on p. [82] of Greek-speaking Syrian artisans. |
| [44] | For some account of what these writers tell us about glass, see below, [Chap. VII.] |
| [45] | Theophilus, however, writing a century earlier than the pseudo-Heraclius, appears to speak of the marver as a slab of stone (see below, [Chap. VII.]). |
| [46] | The sand of this river as a material for the manufacture of glass is already mentioned by Theophrastus, a pupil of Aristotle. |
| [47] | Glebas nitri. This is doubtless the natron (impure carbonate of soda) exported from the Egyptian natron lakes, which have been worked from a very early period—a substance that must not be confused with our nitre (nitrate of potash); as I have said, the glass of the ancients is essentially a soda glass. The natron was probably first exported for the use of the soap-makers. |
| [48] | This again must not be confused with the white earth, which we now know under that name, a substance unknown to the ancients. |
| [49] | By this is probably meant three parts in twelve or ten, i.e. 25 or 30 per cent. of the whole. |
| [50] | Great care must be exercised in translating the names of the precious stones and marbles mentioned by Greek and Roman writers. These names are used in the vaguest way, which hardly ever corresponds to the modern meaning. |
| [51] | Among others, from the early history of the Christian Church in these parts. |
| [52] | At Rome, too, there is some reason to think that the working of glass—the minor departments of that art, at least—was long in the hands of Syrian or other Semitic immigrants. Martial’s itinerant hawker from the Transtevere, who bartered his sulphur matches for broken glass, we may perhaps think of as a Jew (Book 1., Epigram. 42). |
| [53] | See p. [88]. |
| [54] | Compare with these the bottle from Cologne in the British Museum containing a hardened mass of some yellow substance, and closed by a decayed cork partly covered by a corroded bronze capsule (Slade Catalogue, No. 275). |
| [55] | Both these forms are found in Anglo-Saxon and Frankish graves. It will be remembered that in France there was no sudden break in the Roman culture on the appearance of the Germanic invaders, as was the case in England. |
| [56] | Philostratus describes the process by which the ‘barbarians of the ocean’ spread colours upon heated bronze so as to form a hard enduring decoration. He was of the household of Julia Domna, and M. Froehner suggests that he may have heard of these enamels from one of the officers of the army of Septimius Severus. |
| [57] | The famous enamelled bowl, however, found in a Roman tomb of the time of Hadrian, at Bartlow, Essex, was accompanied by a cinerary vase and other examples of glass. See Archæologia, vol. xxvi. |
| [58] | The chapter dealing with these marks, together with that on the geographical distribution, forms the most valuable part of M. Froehner’s already quoted work on ancient glass. |
| [59] | So when some of our leading archæologists saw at first in the discoveries of Schliemann at Mycenæ and Troy the work of wandering tribes of the fifth and sixth centuries, they were unconsciously arguing in favour of this often renewed Oriental influence. |
| [60] | The glass from the catacombs has long attracted notice, with the result that many more or less clever forgeries, dating from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, have to be reckoned with. These fondi d’oro are most completely illustrated by Garucci in the third volume of the Jesuit father’s great work, the Storia dell’ Arte Christiana (1876), as well as in an earlier work (1858 and 1864), especially devoted to Christian glass. The most scholarly treatment of the subject is to be found in the little work of Dr. Hermann Vopel, Die Alt-Christlichen Goldgläser (1899). For an excellent summary of what is known on the subject, see also the catalogue of the early Christian Antiquities in the British Museum, by Mr. O. M. Dalton, and the same writer’s paper in the Archæological Journal (1901). |
| [61] | ‘... quo facto desuper ipsas Armavi vitrum docto flatu tenuatum Ignis; sed post quam pariter sensere calorem Se vitrum fialis tenuatum junxit honeste.’ These lines, which describe the critical process by which the superficial layer of glass was applied, are unfortunately somewhat obscure. If I have translated them aright, the process did not differ much from that now adopted at Murano. Heraclius is here probably copying an older recipe. |
| [62] | There is a good example, a bearded man, in the Glass Room at the British Museum. Some clever imitations were made in the eighteenth century. |
| [63] | As examples of this, note the gladiator glass and the Anatoli Gaudens portrait from the Tyskiewitz collection. This last example, of quite exceptional merit, has been recently acquired by the British Museum. |
| [64] | I am inclined to connect the cemetery glass as a whole with the Judaising Christians of the old narrow school, who had long been settled in Rome near to the Porta Capena and in the Transteverine quarters, not far, that is to say, from the principal cemeteries. |
| [65] | Formerly in the Basilewski collection, now, I think, in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg. This cup, which is also of interest for the inscriptions on it in a local dialect of debased Latin, was found near the site of Doclea, to the north of the Lake of Scutari. |
| [66] | In the Theodosian code, however, we find, among the craftsmen who are freed from personal taxes, Vitrearii, vasa vitrea conflantes. |
| [67] | A disc of this description, pierced to receive glass cups, is apparently an earlier form than the well-known corona, the polycandela, so long in use in Christian churches. The hanging disc, like so many things Roman and Byzantine, would seem to have survived among the Saracens; something like it may still be found in old Arab houses in Cairo. Elsewhere Paul, speaking of the single lights in St. Sophia, describes them as silver vessels, like a balance-pan—in the centre of each rests a cup of ‘well burning oil.’ This passage, I think, throws some light on certain ‘balance-pan’ dishes of rock crystal and glass, preserved in St. Mark’s treasury at Venice (see below, p. [101]). |
| [68] | Its relation to the Queen of Sheba we may dismiss. The other two uses that have been assigned to this bowl may be reconciled, if we accept one of the earliest forms of the tradition of the Holy Graal. (I follow here the account given by the late Mr. Thomas Arnold in an article by him in the Encyclopædia Britannica.) According to this tradition, Joseph of Arimathea, at the time of the Crucifixion, proceeded first to the upper room where the Last Supper had been celebrated and found there the shallow bowl that had held the Paschal Lamb. Taking this vessel with him, and returning to the scene of the Crucifixion, he received in it drops of blood from the side of our Lord. The double service of the bowl is the essence of this tradition. Mr. Arnold, à propos of the traditionary connection of the Holy Graal with Glastonbury, quotes from Malmesbury a statement that in his day an altar called ‘sapphirus,’ which had been brought from Palestine to St. Davids, had been re-discovered. This may well have been a slab of glass similar to that still preserved at Reichenau. I have been unable to find any further reference to this ‘sapphirus’ altar. |
| [69] | Il Tesoro di San Marco illustrato da Antonio Passini, Canonico della Marciana. Published by Ferd. Ongania, Venice, 1886. As in both the text and the plates of this work the glass is mixed up with objects of rock crystal and other materials, I give a reference to the plates on which vessels of glass are reproduced. |
| [70] | This dish should probably rather find a place among the hanging lamps of the next section. There are others of these so-called chalices and patens of which the original use is very problematical. |
