Globes and Globe Makers of the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century
Few globe makers of striking distinction in this period.—An apparent decrease in scientific interest in globes, but an apparent increase in popular interest.—Gilles and Didier Robert de Vaugondy.—The work of Desnos.—Globes of Gian Francesco Costa the Venetian.—Globes of Akerman and Akrel.—The French globe makers Rigobert Bonne and Lalande.—Charles Messier and Jean Fortin.—Globes of George Adams the Elder, of George Adams the Younger, and of Dudley Adams.—Small globes of Nathaniel Hill.—The work of Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia.—Charles Francis Delamarche.—Manuscript globes of Vincenzo Rosa.—Geographer and globe maker Giovanni Maria Cassini.—Globes of William Cary.
DURING the second half of the eighteenth century there is a continued interest in globe construction, yet the period is not one which is at all striking by reason of the good quality of the work done in this field. Since the latter part of the sixteenth century and the early part of the seventeenth, when, as has been noted, globes were so generally thought to be an essential part of a seaman’s outfit of navigating instruments, there had been a remarkable improvement in the construction of sailors’ charts resulting from carefully devised methods for the determination of geographical position and the employment of the results in map construction. The plane or sheet chart was again regarded as a more convenient, a more handy guide in navigation than was the globe. If plane chart making had improved so had plane map making. There must, however, have been a considerable popular interest in globes, judging from the number which we know were constructed, and from the number of publications issued which were intended to point out the particular value attaching to globes in geographical and astronomical instruction, to explain their construction, and to indicate the character of the problems which, by their use, could be easily solved. The interest in such objects in this period, perhaps we may say, was rather more extensive than intensive, having more of a popular than of a scientific character.
Among the most prominent French map and globe makers of this period were Gilles Robert de Vaugondy (1688-1766) and Didier Robert de Vaugondy (1723-1786), father and son, reference usually being made to these men in geographical literature under the name “Robert” or “Vaugondy.”[160] Gilles, the grandson of Nicolas Sanson,[161] who had achieved first rank among geographers in his day for his maps and atlases, proved himself to be a worthy member of the family. He doubtless owed his earliest enthusiasm for geographical science to an inheritance of the maps, atlases, and other geographical publications of the grandfather, many of which he reissued, adding to the same his own valuable and independent work. Didier seems to have possessed talents none the less brilliant than were those exhibited by the father, and upon him, in succession, the king conferred the title Royal Geographer. In addition to his issue of maps and atlases, the father, often referred to simply as Robert de Vaugondy, became interested in the construction of globes, issuing his first pair, which must have been of small size, in the year 1751, in which work he doubtless was assisted by the son. The king, it appears, being so well pleased with these, directed the construction of others of larger dimensions, and in the same year a pair was issued, each globe having a diameter of about 48 cm.[162] In the same preface[163] it is stated that the king gave orders for a terrestrial globe with map in manuscript, the same to have a diameter of about six feet, and the author further notes that “when this work shall have been completed and presented to His Majesty, I shall give an explanation of the work which I shall have been obliged to put upon the mechanical construction of the ball, also a description of the allegorical ornaments which will adorn the globe support, and a description of the geographical labor I shall have expended.” There appearing no later reference to this particular work, it seems hardly probable that it was ever actually undertaken. Delamarche gives us to understand that the king could not have been altogether pleased with Vaugondy’s first work, observing that while “it was done to the satisfaction of the Prince, he would have received the compensation due his talents and painstaking labor if the order of the king had been followed.”[164] Wherein he failed we do not know. It may have been this fact which discouraged him in his thought of undertaking the larger work.
In the construction of his globes having a diameter of 48 cm. he was assisted by the engravers, De la Haye and Gobin, the results being the production of a terrestrial and a celestial globe map of superior excellence.
While it has not been possible to obtain photographs of any of the Vaugondy globes, his map of the world dated 1751 is doubtless much the same as his globe map, presenting geographical records as he thought proper to present them, including a representation of the route of a number of the recent exploring expeditions.
