FOOTNOTES
[1] As to supposed instances to the contrary see Winckler, Stoicismus, pp. 5 to 14.
[2] For material of this kind see Winckler’s dissertation just quoted, and Lightfoot’s Philippians, pp. 278-290.
[3] ‘For we are also his offspring’ Acts xvii 28.
[4] 1 Cor. i 20-25.
[5] John i 1.
[6] In the references to the New Testament books in this chapter no attempt is made to apply any precise critical theory of their origin or date. Since we suppose that all Christian doctrine was enunciated orally long before it was committed to writing, the date and circumstances of the written record become for the present purpose of secondary importance. Translations from the New Testament are, as a rule, taken from Dr R. F. Weymouth’s New Testament in Modern Speech (London 1903). This admirable translation has for the present purpose the great negative advantage of keeping in the background the mass of associations which hinder the modern reader from taking the words of the writers in their simple and natural sense; but on the other hand, Dr Weymouth sometimes disguises the technical terms of ancient philosophy so far as to make them unrecognisable. In such cases the Revised Version is quoted, and occasionally the Greek text.
[7] Matt. xiii 55, Luke ii 48; and see below, § [482].
[8] Luke ii 46, 47. Such men would of course be typical of the spirit of ‘Judaism,’ see § [22] above.
[9] See the treatment of the Jonah myth (Matt. xii 40 and 41), and of the prophecy of the return of Elijah (Matt. xvii 10 to 13).
[10] Matt. xxiii 13.
[11] Matt. iv 1 to 11; Mark i 13; Luke iv 1 to 14.
[12] Matt. xii 1 to 13; Mark ii 23 to 28; Luke vi 1 to 10.
[13] John iv 21.
[14] Matt. v 5.
[15] Matt. vi 9 to 13; a doxology is first found in the MS of the Teaching of the Apostles, and it was probably not specifically connected with the prayer originally.
[16] John xiii 21.
[17] Luke xxii 44.
[18] John viii 6 and 8.
[19] Matt. v 48; Luke vi 40.
[20] Matt. xxvi 41; Mark xiv 38. The author of the Epistle to the Hebrews adopts the technical terms of Stoicism more completely. According to him Christ was touched with all the passions of weak men, but to a degree falling short of sin; οὐ γὰρ ἔχομεν ἀρχιερέα μὴ δυνάμενον συμπαθῆσαι ταῖς ἀσθενείαις ἡμῶν ... χωρὶς ἁμαρτίας Heb. iv 15. Thus the agony in the garden, though accompanied by loud cries and tears, did not pass the limits of the healthy affection of caution (εὐλάβεια), or (as we might say) ‘anxiety’; ib. v 7.
[21] John xx 28.
[22] Mark x 15.
[23] Acts xii 15.
[24] This antipathy to the Roman government finds biting expression in the Apocalypse of John.
[25] There seems to be no definite reference even to the Lord’s prayer, or to any of the parables, in the books named above.
[26] For instance, that of ‘love’ in 1 Cor. xiii, and of ‘faith’ in Hebrews xi.
[27] For the conflict between St Paul and the church at Jerusalem, see below, § [480]; for his tone towards those who differed from him, see Galatians i 8 and 9; Col. ii 4; 1 Tim. i 20, vi 3 to 5; Titus i 10. A gentle expostulation as to this style of controversy is found in the epistle of James, see note 39.
[28] ‘With such zeal do the inhabitants [of Tarsus] study philosophy and literature, that they surpass Athens, Alexandria, and all other schools of learning.... Rome knows well how many men of letters issue from this city, for her streets swarm with them’ Strabo xiv p. 673.
[29] Juv. Sat. iii 117 and 118; and see above, § [25], note 65.
[30] Romans viii 20 and 21.
[31] Romans vi 17, 1 Cor. i 10.
[32] 2 Cor. xii 2 to 5.
[33] ‘a knowledge of the conduct which the Law requires is engraven on the hearts [of the Gentiles]’ Rom. ii 15.
[34] ib.
[35] ‘my conscience adds its testimony to mine’ Rom. ix 1.
[36] ib.