| [71] | This vase has been classed by Von Czihak with the so-called Hedwig glasses (see below, p. [115]); the resemblance, however, to the German glasses is small. |
| [72] | Note in this connection the inscription on the mounting of the lamp of carved glass (IV. 1 in our list) in St. Mark’s treasury, referring to a bishop of Iberia, the modern Georgia. Not until the reign of Justinian was the Roman empire extended to the east coast of the Euxine—to Lazica and Colchis. |
| [73] | The contents of these graves have been described in a paper read before the Society of Antiquaries by Mr. C. H. Read (Archæologia, vol. lv.). |
| [74] | I use the term Saxon here to include also the Angles and Jutes. |
| [75] | In this widely spread class of jewellery, both true enamel and glass are conspicuous by their general absence. |
| [76] | I have seen, in the collection of Mr. Kennard, the lower part of a vase of thickish clear green glass, from an Anglo-Saxon tomb. On this the tails of the well-formed prunts sweep downwards diagonally; on the head of each is a rosette Such a form one may perhaps connect with the ‘hroden ealo woege,’ the ‘twisted ale-cups’ of Beowulf’s poem (cf. Hartshorne, p. 24). |
| [77] | Note in this tapestry, in more than one feast scene, the swaggering action with which the guests raise the drinking-horns, either to drink from the larger end or to let the liquid pass into the mouth from the pointed extremity. |
| [78] | In the sacristy of the church at Mittelzell, where I recently had an opportunity of examining it. This is an irregular oblong slab, about twenty inches in length, weighing about thirty pounds. One surface is nearly even, as if the molten glass had been poured out upon a table. |
| [79] | The Slavonic tribes before their conversion do not appear to have had any knowledge of glass; it is not found in any of their tombs to the east of the Elbe. |
| [80] | Apart from a few examples of enamelled glass of Saracenic origin preserved in church treasuries; these probably came in somewhat later. |
| [81] | There are, beside these, five other glasses that may be connected with this saint, but these are of a different character. Hedwig was the wife of a Silesian prince who lived in the early part of the thirteenth century. On the occasion of a misunderstanding with her husband, arising from the lady’s refusal to drink anything but water at her meals, the difficulty was surmounted by a miracle. St. Hedwig was canonised in 1257, and was soon recognised as the landes patronin both of Silesia and Poland. |
| [82] | For example, on Gallic and British coins derived from Greek types, or again on some English porcelain where an Oriental design has been unintelligently copied. |
| [83] | Les Origines de l’Alchimie, 1885; La Chimie des Anciens et du Moyen Age, 1889; La Chimie au Moyen Age, 1893. |
| [84] | This I shall refer to later on as the pseudo-Heraclius; it contains several sections treating on the manufacture of glass, and forms a valuable commentary on the decidedly earlier treatise of Theophilus. |
| [85] | Compare with this account the furnace now used in Northern India described in [Chapter XXI.] |
| [86] | At South Kensington, in the Indian section, may be seen some native distilling apparatus of glass, which follows very closely in the line of these old Syrian drawings. |
| [87] | For the relation of Theophilus to his predecessor, Bishop Meinhart of Paderborn, and to the Greek influence still prevailing in Germany, see the Introduction by Albert Ilg to his edition of this treatise in the Quellenschriften für Kunstgeschichte, vol. vii.; Vienna, 1874. |
| [88] | Much of this latter sort, however, was to be greedily absorbed in Germany at a later date. |
| [89] | Are we to take this acquaintance with the Agia Sophia in a material as well as a symbolical sense? Does Theophilus in this passage claim to have visited Constantinople? |
| [90] | Not long after this a German poet writes to this effect— ‘Gott hat erschaffen manchen Mann Der Glas aus Asche machen kann Und dass kan schöpfen wie er will.’ |
| [91] | This is, of course, the ‘marver,’ not yet of iron as in the thirteenth-century writer (cf. p. [76]). |
| [92] | From the expression used, ‘quam fistulam,’ etc., it would seem that the identical hollow tube was used again and not replaced by a simple rod—the pontil; but perhaps this is merely a slip on the part of Theophilus. |
| [93] | The literal statement is that ‘the painted gold figures are covered with the clear fusible glass of which we have already spoken’; over this again the coloured designs are painted—a curious and elaborate process. We must, however, remember that although Theophilus may have seen specimens of Byzantine enamelled glass, he can have had little opportunity of learning how they were made. |
| [94] | There annuli probably included also bracelets or bangles of glass. We may perhaps compare them to those still worn by Arab women. Margaret, Countess of Flanders, had in 1252 a casket full of glass rings. |
| [95] | Yet in France much of the old glass was sacrificed at the Revolution in order to extract the gold. See Appert, Les Vitraux Anciens, for the composition and colour of mediæval window-glass. |
| [96] | Early in the eleventh century, a saintly German bishop, Bernard of Hildesheim, is said to have made for himself a chalice of glass, and a few years later a bishop of Auxerre founded three prebendal seats, one for a painter, one for a goldsmith, and a third for a glass-worker (vitrier—probably a maker of glass windows). We must not, then, be surprised at the acquaintance with the practical arts shown by the monk Rugerus (Theophilus). |
| [97] | M. Schuermans, however, brings forward passages to show that in early days the term was applied to a small flask carried about the person. |
| [98] | What little we have comes mostly from the Venetian archives. We hear already in the fourteenth century of German hawkers of glass, and of the skill of the Germans in making glass mirrors. |
| [99] | To hollow ware, that is to say. Stained glass for windows, of which examples still survive, was made in England in the fifteenth century, and probably even earlier. |
| [100] | Compare with these the four hundred and thirty-two urinalia supplied to the Dauphin of the Viennois for a year’s consumption. Glass, it would appear from an epigram of Martial, was put to a similar use by the Romans. |
| [101] | The village of Kirdford is situated about four miles to the north of Petworth. |
| [102] | It stood for long against the wall of the South Ambulatory. As in this position the paintings appeared to be suffering from the damp, it has lately been removed to the Jerusalem Chamber. |
| [103] | A fifteenth-century plaque at South Kensington is possibly an exception. Here the gold leaf lies between two sheets of glass, the lower one of considerable thickness, but how these sheets are united I cannot say. |
| [104] | In shape they resemble the little bottles in which attar of roses is still sold in Oriental bazaars, and this resemblance may give a hint as to their original use. |
| [105] | Schefer, Relation des voyages de Nassiri Khosrau(1035-1042 A.D.), pp. 42 and 46. The information from Arab writers collected in the notes to this work must not be confused with what Khosrau himself says. There is, however, one important reference to our material in the text:—we are told that glass, transparent and pure as the emerald, was sold in Cairo by the weight. This was in Fatimi times. There may, perhaps, have been some confusion with the glass weights themselves, of which we have spoken above. |
| [106] | We may find, perhaps, what is the last reference to Alexandria in connection with glass in ‘the most precious vase, Alexandrini generis,’ that the Emperor Henry II. (d. 1024 A.D.) presented to the Abbot of Cluny. This was probably an example of sculptured glass, which may have come to Henry through his relationship with the Byzantine emperors. |