Copies of his globes of the year 1751 cannot now be located, but reproductions of the same, the terrestrial dated 1773 and the celestial dated 1764, may be found in the Biblioteca Governativa of Lucca, in the Biblioteca Real of Caserta, and a copy of the celestial in the Osservatorio Patriarcale of Venice. Shortly after the first issue of the globes in the year 1751 Vaugondy constructed other pairs, each having a diameter of 23 cm. These are dated 1754, copies of which may be found in the Biblioteca Palatina of Parma (two copies of the celestial), in the Pinacoteca Quirini of Venice, and a pair in the Palazzo of the Marquis of Spinola of Tassarolo.
L. C. (Pierre-Joseph ?) Desnos, a contemporary and an intimate friend of Didier Robert de Vaugondy, was a Danish geographer of distinction, winning for himself in early life the favor of his king and the title Geographical Engineer.[165] A considerable number of his maps are known, and especially worthy of note is his atlas, titled ‘Atlas Général et Élémentaire,’ dated Paris, 1778, there being other editions of the same with modifications. It has been possible to locate a few of his globes. The first, a celestial, appears to have been issued as early as the year 1750, a copy of which may be found in the Liceo of Reggio, as there may also be found in the same collection a Desnos terrestrial globe dated 1760. These have each a diameter of about 22 cm. and are reputed to be in an excellent state of preservation. On the brass meridian circle of the second, one reads, “Se fait et se vendre chez Desnos rue St. Julien le pauvre 1753,” which legend suggests an issue of the same as early as the date given, and this idea finds support in an engraved legend referring to this particular issue as being one revised and corrected. There is additional support for the belief that a pair was issued in the year 1753 in the fact that this date appears on the base of the celestial globe. The Desnos maps are all well engraved and, like others of the period, much was made of indicating the routes of many of the famous explorers, including a reference to the success of Bering as follows, “Les Moscovites ont recouvré ici en 1743 sur les terres basses.” In this we have one of the very early references to the Russian successes in this region.
Fig. 129a. Globe of L. C. Desnos, 1782.
In the year 1754 Desnos issued a pair of globes somewhat larger in size, giving to them a diameter of about 26 cm. Copies of these globes may be found in the private library of the Marquis Lalatta Costerbosa of Parma. In their general features they resemble the previous edition, with every evidence that the author wished to bring his records to date and to make them quite as full as his space would allow, noting in one of his inscriptions, “Nous n’avons tracé que par des points la figure des terres que l’Admiral De Fonté détaille dans se lettre que Mr. Delisle a rédu publique, en attendant l’authenticité de cette lettre, se que les relations des nouvelles découvertes rendent probable.” In the year 1772, it appears, he issued a third edition, noting that he had made use of the most recent observations of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, bringing his star records down to the year 1770. Copies of this edition are in Piacenza.
Gian Francesco Costa, a Venetian engineer, architect, and engraver, gave some attention to the construction of globes.[166] In the year 1754 he prepared and issued, for the Venetian Academy, a terrestrial and a celestial globe, each about 24 cm. in diameter, basing the former on the work of Delisle and the latter on the observations and records of the English astronomer, John Flamsteed.[167] There is little of special value attaching to the globes of Costa. They give merely the well-known geographical and astronomical records of the day. Copies of his celestial globe may be found in the Biblioteca Municipale of Cagli and in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome. Fiorini refers to a copy of the terrestrial as belonging to the Biblioteca Universitorio of Urbino, and to one in the private library of Canon Ettore Fronzi of Senigallia.
There is said to be a fine manuscript terrestrial globe, dated 1756, in the private library of Professor Maximilian Tono, director of the Osservatorio Patriarcale di S. Maria della Salute in Venice. The ball is of wood, over which is a coating of varnish, and on this a world map has been drawn by hand. It appears to have been constructed merely for the personal use of the maker, P. Francesco Grandi.
In Andrea Akerman we find a native of Sweden interested in the matter of globe making. Observing him to be one in possession of commendable talents, the Academy of Sciences of Stockholm, about the year 1750, granted to him a subsidy for the establishment of a workshop in Upsala. Here he undertook the construction of a terrestrial and of a celestial globe. So successful was his enterprise that, we are told, his productions found favor not only among those interested in his field within his own country, but among those similarly interested in Denmark, Germany, and Russia. Lalande makes mention of his work published through the Geographical Society of Upsala, dated 1776, noting that they had a diameter of about 22 inches.[168] A copy of his celestial globe may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Milan, having a diameter of about 59 cm. It has an author and date legend, reading “Globus coelestis ex Catalogo Brittanico et De la Caillii observationibus ad annum 1800 cura Soc. Cosmog. Upsal. delineatus ab Andrea Akerman Reg. S. S. Apt. sculptore 1766.”