[37] ‘Faith is a well-grounded assurance of that for which we hope’ Heb. xi 1. Thus whilst sense-knowledge, and especially sight, calls for acceptance because it is ‘objective,’ and detached from personal bias, faith is essentially subjective, and suggests a power by which (in harmony with a divine source) personality dominates fact.
[38] 2 Cor. i 19.
[39] ‘Do not be eager to become teachers; for we often stumble and fall, all of us’ James iii i and 2.
[40] ‘He who does what is honest and right comes to the light’ John iii 21; ‘if any one is willing to do His will, he shall know about the teaching’ ib. vii 17.
[41] ‘The cravings of the [flesh] are opposed to those of the spirit, and the cravings of the spirit are opposed to those of the [flesh]’ Gal. v 17; cf. Romans viii 12 and 13.
[42] See above, § [460], note 20.
[43] ‘There are bodies which are celestial and there are bodies which are earthly’ 1 Cor. xv 40; ‘as surely as there is an animal body, so there is also a spiritual body’ ib. 44.
[44] 2 Cor. v 16.
[45] 1 Cor. xi 24, 25.
[46] ‘which are a shadow of the things to come, but the body is Christ’s’ Col. ii 17 (Revised Version).
[47] ‘The universe (τὰ πάντα) owes its origin to Him, was created by Him, and has its aim and purpose in Him’ Rom. xi 36 (Weymouth’s translation); ‘of him and through him and unto him are all things’ ib. (Revised Version); ‘God, the Father, who is the source of all things’ 1 Cor. viii 6. See further ib. xv 24 and 28.
[48] ‘Christ, who is the image of God’ 2 Cor. iv 4; ‘he brightly reflects God’s glory and is the exact representation of His being’ Hebr. i 3.
[49] ‘Christ is the visible representation of the invisible God, the First-born and Lord of all creation’ Col. i 15; ‘it is in Christ that the fulness of God’s nature dwells embodied’ ib. ii 9.
[50] ‘in him were all things created ...; all things have been created through him and unto him’ ib. i 16 (Revised Version); ‘through whom [God] made the ages’ Hebrews i 2. Compare the discussion on the four causes above, § [179], and the phrase of Marcus Aurelius: ἐκ σοῦ πάντα, εἰς σὲ πάντα, ἐν σοὶ πάντα To himself, iv 23.
[51] ‘Those he has also predestined to bear the likeness of his Son’ Rom. viii 29; ‘a man is the image and glory of God’ 1 Cor. xi 7.
[52] ‘woman is the glory of man; woman takes her origin from man’ 1 Cor. xi 7 and 8 (with special reference to Eve); cf. 1 Thess. iv 4 (R. V.), 1 Pet. iii 7.
[53] ‘there were heavens which existed of old, and an earth, the latter arising out of water by the [word] of God’ 2 Pet. iii 5.
[54] ‘the heavens will pass away with a rushing noise, the elements be destroyed in the fierce heat, and the earth and all the works of man be utterly burnt up’ ib. 10. But compare 1 Cor. iii 13 to 15.
[55] The omission is due to contempt of dumb creatures, see 1 Cor. ix 9.
[56] ‘It is in closest union with Him that we live and move and have our being’ Acts xvii 28; ‘one God and Father of all ... rules over all, acts through all, and dwells in all’ Eph. iv 6.
[57] ‘God is dealing with you as sons; for what son is there whom his father does not discipline?’ Heb. xii 7.
[58] ‘for those who love God all things are working together for good’ Rom. viii 28.
[59] ‘God was in Christ reconciling the world to Himself’ 2 Cor. v 19; cf. Col. i 20.
[60] ‘these men are without excuse, for ... their senseless minds were darkened ... in accordance with their own depraved cravings’ Romans i 20 to 24. The point is brought out still more plainly by a writer of the opposite party, James i 13 to 15.
[61] ‘ours is not a conflict with mere flesh and blood, but with the despotisms, the empires, the forces that control and govern this dark world, the spiritual hosts of evil arrayed against us in the heavenly warfare’ Eph. vi 12.
[62] ‘let your thanks to God the Father be presented in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ’ ib. v 20.
[63] ‘it is impossible for the blood of bulls and goats to take away sins’ Hebr. x 4.