| [107] | Gustav Schmoranz, Old Oriental Gilt and Enamelled Glass Vessels, 1899. One hundred and forty glass lamps are accounted for, of which number exactly half are now in the Museum of Arab Art at Cairo. The remaining pieces—goblets, bottles, etc.—only amount to forty-four, but these are nearly all in European museums or private collections. |
| [108] | There was only one, for instance, in the Slade collection. There are now seven in the British Museum and nine at South Kensington, without counting the smaller specimens. |
| [109] | For the important bearing of this point, see my book on Porcelain in this series. |
| [110] | Note that the use of cobalt as an overglaze enamel on Chinese porcelain did not come in until the seventeenth century, and that this enamel at first gave more trouble than any other. |
| [111] | I use this term for the writing with tall perpendicular strokes, although much of it, I understand, should not strictly bear the name. |
| [112] | A good example may be seen in a large picture of the Circumcision by Marco Marziale in the National Gallery. |
| [113] | Glass lamp-cups of this form are still made in India; Mr. Forrest, ex-Director of Records at the India Office, has shown me a specimen brought from Gujerat. Glass lamps of a similar construction seem to have been in use in bedrooms in Germany in the fifteenth century; they may be seen in contemporary pictures. |
| [114] | The magnificent specimen of enamelled glass with geometrical decoration, which belonged to the late Baron Alphonse de Rothschild, figured in Schmoranz’s work as a lantern, is, of course, a stand for a candle. It resembles in every respect, except material, the well-known cylindrical candle-stands of inlaid bronze. |
| [115] | A good example of the first is reproduced by M. Gerspach (L’Art de la Verrerie, p. 100) from a manuscript of the famous story-teller Hariri. For an instance of the second, see the side subjects on the Würzburg flask in the British Museum. |
| [116] | The construction, indeed, closely resembles that of the Cairo cup-lamp described above. |
| [117] | The oldest of these ballads only dates back to the time of the Duke of Wharton, at the beginning of the eighteenth century. The ‘wicked Duke,’ it is said, when in his cups would toss the ‘Luck’ into the air and catch it in his hand. |
| [118] | This is the goblet figured in Schmoranz, p. 29. It belonged at the time, he tells us, to an unknown collector, who gave £1600 for it at Christie’s in 1881. |
| [119] | Illustrated in Archæologia, vol. lviii., where it forms the starting-point of the paper by Mr. C. H. Read, that I have quoted from above. |
| [120] | In this respect differing from the other cup in this collection to which the same date and origin are ascribed. I refer to the Aldrevandini goblet, with the armorial shields, described in the next chapter. The glass of this cup is already quite of a Venetian type, approaching to a true cristallo. |
| [121] | He reigned during the temporary deposition of Malek Nasir. |
| [122] | This lamp also has, I think, passed into the Pierpont Morgan collection. |
| [123] | The badge of a sword is very frequent upon these later lamps, but it can hardly in all cases refer to the same sultan or emir. |
| [124] | The only other lamp, as far as I know, that has been obtained from Syria, is one from Damascus, presented to the British Museum by the late Sir A. W. Franks. This in no way differs from the ordinary type except in the enamelled decoration at the base of the handles. A lamp of quite normal description at South Kensington has also been attributed, but very doubtfully, to the same Syrian town. |
| [125] | The words on the document as I read them are ‘parte schietti et parte à rediselli.’ The ambassador at the same time sends an order for window-glass to be used in the new palace that Ali Pasha is building; and finally, for ‘uno di quelli ferali [fenali?] over fano di salla grande'—probably some kind of chandelier. |
| [126] | We should have looked rather for some trace of Oriental influence. Freeman (Historical Geography, p. 240) speaks of the marquisate as ‘a feudal state, whose rulers had in various ways a singular connection with the East. As Marquesses of Montferrat they claimed the crown of Jerusalem and had worn the crown of Thessalonica.’ Again, early in the fourteenth century the marquisate passed to a branch of the imperial house of Palæologus. |
| [127] | The Consolato dell’ Arte was yearly elected on Christmas Day amid great festivities. In the statutes of the Arte Vitrea, drawn up or revised in 1495, we have apparently the earliest documentary evidence for these glass-works. These statutes are given in full in Bordoni’s L’Arte Vetraria in Altare, Savona, 1884. |
| [128] | The results are perhaps best summed up in the memoir contributed in 1872 by Cecchetti to the Reale Instituto Veneto. See also the Monographia della Vetraria Veneziana, the combined work of Zanetti, Cecchetti, and others, drawn up upon the occasion of the Viennese Exhibition of 1873. Vicenzo Zanetti, in his account of the Museo Civico at Murano, gives a list of more than three hundred works (including manuscripts, drawings, and pamphlets) treating upon Venetian glass. |
| [129] | A possible exception has been found in a document of the year 1090, in which a certain citizen adds the word fiolarius to his name. This word, which in the Venetian tongue generally takes the form friolaro, is of some importance to us. In Dante the word fiala is used for a wine-bottle: ‘il vin della sua fiala,’ Par. x. 88. |
| [130] | As early as 1175 it is mentioned that the Venetians had certain privileges in the Daciones de Vitro at Tyre. |
| [131] | Ayas, Tripoli, Tyre, and Acre remained under Frankish rule during the greater part of the thirteenth century. Acre, the last to fall, was taken by the Saracens in 1291. |
| [132] | My point is that in this beautiful cup the scheme of decoration is essentially French, while the technique of both glass and enamels points to a Saracenic place of origin. |
| [133] | They have been analysed by Cecchetti in the paper quoted above. |
| [134] | This word was the source of much embarrassment to Merret, the translator of Neri’s little manual on glass, of which I shall have more to say further on. Quite regardless of the context, he throughout his translation rendered the words ‘canne di conterie’—that is to say, the glass rods from which the beads were made—as ‘rails for counting houses’! |
| [135] | The term ‘bead’ was early transferred from the ‘bid’ or prayer to the small spherical bodies strung on a cord by which these prayers were counted, and before the end of the fourteenth century the word was already used in a secular sense also. |
| [136] | These canne are described as ‘de vero [vetro] commun, Christallini et colorade de diversi sorti.’ |
| [137] | Note in this connection the recent discovery of ‘chevron’ beads at Treviso, referred to below. |
| [138] | Something like the apparatus used for roasting coffee, it would seem. I do not attempt to give any explanation of the two rival processes—a spiedo (on a broach or spit) and a ferracia. That attempted by Mr. Nesbitt (South Kensington Glass, p. civ.) is not satisfactory. |
| [139] | It is not, I think, generally known that beads were made in the east of London, early in the last century, by this process—by dropping off the glass upon a revolving spit or rod of iron (Hartshorne, p. 106). |
| [140] | According to Dr. Petrie’s interpretation (see above, [Chapter II.]). It is difficult to understand how the elaborate beads found in Etruscan and Greek tombs—those with satyr masks especially—were built up without the use of the blow-pipe. |
| [141] | Now preserved in the local museum at Treviso, where I lately had an opportunity of examining them. Nothing was found with them except a few small rods of coloured glass. It has been suggested that this was a contraband store, at some time destroyed by fire; but the fragments are in no case fused together. This parti-coloured glass, we may note, would be of little value for ‘cullet,’ and defective beads would therefore be thrown away. |
