NOTES
[117] This society was founded in the year 1666 by Louis XIV, after the model of the Royal Society of London. It was liberally endowed and supported, its members devoting themselves to the science of physics, mathematics, astronomy, botany, zoology, and medicine. The observatory, founded in the year 1667, was an adjunct of the society.
[118] Niceron, J. F. “Delisle.” (In: Mémoires pour servir à l’histoire des Hommes illustres dans la république des lettres. Paris, 1729. Vol. 1, p. 214.); Fontenelle, B. le B. de. Éloge des académiciens. À la Haye, 1731. Vol. II, pp. 324-339; Sandier, C. Die Reformation der Kartographie um 1700. München, 1905. pp. 14-21.
[119] Not that there is less of interest in physical, in commercial, in descriptive geography, but that there is a decided tendency in this day to stress what is sometimes called human geography, which consists in emphasizing the relation of geographical study to real life.
[120] This work appears to have established his reputation. In the year 1702 he became a member of the Academy, not as a geographer—this department was not established until the year 1730—but as an astronomer under Cassini. Sandler, loc. cit.; Vivien de Saint-Martin, M. Histoire de la géographie. Paris, 1875. p. 423. This last-named author says: “La Mappemonde de Guillaume Delisle et ses cartes particulières des quarte partiée du monde, publiées en 1700, remenèrent enfin pour la première fois à leurs véritables places et à leurs dimensions réelles les parties orientales de l’ancien continent. Quelle que fussent les améliorations de détail que dût recevoir par la suit la carte du monde,—et ces améliorations etaient immens,—l’honneur d’en avoir apéré la réforme radical suffit pour éterniser le nom Guillaume Delisle.”
[121] Sandler, op. cit. This was an error having its origin in Ptolemy’s geography, as set down in the Ptolemy maps. The two most significant errors in the Ptolemaic cartography were (a) the representation of the Indian Ocean as an enclosed sea; (b) the too great extension in longitude given to the Mediterranean Sea. A correction of the first of these errors followed quickly after the discovery of the sea route to the Indies of the East. As a result incident to the second error the Asiatic regions were extended much[172] too far eastward, the maps as late as the seventeenth century showing the coast of China to lie at least twenty-five degrees too far in that direction. The invention of the telescope in the first decade of the seventeenth century and of the pendulum clock about the middle of the century made possible a more accurate determination of the location of places, and an improvement in map construction soon followed. See also Wolf, Geschichte, pp. 355-362; 369-373.
[122] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 400-403. This came to be but one of the many methods employed in the effort to determine longitude. One of the most interesting and most recent is that in which wireless telegraphy has been called into service. See Hoogewerff, Capt. J.A. Washington-Paris Longitude by radio signals by F.B. Littell and G.A. Hill. (In: Astronomical Journal. Albany, 1915.)
[123] See “Nolin” and “Delisle.” (In: Mémoire pour l’histoire des sciences et des beaux arts. Trévoux, 1702. p. 166.); “Nolin.” (In: Nouvelle biographie.); Lelewel. Géographie du moyen âge, II. p. 202; Sandler, op. cit., p. 15.
[124] Sandler, op. cit., reproduces Delisle’s world map of 1700, pl. iv.
[125] Wolf, op. cit., pp. 449-452; Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire des sciences et a celle de l’observatoire royal de Paris. Paris, 1810. pp. 255-309; “Cassini, Jean-Dominique.” (In: Nouvelle biographie.) In this last article may be found a long list of Cassini’s publications.
[126] “Gassendi, Pierre.” (In: Nouvelle biographie.) Gassendi achieved distinction for his works on astronomical subjects. In the year 1645 he was appointed Professor of Mathematics in the Collège Royal of Paris, a position he held with interruptions until his death.
[127] The term “Precession of the Equinoxes,” as used in astronomy, refers to the slow retrograde motion of the equinoctial point to the west, or contrary to the order of the signs of the zodiac, this precession being estimated by Hipparchus to be one degree in one hundred years; in sixty-nine years by Ptolemy; in sixty-six years by Albategnius; in seventy years by Cassini, but it is now estimated to be one degree in about seventy and one half years. For one complete revolution of this equinoctial point through the twelve signs of the zodiac Hipparchus estimated a period of 36,000 years would be required; according to Ptolemy a period of 24,840 years; according to Albategnius 23,760 years; according to Cassini 25,200 years; whereas the period is now estimated to be a little more than 25,800 years. An important consequence of the precession of the equinoxes lies in the fact that the zodiacal constellations do not agree with the signs with which they coincided in ancient times, i.e., in the beginnings of astronomical science. The first star of Aries, which at the time of Eudoxus was at the intersection of the equator and the ecliptic, or at the equinoctial colure, has continued to increase its position in longitude. At the time of Ptolemy this was 6 degrees 40 minutes. Its longitude is now about 31 degrees, which places it entirely out of its original sign.