[64] ‘in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of any importance’ Gal. v 6.
[65] ‘if you receive circumcision Christ will avail you nothing’ ib. v 2.
[66] ‘you scrupulously observe days and months, special seasons, and years. I am alarmed about you’ ib. iv 10 and 11; cf. Col. ii 16 to 19.
[67] παρακαλῶ οὖν ὑμᾶς παραστῆσαι τὰ σώματα ὑμῶν θυσίαν ζῶσαν ἁγίαν, τὴν λογικὴν λατρείαν ὑμῶν Rom. xii 1.
[68] 2 Cor. xiii 5.
[69] 1 Cor. xiv 15.
[70] 1 Tim. ii 8.
[71] Rom. xvi 25 to 27; 1 Cor. i 4; 2 Cor. i 3; Eph. i 3 to 14, iii 20 and 21; 1 Tim. i 17. Compare 1 Peter i 3 to 5.
[72] ‘The whole body—its various parts closely fitting and firmly adhering to one another—grows by the aid of every contributory link, with power proportioned to the need of each individual part’ Eph. iv 16; cf. Rom. xii 4 and 5.
[73] 1 Cor. xv 44.
[74] The point is continually emphasized that there is only one spirit. In English translations the double printed form, Spirit and spirit, disguises the real meaning, ‘if there is any common sharing of the spirit’ Philipp. ii 1.
[75] ‘You may, one and all, become sharers in the very nature of God’ 2 Peter i 4.
[76] ἐσκοτίσθη ἡ ἀσύνετος αὐτῶν καρδία Rom. i 21.
[77] ‘our mortal bodies cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor will what is perishable inherit what is imperishable’ 1 Cor. xv 50; ‘if we have known Christ as a man (κατὰ σάρκα), yet now we do so no longer’ 2 Cor. v 16. The Pauline doctrine of the spiritual resurrection, in spite of its place in the sacred canon, has never been recognised by popular Christianity, but it has found notable defenders in Origen in ancient times, and in Bishop Westcott recently. ‘No one of [Origen’s] opinions was more vehemently assailed than his teaching on the Resurrection. Even his early and later apologists were perplexed in their defence of him. Yet there is no point on which his insight was more conspicuous. By keeping strictly to the Apostolic language he anticipated results which we have hardly yet secured. He saw that it is the “spirit” which moulds the frame through which it is manifested; that the body is the same, not by any material continuity, but by the permanence of that which gives the law, the ratio as he calls it, of its constitution (Frag. de res. ii 1, p. 34). Our opponents say now that this idea is a late refinement of doctrine, forced upon us by the exigencies of controversy. The answer is that no exigencies of controversy brought Origen to his conclusion. It was, in his judgment, the clear teaching of St Paul’ Westcott, Religious Thought in the West, p. 244.
[78] ‘my earnest desire being to depart and to be with Christ’ Philipp. i 23.
[79] ‘We shall be with the Lord for ever’ 1 Thess. iv 17. So another Paulist writer: ‘we see them eager for a better land, that is to say, a heavenly one. For this reason God has now prepared a city for them’ Heb. xi 16.
[80] The term used is κόκκος ‘grain’ in 1 Cor. xv 37, but σπέρμα ‘seed’ ib. 38. The Stoic term σπερματικὸς λόγος is found in Justin Martyr Apol. ii 8 and 13.
[81] 1 Cor. xv 16, 17.
[82] ‘while we are at home in the body we are banished from the Lord; for we are living a life of faith, and not one of sight’ 2 Cor. v 6; ‘we by our baptism were buried with him in death, in order that we should also live an entirely new life’ Rom. vi 4; ‘surrender your very selves to God as living men who have risen from the dead’ ib. 13.
[83] ‘He is not the God of dead, but of living men’ Matt. xxii 32.
[84] Matt. x 39, xvi 25, John xii 25.
[85] John v 24.
[86] ‘the end eternal life’ Rom. vi 22 (Revised version); ‘you have the Life of the ages as the final result’ ib. (Weymouth).
[87] ‘the end sought is the love which springs from a pure heart, a clear conscience, and a sincere faith’ 1 Tim. i 5.