| [142] | A fine specimen has found its way into the collection of Egyptian antiquities in the British Museum. |
| [143] | The term ‘Aggri’ should, perhaps, be reserved for large beads, of which the colours extend right through the mass, but the term is not very definitely used in the African trade. |
| [144] | Some of this enamelled glass no doubt dates from the early years of the next century. On the other hand, some of the thin white glass of capricious forms described in the next chapter may have been made before the year 1500. Apart from the generally vague ground of shape and style of decoration, there is no means of fixing the date of Venetian glass, so that in the absence of costumed figures or of coats of arms we are often very much in the dark on this point. |
| [145] | I have seen, however, in a fourteenth-century manuscript, glasses with well developed stems carefully depicted. |
| [146] | It was on the strength of the armour borne by this figure that M. Labarte attributed this cup to the early part of the fifteenth century. I may note that this goblet, as well as the one of green glass mentioned below, was bought in Italy for a small sum by M. Debruge Duménil, one of the earliest systematic collectors of Venetian glass. The elaborate catalogue of his collection, made very shortly after his death in 1847, by his son-in-law Jules Labarte, is a valuable record of the Italian art of the Renaissance. |
| [147] | James Howell, Epistolæ Ho-elianæ. |
| [148] | This vessel appears to be sometimes filled, not with water, but with moist sand or earth. |
| [149] | In the Louvre, the nymph of Giorgione’s ‘Fête Champêtre’ holds a jug of glass of graceful form over the well to the left, and in Titian’s ‘Supper at Emmaus’ in the same gallery, the twisting lines that surround a decanter with tall neck and handles, suggest a decoration with latticinio. |
| [150] | The quotation is from the Appendix to Vicenzo Cervio’s Il Trinciante, Venice, 1593. |
| [151] | ‘Ma quando particolarmente se voglion’ far vetri bianchi di smalto vi s’aggiunge calcina di stagno e questo si chiama latticinio del quale si fanno opere diverse sopra i vasi di christallo’ (Garzoni, Piazza Universale, 1585, p. 550). |
| [152] | But in the earlier writers this name is given rather to the imitations of agate—what was afterwards known as schmelz (cf. p. [218]). |
| [153] | A similar effect is obtained nowadays by means of a salt of uranium, but as is so often the case in the modern handling of old decorative systems, the opalescence is generally overdone. |
| [154] | Laborde, Les Émaux au Louvre, Part II. No. 498, and the same author’s Les Ducs de Bourgogne (Archives of Lille). |
| [155] | In the museum at Murano is, or was, a similar plaque thus described by Zanetti, ‘Una grossa piastra col busto incavato del Doge Andrea Gritti fra le initiali A. G.; secolo XVI.’ (Il Museo Civico-Vetrario di Murano, 1881). |
| [156] | By the eighteenth century, however, they had adopted the German system. The President De Brosses, in one of the admirable letters that he wrote from Italy (1739), when describing the manufacture of mirrors at Murano, gives a vivid account of the cylinder process. |
| [157] | Not really steel, of course, but a kind of speculum metal containing about one part of tin to two of copper. Fioravanti, in his Specchio di Scientia Universale, tells us that this acciaio was made of equal parts of brass and tin. He contrasts the German and Italian methods of preparation of glass mirrors, giving the preference to the former. Fioravanti then speaks of the interest taken in these mirrors—not by women only—and after balancing the pros and cons, he concludes that, on the whole—‘gli specchi son’ mala cosa nelle case.’ |
| [158] | A word that must not be confused with the term luse or lustro, applied by the Venetians to a mirror. |
| [159] | There is a magnificent chandelier of this class in the drawing-room of Mr. Beaumont’s house in Piccadilly. It dates probably from the early years of the eighteenth century. |
| [160] | ‘Notizia delle opere d’arte.’ I quote at second-hand, as I have not been able to find a copy of this work. |
| [161] | The learned Cardanus, physician, mathematician, and astrologer, has a section on glass both in his De Subtilitate (1551) and in the somewhat later De Varietate Rerum. He is often quoted as an authority on the subject by contemporary and later writers, but in spite of many quaint and ingenious reflections I can find little of practical value in his remarks. |
| [162] | Not to be confounded, says the writer, with the stone known as Magnese, found ‘nella Magna’ (Allemania or Germany). ‘Quite other are the virtues of this stone [magnetic oxide of iron?] when placed under your pillow, ...’ but for the context I must refer the reader to the sixty-ninth section of the original work. |
| [163] | In the fourth section of the second treatise the author speaks of ‘azurro della Magna del quale si tinge il vetro.’ There is also a section at the end of the first book on the preparation of azurro fine from pietro d’azurro ultramarino, but I do not think that this has anything to do with the colouring of glass, as it is associated with recipes for dyeing grey hair of a blonde colour and for preparing the acqua virgine by which the face is rendered beautiful. It is difficult to understand what relation the Acqua di Philoseophy (sic—there are several sections so headed at the end of the treatise) has with the preparation of glass. But all these old formulists are only too ready to run off at a tangent to discuss questions of alchemy. |
| [164] | In spite of what Milanesi says in his introduction, I strongly suspect this third treatise to be of a later date than the others; the whole tone of it seems to smack more of the cinquecento than of the previous century. At the same time it is inferior to the two preceding treatises in practical knowledge—indeed it contains much nonsense. |
| [165] | See above, p. [174], for an account of L’Altare. |
| [166] | But much the same might be said of the potter’s art; in this case, however, the artistic history is far more continuous and inter-connected than in the case of glass. |
| [167] | It is not less interesting to hear, in a letter (dated 1572) from the governor of Poitou, of ‘Fabian Salviate, escuyer, gentilhomme de Myrane, païs de Venize, venuz lui et sa famille, en ce païs de Poictou pour praticquer l’art de la Verrerie.’ Cf. p. [214]. But this is perhaps an accidental coincidence. |
| [168] | This bed of sand extends eastward through the forest of Fontainebleau, and at the present day it is this sand of Fontainebleau that the glass-makers of Murano, when they can afford it, use in preference to all other sources of silica. |
| [169] | Truguet, Les Cris de Paris—no date, but soon after 1600. Verre de pierre we may compare to our expression ‘flint’ or ‘pebble glass.’ It has been altered to verre de bière by a recent French writer on glass, who quotes the cry! |
| [170] | It was a Ferro who, as far back as the fourteenth century, taught the glass-workers at L’Altare the Venetian methods of making glass. The glass industry of Provence has at the present day been almost monopolized by the French branch of this family. |
| [171] | In the west also, René, who we must remember was head of the house of Anjou, in consideration of the ‘gentilesse et noblesse qui est l’ouvrage de verrerie, et que aussi c’est le bien du pays et de la chose publique,’ granted permission for the foundation of glass-works among the forests of La Vendée, with rights of cutting wood ‘au lieu le moins dommaigeable’ (Gerspach, p. 196). |