A pair of Akerman’s globes may also be found in the Geographisches Institut of Göttingen, the terrestrial dated 1759, and the celestial dated 1760 and dedicated to the President of the Academy of Sciences by the Geographical Society of Upsala. His globes, it appears, were reissued by Frederick Akrel,[169] an engraver who had assisted him in his work. The reissue of the Akerman globes dated 1779 contained corrections and additions which brought them to date, a fact which is noted in the following legend: “Globus terraqueus cura Societatis cosmographicae Upsalensis, editus ab Andr. Akerman Nunc emendatus.... opera Frederici Akrel 1779.” “Terrestrial globe issued under the auspices of the Cosmographical Society of Upsala, edited by Andrea Akerman, now corrected.... the work of Frederick Akrel 1779.”
The Biblioteca Universitario of Bologna possesses a very interesting manuscript terrestrial globe (Fig. [128]), the work of P. D. Pietro Rosini, an Olivetan monk. Word from the librarian with photograph kindly sent[170] gives us the information that this splendid globe was constructed in the year 1762, that it is a fine example of the period and is in an excellent state of preservation. It has a diameter of about 150 cm., being one of the largest constructed in Italy. The sphere is constructed of wooden plates securely braced. It has a meridian circle of heavy brass, a horizon circle of wood, having on its upper surface the usual representations referring to the constellations of the zodiac, the names of the months, and the principal directions. The circle on its inner edge is fashioned to receive the sphere, but it has an outer edge which is octagonal. Over the surface of the ball irregular pieces of paper were pasted and on this the geographical map was drawn by hand. Practically all geographical names are in the Italian language, as are the few geographical legends. The author and date legend in Latin reads, “D. Petrus Rosini de Lendinara Monus Olivus fecit ann: 1762.” “D. Petrus Rosini of Lendinara, an Olivetan monk made this in the year 1762.” Fiorini cites a reference to a letter written by Rosini wherein he is referred to as a professor, noting that other information concerning him seems to be unobtainable. From the fact of his having constructed a terrestrial globe and of his reference in his letter to an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, one would obtain the impression that he was a lover of scientific studies, and especially of geography.
Fig. 128. Terrestrial Globe of Pietro Rosini, 1762.
Rigobert Bonne (1727-1794), a distinguished French hydrographer and engineer, achieved likewise a very considerable reputation as a geographer and cartographer; indeed, the great majority of his scientific publications were within the field of geography.[171] With Joseph Jérôme Le Français de Lalande (1732-1807), one of the most famous of French astronomers,[172] he undertook the construction of a terrestrial and a celestial globe on which it was proposed to record in particular all of the most recent discoveries in both the field of geography and that of astronomy. To these globes they gave a diameter of about 31 cm., following, in constructing the gore maps with which each sphere was covered, the method of Bion, giving very careful consideration to the fact that the paper on which the maps were printed would expand somewhat unevenly when moistened with the paste used in the mounting. It seems probable that Bonne completed the terrestrial globe about the year 1771, and Lalande the celestial about the year 1775, and that the engraving of the maps was entrusted to Lattré, who had at this time a place of marked distinction in the profession he represented. Lalande says of the first issue of their work: “M. Lattré, Graveur ordinaire de Mgr. le Dauphin et de M. le Duc d’Orleans, publiera vers la fin de cette année 1771, deux globes d’un pied de diamètre, faites avec le plus grand soin, et sur les observations les plus récentes dessines avec une nouvelle exactitude; M. Bonne s’est chargé du globe terrestre, et je suis occupé actuellement du globe céleste. Ces globes seront en même temps réduits à 8 pouces et à six; chaque assortissement aura des sphères du même diamètre. Les prix seront annoncés dans les journaux.” A short time later these globe makers issued a publication in which they especially described their work, and Lalande noted in his ‘Bibliographie astronomique’ under the year 1775: “On trouve dans le Globe céleste toutes les étoiles alors connues, toutes les constellations nouvelles de la Caille, celle que j’avais introduite sous le nom de Messier, et toutes les découvertes géographiques obtenues depuis quelques années par plusieurs voyages autour du monde. On trouve ces globes chez Lamarche, rue du Foin.” While it has not been possible to locate a pair of the first edition of these globes, there may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Palermo an undated terrestrial globe by Bonne and a celestial, clearly intended as a companion piece, dated 1779. In all probability they are but reprints of the first edition, having the same diameters, that is, about 31 cm. Each is furnished with a graduated horizon circle of wood, a graduated horizon circle of brass, and a small brass hour circle marked from I to XII, the whole being supported by three turned columns. They are reported as being well preserved. A pair has likewise been located in the Geographisches Institut of Göttingen.
