FOOTNOTES:
[Footnote 1: In the following we keep to the practice we have adopted in the early part of the work, giving anglicized words without distinction of vowel-length, and anglicizing as far as possible, writing thus S[=a]nkhya but Sankhyan, Ved[=a]nta but Vedantist. In modern proper names we have adopted in each case the most familiar form.]
[Footnote 2: Rig Veda, II. 12. Compare X. 121. We omit some of the verses.]
[Footnote 3: See note, p. 20, above.]
[Footnote 4: Metaphor from earthly fire-making; cloud and cliff (Ludwig); or, perhaps, heaven and earth.]
[Footnote 5: 'Made low and put in concealment' the D[=a]sa color, i.e. the black barbarians, the negroes. 'Color' might be translated 'race' (subsequently 'caste').]
[Footnote 6: D[=i]ce, vijas, literally 'hoppers' (and so sometimes, interpreted as birds). The same figure occurs not infrequently. Compare AV. iv. 16. 5, ak[s.][=a]n iva. 'Believe,' çr['a]d-dhatta, i.e., cred-(d)[=i]te, literally 'put trust.']
[Footnote 7: Sometimes rendered, "a true (laudation) if any is true.">[
[Footnote 8: viii. 100. 3-4. The penultimate verse is literally 'the direction(s) of the order magnify me,' the order being that of the seasons and of seasonable rites.]
[Footnote 9: Compare the 'devil-worship of Uçanas,' and the
scoffs at P[=u]shan. The next step in infidelity is denial
of a future life and of the worth of the Vedas.]
[Footnote 10: In the Buddhistic writings Indra appears as
the great popular god of the Brahmans (with Brahm[=a] as the
philosophical god).]
[Footnote 11: His body is mortal; his breaths immortal, Çat.
Br. x. 1. 4. 1; xi. 1. 2. 12.]
[Footnote 12: On these curious pocket-altars, double
triangles representing the three gods and their wives, with
Linga and Yon[=i], see JRAS. 1851, p. 71.]
[Footnote 13: In the Tantras and late Pur[=a]nas. In the
earlier Pur[=a]nas there is as yet no such formal cult.]
[Footnote 14: Embodied in the tale of Agni's advance, IS. i.
170.]
[Footnote 15: Çat Br. ix. 3.1. 18.]
[Footnote 16: On this quasi deity in modern belief compare IA. XVIII. 46. It has happened here that a fate Providence has become supreme. Thus, too, the Mogul Buddha is realty nothing more or less than Providence.]
[Footnote 17: 7. I. 2.]
[Footnote 18: In RV. X. 90. 9, chandas, songs, incantations, imply a work of this nature.]
[Footnote 19: Unless it be distinctly good magic the epic heroes are ashamed to use magical rites. They insist on the intent being unimpeachable.]
[Footnote 20: [=A]p. I. II. 30, 20, etc. Compare Weber,
Omina p. 337, and see the Bibliography.]
[Footnote 21: T[=a]itt. S. VI. I. 1, 2, 3,
t[=i]rthesn[=a]li.]
[Footnote 22: Compare Weber's account of the R[=a]jas[=u]ya, p. 98; and, apropos of the Daçapeya, ib. 78, note; where it is stated that soma-drinking for the warrior-caste is still reflected in this (originally independent) ceremony.]
[Footnote 23: The list given above (p. 464) of the 'thrice three names' is made eight by suppressing Kum[=a]ra, and the 'eight names' are to-day the usual number.]
[Footnote 24: Ç[=a]nkh. (K[=a]nsh.) Br. vi. 1.]
[Footnote 25: The Brahmanic multiple by preference is (three and) seven (7,21,28,35), that of the Buddhist, eight. Feer, JA., 1893, p. 113 ff., holds the Svargaparva of the epic to be Buddhistic on account of the hells. More probably it is a Çivaite addition. The rule does not always hold good, for groups of seven and eight are sometimes Buddhistic and Brahmanic, respectively.]
[Footnote 26: Leumann, Rosaries.]
[Footnote 27: Friederich,; JRAS. viii. 157; ix. 59. The only established reference to Buddha on the part of Brahmanism, with the exception of late Pur[=a]nas of uncertain date, is after Kshemendra (1066 A.D.). Compare Holtzmann, s. Geschichte, p. 103.]
[Footnote 28: Na tat parasya sandadhy[=a]t pratik[=u]la[.m] yad [=a]tmanas. This is a favorite stanza in the epic, and is imitated in later literature (Sprüche, 3253, 6578, 6593).]
[Footnote 29: Burnell in the Indian Antiquary, second and following volumes; Swanston, JRAS. 1834; 1835; Germann, Die Kirche der Thomaschristen.]
[Footnote 30: Above, cited from Hardy.]
[Footnote 31: Some of the multitudinous subcastes occasionally focus about a religious principle to such an extent as to give them almost the appearance of religious devotees. Thus the Bhats and Ch[=a]rans are heralds and bards with the mixed faith of so many low-caste Hindus. But in their office of herald they have a religious pride, and, since in the present day they are less heralds than expressmen, they carry property with religious reverence, and are respected in their office even by robbers; for it this caste that do not hesitate to commit traga, that is, if an agreement which they have caused to be made between two parties is not carried out they will kill themselves and their families, with such religious effect that the guilt lies upon the offending party in the agreement, who expiates it by his own life. They are regarded as a sort of divine representative, and fed themselves to be so. A case reported from India in this year, 1894, shows that the feeling still exists. The herald slew his own mother in the presence of the defaulting debtor, who thereupon slew himself as his only expiation.]