| [172] | At this time—in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century—Lorraine was not yet an integral part of France. It formed part of the Holy Roman Empire, while its trade connections were rather with the Netherlands and with Italy. See below for the distinction between Verres de France and Verres de Lorraine. |
| [173] | The Abbé Boutellier has made a special study of the Nivernais glass, but I have not had an opportunity of seeing his Histoire des Gentilshommes verriers et de la Verrerie de Nevers. |
| [174] | In distinction from the Verre en tables quarrées made in Lorraine. I am unable to say whether the latter was at so early a date made by the cylinder process, but the square shape renders this very likely. |
| [175] | Among the documents relating to glass, collected by the Baron Davillier, was the report of the commission of inquiry appointed by Philip II. at the time (about 1560) when it was proposed to glaze the many thousand windows of the Escurial. Samples were sent from the glass-works of Spain, Burgundy, Lorraine, and Normandy. The Norman glass was declared to be the purest. (Quoted by Gerspach, p. 304.) |
| [176] | These canons, I think, correspond to the Italian canni, the glass rods from which beads were made. We hear of these canons being supplied to the Pâternostriers, who take the place in France of the Suppialumi of Venice. |
| [177] | It seems to me, however, very doubtful whether flint-glass was at this time necessarily glass of lead. I return to the point in the chapter on English glass. |
| [178] | I use the term Bohemian, here as elsewhere, for brevity’s sake. The more correct expression would be—the frontier lands of Germany and Bohemia. This will be made clear in the following chapter. |
| [179] | So in the important collection of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs at Brussels, especially strong in examples of ‘winged’ beakers, little attempt is made to separate the Venetian from the home-made specimens. |
| [180] | Attributed to the painter known as ‘The Master of the Death of the Virgin.’ In other works of this painter, who was working during the first thirty or forty years of the sixteenth century, we find examples of cristallo of large size and advanced technique. |
| [181] | I do not know why this essentially Teutonic form is described in the official catalogue as a ‘Venetian green glass goblet.’ |
| [182] | Riaño, The Industrial Arts of Spain. The little that we know, on the documentary side, of Spanish glass is derived for the most part from this work, one of the South Kensington handbooks. This may be supplemented by the information collected shortly before his death by the Baron Charles Davillier, which has filtered out through various channels; some of it may be found in M. Gerspach’s work on glass (pp. 100-105). M. Schuermans also has not forgotten Spain in his records of the wandering Italian glass-makers (Bulletin xxix., pp. 133-147). |
| [183] | In 1324 the glass-makers were ordered to remove their furnaces from the inside of the town (Riaño, p. 234). |
| [184] | A surviving vessel of this shape, as well as some examples taken from pictures by Bouts and by the so-called Mostaert, is illustrated by Mr. Hartshorne (Old English Glasses, p. 64). Other similar bowls were to be found in the Thewald collection (dispersed at Cologne, October 1903): in Germany such vessels are known as halbe Wurzelbecher. The form was imitated also at Venice, as we may see in a bowl, in this case duplicated, in the Waddesdon Room in the British Museum. |
| [185] | Quite a number of little vessels of this dark green glass, ornamented with prunts and quillings of various forms, have been dredged up from the Scheldt at Antwerp, or found in the excavation of new docks. They may be studied in the museum now established in the Steen. |
| [186] | The term prunt should perhaps be restricted to those cases where the ‘blob’ is sufficiently large and hot to melt away the subjacent glass. When this is not the case, unless we adopt the German word Warze or wart, the term ‘stud’ applies better. If again the ‘blob’ of hot glass is merely dropped on the surface it may be termed a ‘tear.’ |
| [187] | Every art, he says, must adapt itself to the country where it is practised; and so we Germans have set all kinds of knobs and rings on our glasses, so that they may be somewhat stronger and more lasting, and be more easily held in the hands of fuddled and clumsy folk (‘von vollen und ungeschicklichen Leuten’). This quotation is from one of the Lutheran pastor’s ‘sermons’ on glass (see below, p. [262]). Mathesius lived in what has been called ‘the classical age of German thirst,’ and was ever ready to gird at the failings of his contemporaries in this respect. |
| [188] | The seventeenth-century roemer has been revived in Germany of late, and at Ehrenfeld, near Cologne, this form, as well as other old models, is skilfully if somewhat mechanically copied in both bottle-green and bluish-green glass. |
| [189] | This later arrangement is well seen in a still-life piece in the Jones collection, signed ‘J. W. Preyer, 1854.’ Compare the carefully painted roemer in this picture—the solid foot wound round with a thin stringing—with the seventeenth-century glass in the picture by Jan van de Velde referred to below. |
| [190] | Already in the fifteenth century the vitra Veneciana are distinguished from the Vitrum silvestrum sive montanum, otherwise wald-glas. |
| [191] | For this district we have in the excellent work of E. von Czihak—Schlesische Gläser, Breslau, 1891—a better source of information than is available for any other of the glass-making centres of Germany or Bohemia. |
| [192] | Published by Froben at Bâle in 1556; the dedication, however, is dated 1551. |
| [193] | So Agricola states in the very last paragraph of his book. As this passage seems to have been sometimes misinterpreted, I will quote it in full from the original Latin edition. He mentions the various shapes that glass may be made to assume, and continues:— ‘Qualia opera multa praeclara et admiranda cum quondam biennio agerem Venetiis contemplatus sum; in primis verò anniversariis diebus festis ascensionis domenicae cùm venalia essent apportata Murano; ubi vitrariae officinae omnium celeberrimae sunt: quas vidi cum aliâs, tum maxime cum certis de causis Andream Naugerium in aedibus, quas ibi habebat, uno cum Francisco Asulano convenerim.’ From this passage it would appear that there was a great sale of Muranese glass in Venice on the feast of the Ascension (cf. above, p. [216]). Is this Naugerius, at whose house at Murano Agricola visited, to be identified with the famous poet and orator Andrea Navagero, from whose travels in Spain I have quoted on page 249? |
| [194] | Sarepta oder Bergpostil, Nürnberg, 1562. |
| [195] | In a contemporary vocabulary ritzle is interpreted as ‘aurum quo tingitur vitrum rubro colore.’ In a passage on Venetian glass in his early work, De Naturâ Fossilium (1546), Agricola speaks of the use of gold to colour glass of the ruddy colour of the carbuncle. |
| [196] | I quote this passage, as it is much more to the point as regards German glass than what is to be found in Agricola, who gives us rather his theories as to the materials used by the Venetians to make their cristallo. |
| [197] | A separate muffle-stove for this purpose was, it would thus appear, not yet available. |
| [198] | This part of the decoration we may indeed regard as a survival of the Venetian influence that was dominant in the middle of the sixteenth century. Of this I have already spoken. |
| [199] | This flower, the Mai-glöcklein, is frequently seen on German enamelled glass, and is the more conspicuous as it is almost the only flower realistically treated. I may note that M. Schuermans would appear to regard the presence of these tiges de muguet, executed in enamel, as essentially a sign of Low Country origin; they are, however, frequently accompanied by inscriptions in German. |
| [200] | Notice to the heraldic right of the birds’ heads a shield bearing a cross and the inscription Potestat zu Rom. |