The British Museum possesses a small terrestrial globe 7 cm. in diameter, signed N. Lane and dated 1776. Over a sphere of wood has been pasted the engraved gore map, which gives but little geographical information. It has not been possible to obtain a biographical reference to this globe maker, who probably was an unimportant printer of maps in London at this time.
Charles Messier (1730-1817), a French astronomer, map, and globe maker, was a native of Lorraine.[173] In the year 1751 he went to Paris, where he soon became associated with Delisle, first as his secretary, during which period he gave striking proof of his abilities, and later as his trusted assistant. His fame quickly extended to other lands, and he became a member of the Academy of Sciences of Berlin, also of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, each of which organizations published a considerable number of his scientific papers. It appears that his fame as an astronomer rested chiefly on his investigations of the nature and the movements of comets, becoming known as “le furet des comètes.” Messier’s contemporary and intimate associate was Jean Fortin (1750-1831), whose fame as a scientist rests primarily upon his work as a maker of mathematical instruments. Like Bonne and Lalande, who labored jointly in the construction of terrestrial and celestial globes, Messier and Fortin were active in the same field. In the year 1780 they placed on sale at the shop of Fortin in Rue de la Harpe pairs of their globes, each having a diameter of about 31 cm. Lalande refers to them as “Globes d’un pied de diamètre. Chez Fortin. Paris 1780. Le Globe céleste par Messier: Les étoiles réduites à 1800, d’après les tables que j’avais faites pour mon Globe. Le Globe terrestre par Fortin d’après les nouvelles découvertes géographiques.” It has not been possible to locate a copy of Fortin’s terrestrial globe, but an example of Messier’s celestial may be found in the Osservatorio Meteorico of the University of Parma, in the Istituto di Fisica of the University of Siena, in the Biblioteca S. Scolastica e S. Benedetto in Subiaco, and in the Liceo Machiavelli of Lucca. Copies of a celestial globe by Fortin, each about 22 cm. in diameter, may be found in the Convento dei Frati della Missione of Chieri, in the Biblioteca Comunale of Correggio, and in the Liceo Andrea Doria of Novi.
The Hispanic Society of America possesses a good example of Fortin’s work (Fig. [129]), this being an armillary sphere, having at the common center of its system of circles a terrestrial globe about 5 cm. in diameter. It is without date, but probably was constructed about the year 1780. In the South Pacific within a cartouch is the inscription “A Paris chez le Sr. Fortin. Rue de la Harpe.” This example is 41 cm. in height, having a graduated horizon circle 31 cm. in diameter, supported on a turned wooden base by four arms or quadrants. The terrestrial globe map of twelve gores is much darkened with age but gives in good outline the several continents with a few geographical names. Its armillae are of pasteboard, consisting of a supporting meridian circle within which the several celestial circles can be revolved on the extended polar axis of the terrestrial globe. These celestial circles represent the zodiac, on the surface of which are given the names of the several zodiacal constellations and the names of the months, the meridian circles, the tropics, the equator, the two polar circles with an hour circle at the north pole, all of these being so attached as not to permit of independent motion. Attached to one of the meridian circles is a device for representing eclipses, the one of the sun and the other of the moon.
Fig. 129. Armillary Sphere of Jean Fortin, 1780.