[128] Among the more important works of Cassini bearing upon this particular subject may be mentioned, Méthode pour trouver la différence des longitudes des lieux par les observations correspondantes des phases des éclipses de soleil 1670. (In: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1733. Vol. I, p. 133.); La méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie. Paris, 1743. Vol. X, p. 569.); De la méthode de déterminer[173] les longitudes des lieux de la terre par les observations des satellites de Jupiter. (In: Observations physiques et mathématiques. Paris, 1688. pp. 232-278.); Les hypothèses et les tables des satellites de Jupiter, réformees sur de nouvelles observations. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie, 1693. Paris, 1730. Vol. VIII, p. 363.); Méthode de déterminer les longitudes des lieux de la terre par des étoiles fixes et des planètes par la Lune. (In: Mémoires de l’Académie. Paris, 1703.)
[129] See p. 349 of Bion’s work referred to below, n. [138].
[130] Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1727.
[131] Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 401-402.
[132] Zedler, J. H. Groses universallexikon aller Wissenschaften und Kunste. Leipzig-Halle, 1745. Vol. 46, p. 153; Günther, Erd- und Himmelsgloben, p. 107, n. 1, reports that two of his Atlases, one of which is a particularly fine example of work representing astronomical geography, may be found in the K. Hof und Staatsbibliothek of München. More than one hundred and twenty-five maps of Gerhard and Leonhard Valk are listed by Phillips in his excellent work on Atlases in the Library of Congress. See index.
[133] Praxis astronomiae utrisque ut et geographiae exercita per usum Globi coelestis et terrestris tum et Planetolabii. Amstelodami, sumptibus Gerhardi Valk Calcographi apud quem prostant una globis et Planetolabio. n. d.
[134] There is considerable doubt as to the date assigned to the Valk globes in the Königliche Museum of Cassel, and to those in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg. See reference to these above, p. 150.
[135] “Senex, John,” with appended short bibliographical list. (In: Dictionary of National Biography.)
[136] See reference below, Chap. [XIII,] to Adams.
[137] “Bion, Nicolas,” with portrait. (In: Nouvelle biographie. Paris, 1853.)
[138] Bion, Nicolas. Usage des globes célestes et terrestres, et des sphères, suivant les différents systèmes du monde. Paris, 1699. This work was reissued no less than six times before 1751, there being added to the title in the sixth edition, “Précédé d’un Traité de Cosmographie. Sixième édition, revue et corrigée par le Sieur N. Bion, ingénieur du Roi pour les instruments de Mathématique, sur le Quai de l’Orloge du Palais, au Soleil d’or, où trouvé des Sphères et des Globes de toutes façons”; same author. Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique. Paris, 1752. Bion’s work was translated into English by Edward Stone and published in London, 1723, under the title ‘Bion’s construction and principal use of mathematical instruments.’
[140] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 402-405.
[141] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 430-431.
[142] “Seutter, Mattheus.” (In: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.); Sandler, C. Mattheus Seuter und seine Landkarten. (In: Mitteilungen des Vereins für Erdkunde zu Leipzig. Leipzig, 1894. pp. 5-38.) This article contains a brief biography, a list of his several map publications, his colaborers, and a special consideration of his landkarten.
[143] See the list as given by Sandler, op. cit.
[144] “Morden, Robert.” (In: Dictionary of National Biography.)
[145] Morden, R. An introduction to astronomy, geography, navigation, etc., made easy by the description and uses of the coelestial and terrestrial globes,[174] in seven parts. London, 1702. A list of his maps and principal geographical works is given in the article referred to in note 28. See also British Museum Catalogue of Printed Books and Maps.
[146] l’Éloge de l’Abbé Nollet. (In: Histoire de l’Académie Royale des Sciences. Paris, 1773. p. 121.); Querard, J. M. La France Littéraire. Paris, 1826-1842. 10 vols. Vol. VI, p. 444; “Nollet, l’Abbé, Jean Antoine.” (In: Nouvelle biographie.)
[147] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 407-409.
[148] “Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel.” (In: Allgemeine deutsche Biographie.)
[149] Street, T. Astronomia Carolina. A new theory of the celestial motions. London, 1661.
[150] This was a translation of Bion’s Traité de la construction et des principaux usages des instruments de mathématique, to which he gave a general title ‘Neueröfnete mathematische Werkschule.’ Leipzig, 1713. To the title of a later edition of this translation was prefixed, “Dritte Eröfnung,” Nürnberg, 1741. The reference is to a technical school of Nürnberg.
[151] Doppelmayr, Johann Gabriel. Historische Nachricht von nürnbergischen Mathematiscis und Künstlern. Nürnberg, 1730.
[152] Doppelmayr, op. cit.
[153] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 394.
[154] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 414-415.
[155] A noted French geometrician, professor of mathematics at the Collège Royal de France, and at l’Académie d’Architecture, 1640-1718.
[156] Fiorini, op. cit., p. 415.
[157] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 431-432.
[158] Fiorini, op. cit., pp. 410-414.
[159] Ferguson, James. Select mechanical exercises with a short account of the life of the author by himself. London, 1773; “Ferguson, James.” (In: A biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen, originally edited by Robert Chambers, revised by Rev. Thos. Thompson. London, 1856.); “Ferguson, James.” (In: Dictionary of National Biography.) The last two articles contain extensive references to Ferguson’s works, many of which are of a high order of merit.