| [201] | On a small humpen, or rather kanne, of this class in the British Museum, dated 1611, we find only three secular electors—those of Saxony, the Palatinate, and Brandenburg; the place of the fourth (Bohemia) is occupied by the imperial eagle. |
| [202] | Herr von Czihak mentions that he has seen in the museum of Freiberg, in Saxony, a covered humpen, painted in oil-colours, protected apparently with some kind of lacquer. The glass is dark green, and the Gothic character both of the metal cover and of the painting points to a date not later than 1500. The subject, according to a quaint inscription, has relation to ‘Eneaspius der Babst’ (the Pope Pius II., 1458-1464), and to the ‘Roemischer Kaiser Friderich der dritt’ (Schlesische Gläser, p. 101). |
| [203] | What Mathesius states is, ‘The white [i.e. colourless] glasses have now become common over which white threads of white colour are carried; these glasses are made in Silesia.’ Herr von Czihak (p. 96) says that he has seen many such glasses of somewhat rude make in that province. It will be remembered that some of the vetro di trina made at Murano is also only superficially decorated. |
| [204] | On the other hand, the technique of the cemetery glasses differs essentially, as in these the two plates of glass are fused together, on the edges at least (p. [92]). |
| [205] | We often find similar defects developed on glass lenses. To ensure achromatism and accuracy of definition these lenses are built up of two layers, one of crown, the other of flint glass, cemented together by a varnish. |
| [206] | This art was carried to the highest perfection in Holland by a group of cultured amateurs in the seventeenth century (see p. [295]). |
| [207] | We hear, it is true, of water-wheels for grinding glass at Schwäbisch Grund, in Bavaria, in the second half of the sixteenth century. In these mills large beads (perhaps we may think of the chevron beads from Murano in this connection) were ground for exportation to the Indies by way of Antwerp (Von Czihak, p. 125). I may note that there is no reference to the cutting of glass in either Agricola or Mathesius. |
| [208] | It is interesting to compare with this work the carving—identical in technique—on reliquaries of rock crystal of Carlovingian date. Of these a remarkable example may be seen in the Mediæval Room in the British Museum. |
| [209] | The Schatzkammer at Munich is rich in examples of carved rock crystal of this period, but I can find few examples of carved glass in it. In the Imperial Museum in Vienna may be seen a superb series carved in both materials—the finest of these come from the Schatzkammer. |
| [210] | Lehmann died in 1622, and the elder George Schwanhart in 1667. |
| [211] | Compare with this the complaints, made at this time or a little later, of the artistic and social decadence of the glass-engravers in Bohemia and Silesia (p. [285]). |
| [212] | On the early use of hydrofluoric acid I shall have something to say a little further on. |
| [213] | This is rendered in the Latin edition ‘inque illarum exaltatione ad magnum ascendit gradum.’ It should, perhaps, be translated ‘to a high pitch of excellence.’ |
| [214] | There is an exquisitely engraved covered beaker of this period at South Kensington bearing the arms of the Elector of Trèves ([Plate XLII.]). |
| [215] | Especially by Doppelmayr in his Historische Nachricht von der Nürnbergischen Mathematicis und Künstlern, Nürnberg, 1730. A pretentious work, written in the Frenchified German of the day, and very inferior as an authority to Sandrart. |
| [216] | It was here that was first developed that hybrid type of drinking-glass which passed over to England early in the eighteenth century. In these glasses the engraved bowl carries us back to Germany, and the air or opaque twisted stem to the vetro di trina of Venice. |
| [217] | Quite early in the eighteenth century we find an account of a process by which a gas possessing the property of attacking glass may be made by steeping the ‘hesphorus’ or ‘Bohemian emerald’ in spirits of nitre. As we are told that this ‘hesphorus’ when heated emits a green light, we may safely identify it with fluor-spar (fluoride of calcium). |
| [218] | A circular plaque of this character, with a pious inscription, in the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg, has been ascribed to Henry Schwanhart. It is dated 1686 (reproduced by Gerspach, p. 266). |
| [219] | We must remember that at this time little distinction was drawn between the researches of the chemist and the alchemist. |
| [220] | The ruby glass of our old Gothic churches was, however, without exception obtained from copper. But the belief that it contained gold led in France to the destruction of much of this glass at the time of the Revolution. |
| [221] | This book may be best consulted in the French translation, said to be by the Baron D’Holbach (Paris, 1752). Here we have in its final form the little book of Neri, which has passed through the translator’s crucible as many as four times—from Italian to English, then to Latin, to German, and finally to French. For there was, too, an Amsterdam edition in Latin (1668) which came between the English and Kunckel’s version. But, unlike the gold of the alchemist, the work really increased in value during these transformations. Several curious treatises, in the manner of the time, half alchemistic, half scientific, are to be found at the end of the French translation, including a rendering into French of Orschall’s Sol sine Veste. |
| [222] | The somewhat obscure relations of these two men, Kunckel and Orschall, with Cassius, the reputed discoverer of the purple that goes by his name (as well as with the son of the latter), is explained by Beckmann (History of Inventions, vol. i. p. 126). |
| [223] | If in the case of the bottle of ruby glass, with the arms of Saxony and the initials J. G., also from the Slade collection (No. 870), these letters are to be referred to the Elector John George (1656-80), Kunckel must have perfected his invention at an early date. |
| [224] | There is a portrait of her in the National Gallery by Jan Lievens. See, for some account of her strange life, the note in the Official Catalogue (p. 305). Another supposed portrait of this lady in the same collection is by Gerard Dou. |
| [225] | The ‘Beaker with the seasons’ in the British Museum ([Plate XLIII.]) is an example of the more elaborate work of these Dutch designers with the diamond. For though the inscription on this glass is in English, the decoration is undoubtedly by a member of the school of Roemer Vischer. The beaker is dated 1663. |
| [226] | Strictly speaking, the marks on the surface of the glass are rather of the nature of short scratches or dashes than true dots. |
| [227] | For this Wolf’s glass, as it is called in Holland, see the catalogue of the Rijks Museum. In this Museum, too, a portrait of Greenwood may be found. |
| [228] | A more recent work—the English Table Glasses, by Mr. Percy Bate—is concerned with little else than a minute classification of these wine-glasses. |
| [229] | One of the early Lorrainers (see below) speaks of the native glass of England as made from fougère et ronces. |
| [230] | But it is recorded that a Chiddingfold glass-maker (à propos of the introduction of Lorrainers) confessed that he could not make window-glass—only ‘mortars, bottles, and orinaux.’ I cannot accept the explanation of the last word as ‘water globes placed in front of rushlights’ (see Sussex Glass, by Charles Dawson, Antiquary, 1905); like the vrynells mentioned above, it came through the French from the mediæval Latin urinalia. Compare the list of objects given on p. [134]. |