George Adams, the elder (fl. 1760), maker of mathematical instruments and optician to His Majesty George III of England, won great distinction for himself as a maker of terrestrial and celestial globes, and as a writer on geographical and astronomical subjects. With him in his work were associated his sons George (1750-1795) and Dudley, to whom, after the death of the brother, fell the management of the business. We know of Dudley’s success in his work, which he must have carried on well into the first quarter of the nineteenth century, though we know neither the date of his birth nor of his death. In the year 1766 the elder Adams issued the first edition of a very useful work on globes, including a consideration of their construction and their uses.[174] In the year 1810 appeared the thirtieth edition of this work, with a preface and additions by the son, Dudley. The title of the work suggests that the first issue was prepared as a description of globes which the author had just put upon the market, but globes of his bearing a date so early seem to be unknown. None have been located which appear to have been issued earlier than the year 1772, after which time we know there were repeated issues signed either “G. Adams” or “D. Adams.” A pair of the date 1782 may be found in the Museo Astronomico of Rome. These appear to be in a fair state of preservation (Fig. [130]). Each has a diameter of about 46 cm., being furnished with a graduated brass meridian circle within which the sphere revolves, a graduated horizon circle of wood, having pasted thereon the usual records referring to the zodiacal constellations and to the time reckoning. This horizon circle rests upon four supporting arms or quadrants, which in turn are carried by a tripod base of wood. The spheres are of pasteboard with plaster of Paris covering, on which the respective maps have been pasted, each map being composed of twenty-four gores or biangles, or of twice twenty-four, since each is cut on the line of the equator to facilitate mounting. The geographical records given on the terrestrial globe map are practically such as one could find on the best plane maps of the period, always, however, in this connection remembering that those regions which had not been visited or carefully charted by explorers gave to the map maker considerable latitude for a play of his imagination. It is interesting, for example, here to note that Adams appears to have been very uncertain about his information relative to the western and southwestern part of the present United States. He seems to have caught from some explorer’s account that the Colorado River flows westward, emptying directly into the Pacific, and he so marks it, giving, however, to the river the name St. Bartholomew. The celestial globe revolves on the axis of the equator, the gores being made to terminate at the poles of the ecliptic. Constellations are represented so far as they have been named by astronomers to date, the several figures being artistically drawn, on which color has been somewhat sparingly employed. Each constellation is given its old name with an English translation; star names, when given, are frequently in Arabic, Latin or Chinese, and are distinguished by Greek letters. Recently discovered stars are so marked as to be easily distinguished.
Fig. 130. Terrestrial Globe of George Adams, 1782.
In addition to the above, a pair of Adams globes may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Naples and a pair in the Biblioteca Classense of Ravenna. A copy of the terrestrial may be found in the Seminario Vescovile of Padua. A copy of the terrestrial dated 1785 may be found in the Biblioteca Real of Madrid, agreeing in general with the preceding except in the mounting. The author and date legend appears in a neat cartouch in the North Pacific, reading: “Britanniarum Rigi Augustissimo Georgio Tertio Scientiarum Cultori pariter et praefidio Globum hunc Terrestrem. Omnes hactenus exploratios terrarum tractus. Ad Observationes Navigantium Itinerantium et Astronomorum recentiores, accuratissime descriptos exhibentem Grati animi et pietatis monumentum D. D. Q. Omni cultu et officio devinctissimus. G. Adams. Londini apud G. Adams artificem regium in vico (?) Fleet Street, 1785.”
The American Geographical Society possesses a pair of the Adams globes, the gift of Mrs. Thomas F. Byrnes, dated 1797, and made by “Dudley Adams Globe Maker to the King, Inst. Maker to his Majesty & Optician to H. R. H. the Prince of Wales. No. 60 Fleet Street, London.” They are in a fair state of preservation, the celestial, however, being somewhat damaged through attempts to turn the sphere, which does not move freely on its axis within the meridian and the horizon circle. These are mounted on a high tripod base and are movable right or left, just as they are movable for elevation or depression of the pole in the usual manner. It does not appear that additions or corrections were made for this issue.
Nathaniel Hill of London, active as a map engraver about the middle of the eighteenth century, likewise turned his attention to the construction of globes.[175] Those of his make now known, however, are very small, consequently they present but meager geographical details. Like certain productions of James Ferguson, the Hill globes might be referred to as pocket globes.