[88] ‘it is as the result of faith that a man is held to be righteous, apart from actions done in obedience to Law’ Rom. iii 28.
[89] Titus i 15.
[90] Romans xiv 14.
[91] 1 Cor. xii 23.
[92] 1 Tim. iv 4.
[93] Eph. ii 19.
[94] ‘in Him the distinctions between Jew and Gentile, slave and free man, male and female, disappear’ Gal. iii 28.
[96] πρᾳότης καὶ ἐπιείκεια 2 Cor. x 1.
[97] 1 Cor. xiii. For the constancy of Caution see § [460], note 20.
[98] Justice (δικαιοσύνη) 1 Tim. vi 11; Courage (ὑπομονή) 1 Tim. vi 11, (δύναμις) 2 Tim. i 7; Soberness (ἐγκράτεια) Gal. v 23.
[99] Rom. i 26 to 30; Gal. v 19 and 20; Col. iii 5.
[100] 2 Cor. ii 7, vii 10.
[101] ‘I shall go on working to promote your progress’ Philipp. i 25; ‘with my eyes fixed on the goal I push on’ ib. iii 14. There is also (paradoxically) progress in wrongdoing; ‘they will proceed from bad to worse in impiety’ 2 Tim. ii 16.
[102] The technical term used is τὰ ἀνήκοντα (Eph. v 4, Philem. 8), once only (in negative form) καθήκοντα (Rom. i 28).
[103] In the sense in which the word ‘political’ is used above, §§ [302-311].
[104] Rom. xiii 1 to 9; Ephes. v and vi; Col. iii 18 to 25; Titus ii 1 to 10; 1 Peter ii and iii.
[105] ‘You are a priesthood of kingly lineage’ 1 Peter ii 9.
[106] ‘as poor, but we bestow wealth on many; as having nothing, and yet we securely possess all things’ 2 Cor. vi 10.
[107] ‘where the spirit of the Lord is, freedom is enjoyed’ 2 Cor. iii 17.
[108] ‘every one who commits sin is the slave of sin’ John viii 34.
[109] ‘if I am destitute of love, I am nothing’ 1 Cor. xiii 2.
[110] It is ἱκανότης not αὐτάρκεια (2 Cor. iii 5 and 6), the latter word being used in a different sense, for which see § [480], note 135.
[111] The term (ἁμαρτία, peccatum) is Stoic.
[112] Lightfoot, Philippians, p. 296. This view has become familiar through Milton’s treatment of the Fall of man in Paradise Lost. There the prohibition of the forbidden fruit is nothing but a test of readiness to obey. This point of view seems quite foreign to St Paul, who always speaks of sin as sinful in itself, not in consequence of the Creator’s will.
[113] Eph. v 12 (R. V.).
[114] Rom. i 26.
[115] 1 Cor. v 1.
[116] 1 Cor. vii 1 to 8.
[117] ‘It is well for a man to abstain altogether from marriage. But because there is so much fornication every man should have a wife of his own’ 1 Cor. vii i and 2.
[118] ‘If you marry, you have not sinned’ ib. 28.
[119] ‘if a woman will not wear a veil, let her also cut off her hair’ 1 Cor. xi 6. For the savage tabu of women’s hair see Jevons, Introduction to the History of Religion, p. 78.
[120] 1 Cor. xi 10.
[121] ib. xiv 34 and 35.
[122] Rigveda x 10.
[123] See the author’s translation in his Rigveda (London, 1900).
[125] ‘just as through Adam all die, so also through Christ all will be made alive again’ 1 Cor. xv 22.
[126] ‘God in his great mercy has begotten us anew’ 1 Peter i 3; ‘you have been begotten again from a germ not of perishable, but of imperishable life’ ib. 23.
[127] ‘you are all sons of God through faith’ Gal. iii 26.
[128] Gal. ii 1.
[129] ib. 6.
[130] ib. 12.
[131] 1 Cor. xiii 11.
[132] ib. i 22.
[133] James v 8.
[134] James i 27, ii 15 to 17, v 1 to 3.