| [231] | According to the Rev. A. W. C. Hallen (Scottish Antiquary, 1893) there were four noble stocks of glass-makers in Lorraine. These were the families of Hennezel (which claimed a Bohemian descent), of Thietry, of Du Thisac, and of Le Houx. So in Normandy we find the names of De Bongar, De Caquery, Le Vaillant, and De Brossard. Representatives of nearly all these families appear to have come to England before the end of the sixteenth century, and their names, often strangely corrupted, have been unearthed from parish registers and other documents in many parts of England. The Lorrainers, at least, seem to have been all of them Calvinists. |
| [232] | There had been an earlier unsuccessful attempt at introducing Italian methods, of which I shall have to speak shortly. The Frenchmen do not seem to have come into contact with Verzelini, who was at the time making Venetian glass in London (see below). |
| [233] | We may, however, probably identify the Antwerp merchant, Jean Carré, with the ‘John Carry, Mr of ye Glashouse,’ who was buried at Alford, in Surrey, in 1572. |
| [234] | The history of their wanderings has been pieced together chiefly through the researches of Mr. Glazebrook (see his privately printed Collections for the Genealogy of the noble families of De Hennezel, etc., 1877); of Mr. Hallen in the Scottish Antiquary, 1893; and of Mr. Holmes in the Antiquary, 1894. |
| [235] | It is just possible, remembering the many exchanges of presents between Henry and Francis, that a part at least of this collection may have had some connection with the ‘quatre cens beaux verres de Venise gentillisez des plus jolies gayetez que verriers sçauroient inventer,’ which were in 1532 in the possession of Robertez, treasurer to the French king (Nesbitt, South Kensington Catalogue, p. clix). |
| [236] | For example, in an abortive act brought into the House in 1585, but not passed. Quoted by Mr. Hartshorne, p. 159. |
| [237] | A goblet of similar character, with the date 1584, was not long since smashed to pieces while on view at a saleroom. Like the goblet mentioned in the text, this glass was attributed to Verzelini. |
| [238] | As to the other specimens of Elizabethan glass mentioned by Mr. Hartshorne—the chalice-like cup belonging to Mr. Woodruff and the tazza now at Windsor—they have doubtless been long in England, but there is nothing to prove their English make. They are both essentially of forms borrowed from the goldsmith, and like the glass dish in the Williams Library at Gordon Square, they may well have come from Henry VIII.’s collection. |
| [239] | Although the Metallum Martis or Iron made from Pitt-coale was not printed till 1665, Dudley had experimented with coal some time before 1619. As early as 1612, in a treatise entitled Metallica, Simon Sturtevant, who had already taken out a patent for making iron with pit-coal, states that ‘very lately’ green glass for windows, of good quality, had been melted with that material at Winchester House, Southwark. |
| [240] | The most important of these documents are given in full in the Appendix to Mr. Hartshorne’s English Glasses. |
| [241] | On the other hand, Howell in a letter dated March 18, 1618, quoted in part below, speaks of Mansell as working his patent with ‘My Lord of Pembroke and divers others of the prime Lords of the Court.’ He had, it would seem, replaced the early adventurers and schemers by men of wealth and of influence at court. |
| [242] | Beside the passages quoted above there are many references to glass, including an interesting account of Murano, to be found in his Epistolæ Ho-Elianæ. Howell edited these early letters of his while confined (for debt, it would seem) in the prison of the Fleet, at the time of the Civil War. We may note among other things a reference to a ‘curious sea-chest of glass,’ and again we hear of a lady writing to Murano for ‘a complete cupboard of true crystall glass.’ |
| [243] | He got this comparison, doubtless, and a good many other stories that we find in his Venetian letters, from Garzoni’s Piazza Universale, or from Fioravanti’s Specchio, books most popular at that time, from which I have already quoted when speaking of the glass of Murano. |
| [244] | These are little cylindrical vessels for burning tallow. The name survives as an equivalent to a night-light. |
| [245] | I am not sure, however, that when at this time the word nitre is found we are always justified in understanding by it saltpetre or nitrate of potash. |
| [246] | Greene-Morelli Correspondence, Sloane MSS. Mr. Hartshorne has reproduced eight of these letters (English Glasses, Appendix xxix.), and has devoted three plates to the reproductions of Greene’s patterns. |
| [247] | The same may be said of the treatise on The Art of Glass by Haudicquet de Blancourt, of which the English translation appeared in 1699. There is little or no advance on Merret in this book, and nothing is said of the application of lead-glass to hollow ware. An interesting plate showing the implements used by the glass-blower may, however, be found here. |
| [248] | The term originally corresponded to the verre à pierres of the French. It was used in opposition to the ‘green glass’ or verre de fougère, in the preparation of which sand was used. |
| [249] | The confusion is increased by the fact that on the Continent the term ‘cristal’ was now transferred to the lead-glass. |
| [250] | This was the Ravenscroft who took out a patent in 1674, and together with an Altarist, a De Costa (the sole representative of that Ligurian town, says Mr. Hartshorne, that we meet with in English records), made glass from calcined flints, nitre, and borax. There is certainly no question of lead in this case. |
| [251] | Mr. Hartshorne, I should add, while acknowledging that there is no definite allusion to the use of lead in any document of the seventeenth century, traces an indirect reference to it in a patent taken out by one Tilson as early as 1663; in this document, however, I can find nothing pointing in that direction. |
| [252] | The new financial methods are well illustrated in the quotation from Houghton on p. 318. |
| [253] | In this work there are more than a hundred quarto pages devoted to the eighteenth-century drinking-glasses. Perhaps of greater interest to the ‘average man’ is the information given in the final chapter concerning the liquids drunk from these glasses, to say nothing of the apt quotations from old letters throwing light on the social habits of the time to be found in the notes. Another vast series of eighteenth-century glasses, more than seven hundred in number, I believe, has been collected by Mr. J. Webb Singer, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Bristol. These are well illustrated in a paper by Mr. E. Wynn Penny in the Burlington Magazine (Sept. and Nov. 1903). |
| [254] | In the earlier pre-renaissance glasses, the foot was folded over from below upwards. It was the Venetians who first introduced the downward fold of the welted base. |
| [255] | This drawn-out ‘blow,’ or inverted tear, is often found in the stems of the solid tavern glass of the first half of the eighteenth century (Hartshorne, p. 265). |
| [256] | Mr. Hartshorne, however, thinks that our English workmen, especially at Bristol, were capable of turning out opaque-twisted stems as good as, if not better than, those made in Holland. On the other hand, the stems with interlacing ruby and white threads, so characteristic of the latter country, never form part of typical English glasses. |
| [257] | The famous Royal Oak glass, with the portrait of Charles II., now belonging to Mr. Festing (Hartshorne, Plate 29), is certainly a case in point, whatever may be the origin of the glass itself. But this goblet is scratched with a diamond. |
| [258] | The latter inscription refers of course to the famous forty-fifth number of Wilkes’s North Briton (April 1763). The ‘No Excise’ may be associated with the successful agitation against Walpole’s bill in 1733-34, or perhaps rather with later protests of the same nature. |
| [259] | For these glasses see especially the twenty-fourth chapter of Mr. Hartshorne’s often-quoted work, not neglecting the most interesting notes. |