The New York Public Library possesses a fine example of his work (Fig. [130a]), bearing the title and author legend placed in the North Pacific, “A New Terrestrial Globe by Nath. Hill 1754.” This globe has a diameter of 7 cm. It is furnished with a graduated meridian circle, surmounted at the north pole with an hour circle and pointer. The graduation is somewhat unusual, beginning as it does with 0 degrees at either pole and marked by tens on the right half of the circle through 90 degrees or to the equator, and with 90 degrees at either pole and marked by tens on the left to 0 degrees at the equator. The horizon circle of wood has represented on its surface the names of the zodiacal constellations, the names of the months, and the thirty-two compass directions, and rests upon a base of four branching arms or quadrants, which in turn are supported by three widely spreading feet, this base being fashioned and carved in the Chippendale style. The sphere is covered with the usual twelve gores truncated in latitude both north and south at about 68 degrees and has the polar spaces covered by circular discs. The entire piece, including the map, is remarkably well preserved. The Pacific is called “The Great South Sea,” while just off the coast of “S. America” we read “Pacific Sea.” Between “N. America” and “Asia” is a great open sea, Alaska being omitted. We find such names given as “Florida,” “Virginia,” “Carolina,” “Maryla”: the Missouri River is called the “Long R.” The meridian on which the graduation in latitude is represented is 150 degrees west, passing through the Pacific slightly to the west of California. In “S. America” there are numerous regional names given, including “Brazil,” “Peru,” “Terra firma,” “Chili.” In the East Indies we find “New Holland,” “New Zeeland,” neither with completed coast line. An attached card tells us that this globe was “Presented to the New York Public Library by Mrs. Henry Draper, Oct. 9, 1908.”
There likewise may be found in the British Museum a copy, presumably of this same globe, dated 1754, and a copy in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris, signed and dated. This Paris copy is furnished with a cover opening along the line of the equator and having on its inner surface a representation of the celestial sphere which is neither signed nor dated, but which is in a good state of preservation.
Fig. 130a. Terrestrial Globe of Nathaniel Hill, 1754.
Fiorini refers to certain pairs of globes being apparently copies of the work of Gian Francesco Costa without credit being noted. These globes, inferior in the matter of engraving to the work of Costa, were issued as the work of Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia.[176] The terrestrial globe bears the inscription, “Nova et accurata descrizione del Globo Terracqueo dirizzato sopra le più recenti Osservazioni del Sigr Delisle e degli ultimi viaggiatori. Per uso dell’ Accademia Veneta. Composto da Innocente Alessandri e Pietro Scaltaglia incisori in rame. L’ anno 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venezia.” “New and accurate description of the Terrestrial globe based on the most recent observations of Sr. Delisle and the latest explorers. For the use of the Venetian Academy. Composed by Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia, copper engravers. In the year 1784. Mattio Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venice.” A legend very similar to that on the terrestrial globe appears on the celestial, reading, “Globo celeste nel quale sono accuratamente descritte le stelle fisse col loro preciso numero e Magnitudini secondo il Catalogo Brittanico del Sigr Flamstadio. Per uso dell’ Accademia Veneta. Composto da Innocente Alessandri e Pietro Scaltaglia incisori in Rame. L’anno 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venezia.” “Celestial Globe in which is accurately described the fixed stars with their precise number and magnitude according to the British Calendar of Sr. Flamsteed. For the use of the Venetian Academy. Composed by Innocente Alessandri and Pietro Scaltaglia copper engravers. In the year 1784. Matteo Viani in Campo S. Bartolamio. Venice.” A copy of the terrestrial globe belongs to the Biblioteca Comunale of Cagli, likewise one may be found in the office of the Eredità Bottrigari of Bologna. Copies of the celestial may be found in the Museo Astronomico of Rome, in the Seminario Vescovile of Brescia, in the Tipolitografia Roberto of Bassano. Somewhat later it appears that the bookdealer Viani reissued the terrestrial globe, undated, perhaps with the thought of bringing them to date, that they might not be crowded out of the market by the recently constructed globes by Giovanni Maria Cassini. The inscription on this globe reads, “Nova et accurata descrizione del Globo Terracqueo dirizzato sopra le più recenti Osservazioni del Sigr dell’ Isle e degli ultimi viaggiatori e del Cap. Cook negli ultimi suoi viaggi. In Vena appo Mattio Viani in Campo S. Bartolomeo.” “New and accurate description of the Terrestrial globe based on the most recent observations of Sr. Delisle and on the records of the most recent navigators and of Captain Cook in his last voyages. In Venice by Mattio Viani in Campo S. Bartolomeo.” Copies of this issue may be found in the Museo Astronomico of Rome, in the library of the artist Giuseppe Bortognoni of Bologna, in the library of Sr. Fenaroli of Brescia, in the Biblioteca Vescovile of Rimini, and in the Tipolitografia Roberto of Bassano.