[135] 2 Cor. ix 8 (the technical term is αὐτάρκεια); ‘if a man does not choose to work, neither shall he eat’ 2 Thess. iii 10.
[136] ‘worldly (i.e. materialistic) stories, fit only for credulous old women, have nothing to do with’ 1 Tim. iv 7.
[137] Titus i 14.
[138] Galatians ii 9.
[139] ‘[Christ] was put to death in the flesh, but made alive in the spirit’ 1 Peter iii 18.
[140] ‘[Jesus Christ] who, as regards His human descent, belonged to the posterity of David, but as regards the holiness of His Spirit was decisively proved by the Resurrection to be the Son of God’ Romans i 4; ‘God sent forth His Son, born of a woman, born subject to Law’ Gal. iv 4.
[141] 1 Peter i 3.
[142] In the account of the transfiguration in the Gospel to the Hebrews (p. 15, 36 Hilgenfeld; Preuschen Antileg. 4) Jesus says ‘Lately my mother, the holy spirit, seized me by one of my hairs and carried me away to the great mountain of Thabor.’ Here Origen restores a philosophical interpretation by referring to Matt. xii 50; ‘whoever shall do the will of my Father ... is my mother’ Comm. in Joh. ii 12, p. 64 D. Modern writers find an identification of Mary with the Wisdom (σοφία) of God. See Gruppe, Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte, vol. ii p. 1614.
[143] Matt. i 23.
[144] 1 Cor. i 30.
[145] Philipp. ii 6.
[146] ‘That which was from the beginning ... concerning the Word of life’ 1 John i 1; ‘his name is the Word of God’ Rev. xix 13.
[147] John i 1 to 3.
[148] John i 12 to 14.
[149] ‘apud vestros quoque sapientes λόγον (id est sermonem atque rationem) constat artificem videri universitatis’ Tert. Apol. 21; ‘Zeno opificem universitatis λόγον praedicat, quem et fatum et necessitatem et animum Iovis nuncupat’ Lact. Div. inst. iv 9. Naturally the Christian writers regard the Stoic doctrine of the Logos as an ‘anticipation’ of their own, exactly as in modern times the Darwinists, having borrowed from Epicurus the doctrine of atoms, regard the original doctrine as a ‘marvellous anticipation’ of modern science. Justin Martyr goes further, and concludes that all believers in the Logos were (by anticipation) Christians: οἱ μετὰ λόγου βιώσαντες Χριστιανοί εἰσι κἂν ἄθεοι ἐνομίσθησαν Apol. i 46.
[150] The term is first used by Theophilus (c. 180 A.D.), of God, his Word, and his Wisdom.
[151] In this passage an ‘anticipation’ of the doctrine of the Trinity has many times been discovered; for instance in the 18th century by the Jesuit Huet (Winckler, der Stoicismus, p. 9); in our own country by Dr Heberden (see Caesar Morgan, An investigation of the Trinity of Plato, Holden’s edition, 1853, p. 155); and again recently by Amédée Fleury and others (Winckler, p. 8).
[153] For instance in 1 John v 8, and (in substance) in 1 Cor. xiii 13.
[154] Whatever may be the ecclesiastical or legal sense of the word ‘person,’ in its original philosophical meaning it expresses an aspect of individuality, and not an individual: see Cicero’s use of the term quoted above, § [271], note 42.
[155] See above, § [470], note 77.
[156] This book claims rank as a classic; amongst others of similar purpose may be mentioned R. Garnett’s Twilight of the gods (New edition, London 1903).
[157] Amongst these elements we include all that Christianity has drawn from Persism through Judaism. We have indeed referred to the Persian beliefs embodied in the ‘Lord’s prayer’; but it has lain outside our scope to discuss the Eschatology which figures so largely in popular conceptions of Christianity, but is now thought to be but slightly connected with its characteristic message. On this point see especially Carl Clemen, Religionsgeschichtliche Erklärung des Neuen Testaments (Giessen, 1909), pp. 90-135.
[158] Matthew Arnold, St Paul and Protestantism (Popular edition, p. 80).
[159] The full title of Winckler’s book from which we have often already quoted is Der Stoicismus eine Wurzel des Christenthums.
[160] Matt. v 37.