| [260] | It must be remembered that ‘James III.’ did not die until 1766; his ‘reign’ of sixty-five years exceeded that of any other English prince. Although most of these Jacobite glasses date from a period rather after than before ‘the ’45’ there was still a long interval during which the attribution I have suggested would be justified. |
| [261] | This house has remained in the hands of the same family since the time it was built by Walter Jones, in the reign of James I. |
| [262] | This period of English glass is not represented in the British Museum. It is well illustrated in the collection of Mr. C. E. Jerningham, and there are some fine examples among the more miscellaneous glass of Mr. FitzHenry now (1906) on view at the Victoria and Albert Museum. |
| [263] | I have purposely gone to older works for these technical details, that is to say, to works written before the general introduction of modern mechanical processes; for example, to Apsley Pellat’s Curiosities of Glass-making, and to the treatise on glass by Porter in Lardner’s series (1832). For the materials used in England in the eighteenth century see Dossie’s Handmaid of the Arts, 2nd edition, 1764. |
| [264] | This is the more strange, as in all the recipes of the time for making the white enamel, even in one relating apparently to this very Bristol glass, arsenic plays an important part. |
| [265] | Dossie, in his Handmaid of the Arts, 2nd ed., 1764, tells us that at that time much white opaque glass, in imitation of porcelain, was made near London. The glass, he states, was rendered opaque by tin, by antimony, or by arsenic. Much of this material was doubtless employed for enamelling on metal. |
| [266] | Chardin was a French dealer in precious stones who supplied the Shah with European jewels. The materials for the account of Persia from which the extract given in the text is taken, were collected during a voyage in that country in the years 1671 and 1672. Chardin, who was of an old Protestant family, settled later on in England and was knighted by Charles II. I quote from the English translation of 1724, checking it by the contemporary French edition. |
| [267] | At Vienna, in the Museum for Art and Industry, there is a small collection of glass from Hebron. Besides the bangles of opaque glass which belong to the old primitive family, there are some small vessels of a deep amber-coloured glass similar to that brought from Rhodes, and finally a few vases of Persian type of a bluish-green metal; among the last group may be found some lamps with glass tubes similar to those mentioned in the text. |
| [268] | The miscellaneous beads, found chiefly in the neighbourhood of Benares and Cawnpore, are associated for the most part with Buddhist remains of the time of the Gupta dynasty, which reigned in Northern India shortly before our era, but very few of these beads are of glass. Of great interest are the spindle-shaped beads, decorated with intersecting lines of enamel—black, grey, or white—on a ground of quartz, or sometimes of carnelian. A series of these beads may be seen in the ‘Gallery of Religions’ in the British Museum. They are described by Mrs. J. R. Rivett-Carnac in the Journal of Indian Art, vol. ix. |
| [269] | At the Indian Exhibition held at Earl’s Court a few years ago, some of these Indian glass-makers were at work in a little hut, and here the native processes could be watched. |
| [270] | Through the kindness of Mr. Forrest, ex-Director of Records at the India Office, I have been enabled to examine a collection of small glass vessels obtained by him in the Kaira district of Guzerat. Among them I noticed some graceful little cruet-shaped ewers of a pale pinkish glass—the colour apparently obtained from gold—and also some glass lamps of rounded conical form similar to those used in Cairo. |
| [271] | My chief authorities for the early history of Chinese glass are the works of Dr. Hirth, especially a paper on the subject in his Chinesische Studien, and some casual remarks in Dr. Bushell’s Oriental Ceramic Art. [I have at the last moment been able to add a few notes to what I have written, based on the chapter on glass in Dr. Bushell’s Chinese Art. June 1906.] |
| [272] | Thus we have the statements of the missionaries Ricci and Du Halde, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries respectively, that the Chinese made glass. As far back as the twelfth century, the Arab writer Edrisi speaks of glass-workers in the Chinese town of Djan-ku, wherever that may be. |
| [273] | Dr. Bushell, however, thinks that there is evidence that in the fifth century glass of Indo-Scythian origin reached Northern China by way of the great trade route through Chinese Turkestan. About the same time it was brought from the West, by the sea route, to the southern capital (the modern Nanking). The manufacture was at that time established in both North and South China, and ‘has been carried on with indifferent success ever since’ (Chinese Art, vol. ii. pp. 60-61). |
| [274] | The very absence of native enamelled glass might indeed be used as an argument against the otherwise plausible theory that it was from the Saracenic glass that the Chinese first learned how to enamel their porcelain with fusible colours over the glaze. See on this point my book on Porcelain in this series, p. 87. Dr. Bushell mentions ‘the recent discovery in mosques of the western provinces of China of a number of hanging lamps of characteristic shape, enamelled in colours,’ with Arabic motives and script. Some of these have been taken to America. Chinese Art, vol. ii. p. 69. |
| [275] | Hu succeeded in splitting up the character with which his simple name was written into the two ideographs Ku and Yueh, and thereupon adopted the more imposing title ‘Chamber of the Ancient Moon.’ |
| [276] | This collection is described in the Zeitschrift für Bildende Kunst, vol. xx., in an article on Chinese glass by Herr A. Bapst. |
| [277] | Dr. Bushell hints that such inscriptions may in cases have been added by modern curio-dealers in Pekin, as a bait to European collectors. |
| [278] | As arranged now at South Kensington, the carved glass may be compared with the companion series in agate and other stones. |
| [279] | Dossie, in his Handmaid of the Arts (2nd ed., 1764), declares that there was at the time he was writing a great demand in China for ‘the brown Venetian glass with gold-spangles, called the Philosopher’s Stone.’ |
| [280] | The making of glass is still an important industry at Poshan, where the native quartz-rock is melted with saltpetre. Window-glass, bottles, and lanterns are made, and the clear glass is exported in the form of long rods tied up in bundles. Williamson’s Journeys in North China, vol. i. p. 131. |
| [281] | See, for confirmation of this, the previous note. In China to-day the word liao has replaced the older names for glass. For the better kinds of work the Shantung glass is worked up at Pekin—this is the Ching liao. Bushell, Chinese Art, vol. ii. p. 63. |
| [282] | I have to thank Professor Church for the results of an analysis of a snuff-bottle ‘like nearly white jade or milk-quartz faintly greenish.’ It contained lead-oxide, 48·3 per cent.; potash, 8·8 per cent.; soda, 1·1 per cent.; and silica, 41·5 per cent. We have here a remarkably pure potash-lead glass, for only 0·2 per cent, of alumina and iron oxide was found. The specific gravity of this specimen was 3·8; that of another bottle of clear strong green glass was 3·7. |
| [283] | In some of the Imperial tombs of the sixth and seventh centuries of our era glass jars have been found. One of these is described as of white glass ornamented with round knobs. In the grave of the Emperor Nintoku (fifth century) were found fragments of blue and white glass. It is very unlikely that any of this glass was made in Japan. |
| [284] | Now in the British Museum; it is referred to on p. [152]. |