Among the geographers of this period who were contributing to French leadership may be named Charles Francis Delamarche (1740-1817). He was a native of Paris, in which city, under the patronage of King Louis XV, he carried on his activities as map and globe maker, conducting at the same time a shop for their distribution. He seems to have patterned his globe work largely after that of Gilles and Didier Robert de Vaugondy, giving to his completed products practically the same dimensions and mounting. His earliest examples bear the date 1785, of which only one copy, a celestial globe, has been located, this now belonging to the Osservatorio Meteorico of Venice. In the year 1791, he constructed a pair of globes each having a diameter of about 18 cm., only the terrestrial being dated, and in the same year he issued his treatise which doubtless was intended to serve as an explanatory text for these globes, at the same time advertising and popularizing his productions.[177] Examples of this issue may be found in the Biblioteca di Brera of Milan, and in the Liceo Carlo Alberto of Novara. A copy of the terrestrial may be found in the Istituto Nautico of Palermo, and a copy of the celestial in the Convento dei Frati della Missione of Chieri. It could not have been long after this issue of 1791 that he undertook the construction of a terrestrial globe about 31 cm. in diameter, a copy of which may be found in the Istituto di Fisico of the University of Siena.
We know that like his contemporary, Fortin, he also constructed armillary spheres, one example of which it has been possible to locate. Fiorini thus refers to it, his citation being given in free translation.[178] It is a Copernican sphere, that is, having a representation of the sun placed at the common center of the armillae instead of a representation of the earth as in the Ptolemaic sphere. It may be found in the palace of Sr. Scaramucci in S. Maria a Monte in the province of Florence. Attached to a base of wood about 20 cm. in height is an iron rod 35 cm. long. This rod passes through the several rings, about which they can be revolved, each being in its movement independent of the others. The first circle about the central sun represents the orbit of Mercury, and has written upon it “Éloigné du Soleil 8537, incliné 7 degr., fait sa révolution en 87 jours, 23 heures, 50 m.” The second represents the orbit of Venus, having written upon it the distance 15928½ diameters of the earth, inclination 3 degrees and 22 minutes; it completes its revolution in 2224 days 16 hours and 41 minutes. In a space much larger than that which separates the other circles, there is the orbit of the earth, upon which is written that this planet passes over the ecliptic in 365 days 5 hours and 49 minutes, and that it is 22000 diameters distant from the sun. This ring representing the orbit of the earth is opened for the insertion of a representation of the moon, adjusted to revolve on an adjusted pivot. Armillae have been provided representing the orbits of Mars, of Jupiter, and of Saturn with statements concerning their respective distances from the sun and their respective periods of revolution. The outer and larger armillae represent the colures, the ecliptic, and the horizon, and on the last the inscription, “À Paris chez Delamarche Géog. Rue du Foin Saint Jacques au Collège de Mre Gervais.”
In the year 1793 Vincenzo Rosa, a little-known Italian cosmographer, constructed two terrestrial globes, the maps of which being in manuscript. The spheres are of papier-mâché covered with a light coating of plaster. Each of these globes has a diameter of about 100 cm. An inscription in Italian reads, “Vincenzo Rosa fece nel 1793 n. 24. La geografia è quasi tutta delle carte di Robert del Vaugondy e di De-la-Marche.” “Made by Vincent Rosa in the year 1793 n. 24. The geographical information is almost entirely from the maps of Robert de Vaugondy and of Delamarche.” One copy may be found in the Biblioteca Universitario of Pavia, and the other in the Liceo Foscolo of the same city. Fiorini notes that the “n. 24.” of the first is given as “n. 21.” in the second.[179]
The last important globe maker of the eighteenth century in Italy was Giovanni Maria Cassini (fl. 1790), an engraver, and a geographer of distinction, to the truth of which statement his excellent work gives testimony. As evidence of his interest in the matter of globe construction we have the introduction to his ‘Nuovo atlante geografico universale ...,’ wherein he gives carefully devised rules for the construction of globe gores, and in addition we still find a number of his completed globes, particularly in Italian museums and libraries. These globes (Fig. [131]), dated, the terrestrial 1790, and the celestial 1792, have each a diameter of about 35 cm., each covering map being composed of twelve gores cut at latitude 80 degrees both north and south, the polar space having the usual circular disc covering. Each is furnished with a brass meridian circle within which the sphere may be revolved, an hour circle, a horizon circle, on the surface of which are the usual concentric circles with the names of the several zodiacal constellations, the names of the months, and the principal directions. The terrestrial globe has an author and date legend reading, “Globo terrestre delineato sulle ultime osservazioni con i viaggi e nuove scoperte del Cap. Cook inglese. In Rome.”
Fig. 131. Terrestrial Globe of Giovanni Maria Cassini, 1790.
In The Hispanic Society’s collection is a terrestrial globe (Fig. [132]), being a solid wooden ball 21 cm. in diameter, over which has been pasted the gore map composed of twelve sections, each cut at the parallel of 70 degrees both north and south, the polar space being covered with circular discs each forty degrees in diameter. It is neither signed nor dated but is clearly of German origin, since practically all geographical names and legends are in the German language. The title, placed within a circle to the west of Australia, “Neu Holland,” reads “Die Erde nach den neusten Entdeckungen und besten Charten entworfen.” Its date cannot be far from 1800, perhaps a little later, seeing that it assigns the name “Nord Amerikanischer Staat” to the region east of the Mississippi River, except to “Florida” which extends westward to this river. We find but one actual date given, this referring to the discovery of a small group of the “Gesellschafts Inseln,” reading “Inseln welche die Spanier entdekt haben sollen 1773.” It is constructed to revolve within a graduated meridian circle of brass and an octagonal horizon of wood, on which are indicated in picture the twelve signs of the zodiac, the calendar, and the thirty-two winds or directions, the whole resting on four plain supports of wood strengthened below by light crossbars.
Fig. 132. Anonymous Terrestrial Globe, ca. 1800.
The map is one well drawn for the period, and the engraving of the several names and legends has been most skilfully done. Regional names are numerous, but there has not been an overcrowding of the map with minute details. On the west coast of North America, for example, we find such names as “Norfolk,” “Neu Cornwallis,” “Neu Hanover,” “Neu Georgia,” “Neu Albion,” “Neu Navarre,” “Mexico oder Neu Spanien.” Central America with the West Indies is called “Mittel America oder West Indien.” In South America we find “Neu Granada,” “Peru,” “Chili,” “Brasilien,” but “Prasilisches Meer.” Certain localities are especially distinguished by the addition of color, as the coast of Australia except the southern coast, which is marked with a dotted line. Many of the East Indian islands and the islands of the Indian Ocean are outlined in color, as also the coast of “Vorder Indien,” and “Hinter Indien,” the coast of “Arabien,” and certain other sections. The geography of the interior of Africa is not as well represented as on many an earlier map, a fact particularly noticeable with reference to the Nile River. The prime meridian is made to pass through Cape Verde, to the west of which, stretching practically along its entire length, we read “Der Amerikanische Ocean.”
Among the globe makers of the eighteenth century whose work carries us over into the nineteenth may be named William Cary (1759-1825).[180] At first associated with Ramsden, a renowned mechanic, he established himself in an independent business in London in the year 1790. He is reputed to have constructed the first transit circle made in England, which circle had a diameter of two feet and was provided with a reading microscope. One of his circles of the above date, 41 cm. in diameter, is reported as belonging to the Observatory of Zürich. In addition to the altitude, azimuth, sextant, reflecting and refracting telescopic, and microscopic instruments made by him, he interested himself in the construction of terrestrial and celestial globes. Those examples of his to which reference may here be made do not appear to be of the highest order, perhaps due to the fact that he was primarily an instrument maker and not a geographer or an astronomer. Further, the majority of his globes which have been located bear dates subsequent to the year 1800, and therefore do not properly call for reference here.
In the private library of Sr. Vittorio Bianchini of Macerata four of the Cary globes may be found, three celestial and one terrestrial dated 1799. A celestial globe of the same date may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome, but its companion, a terrestrial globe, bears the date 1815. Extant Cary globes of the early nineteenth century may be considered numerous.