[Footnote 32: As, for example, between the D[=a]d[=u] Panth[=i]s and the Jains in Ajmir and Jeypur. The last was a chief Digambara town, while Mathur[=a] (on the Jumna) was a Çret[=a]mbara station. For a possible survival of Buddhism, see below, p. 485, note.]
[Footnote 33: The Sarcadarça[n.]asa[=n.]graha of S[=a]yana (fourteenth century) and the Ça[=n.]kara-vijaya, or 'Conquest of Çankara.']
[Footnote 34: Thus the Dabist[=a]n enumerates as actual sects of the seventeenth century, 'moon-worshippers,' 'star-worshippers,' 'Agni-worshippers,' 'wind-worshippers,' 'water-worshippers,' 'earth-worshippers,' 'trip[=u]jas' (or worshippers of all the three kingdoms of nature), and 'worshippers of man' (manu[s.]yabhakt[=a]s), "who recognise the being of God in man, and know nothing more perfect than mankind" (ii. 12), a faith which, as we have shown, is professed in the Mah[=a]bh[=a]rata.]
[Footnote 35: Religious Thought and Life.]
[Footnote 36: The Kashmeer Çivaites claim Çankara as their teacher. The sect of Basava started in the south, Mysore. They have some trashy literature (legends, etc.) which they dignify by the name of Pur[=a]nas. Bühler has given an account of the Kashmeer school. For further details see Barth, pp. 184, 206.]
[Footnote 37: Brahmanism and Hinduism, p.62 ff. To this and to the same author's Thought and Life, we are indebted for many facts concerning the sects as they appear to-day, though much in these books is said after Wilson or other scholars, whose work is now common property, and calls for no further acknowledgment.]
[Footnote 38: It is, perhaps, necessary to keep repeating that Hindu monotheism does not exclude other gods which, at the hands of the one god, are reduced to sprites, angels, demons, etc. But it ought not to be necessary to insist on this, for an American monotheist that believes in angels and devils is the same sort of monotheist. The Hindu calls the angels 'gods' or 'divinities,' but they are only attendant hosts of the One.]
[Footnote 39: Some of the Çivaite sects are, indeed, Buddhistic in origin, a fact which raises the question whether Buddhism, instead of disappearing from India, was not simply absorbed; much as Unitarianism in New England has spent its vitality in modifying the orthodox creed. Thus the karma of Buddhism may still be working in the person of some modern Hindu sects. See the next note below.]
[Footnote 40: Most of the Yogi jugglers are Çivaites (when they are not Buddhistic), and to-day they share with the (Mohammedan) fakirs the honor of being not only ascetics but knaves. The juggler Yogi is, however, a figure of respectable antiquity. The magical tricks practiced on the epic heroes are doubtless a reflex of the current mesmerism, which deceives so cleverly to-day. We have shown above a Buddhistic strain of Mah[=a]tmaism in an early Buddhistic tract, and Barth, p. 213, suggests a Buddhistic origin for the K[=a]naph[=a]ts. See also Holtzmann, loc. cit. The deistic Yogis of Gorakhn[=a]th's sect are respectable enough (see an account of some of this sort in the Dabist[=a]n, II. 6), but they are of Buddhistic origin. The K[=a]naph[=a]ts of Kutch (Danodhar) were once a celibate brotherhood. JRAS. 1839, p. 268.]
[Footnote 41: See JAOS. xi. 272. To ascribe this verse to the 'older Manu' would be a grave slip on the part of a Sanskrit scholar.]
[Footnote 42: i. 1. 76.]
[Footnote 43: The Dabist[=a]n, without any animus, reports of the Ç[=a]ktas of the seventeenth century that "Çiva is, in their opinion, with little exception, the highest of the deities" (II. 7). Williams calls Ç[=a]ktaism "a mere offshoot of Çivaism" Religious Thought and Life, p. 184.]
[Footnote 44: The Dabist[=a]n rather assumes as a matter of course that a body of Yogis would kill and eat a boy of the Mohammedan faith (II. 12); but here the author may be prejudiced.]
[Footnote 45: The present sect of this name consists only of a few miserable mendicants, particularly savage and filthy (Wilson).]
[Footnote 46: All of them now represent Çakti, the female principle. Linga-worship has also its counterpart, Bhaga-worship (here Yoni), perhaps represented by the altar itself. Compare the Dabist[=a]n, II. 7, on the Çivaite interpretation of the Mohammedan altar. To Durga human beings were always sacrificed. After mentioning a gold idol of Durg[=a] (to whom men were sacrificed yearly), the author adds: "Even now they sacrifice in every village of the Kohistan of Nandapur and the country adjacent, a man of good family" (ib.). Durg[=a] {above, p. 416) is Vishnu's sister.]
[Footnote 47: The sexual antithesis, so unimportant in the earliest Aryan nature-hymns, becomes more and more pronounced in the liturgical hymns of the Rig Veda, and may be especially a trait of the older fire-cult in opposition to soma-cult (compare RV. X. 18. 7). At any rate it is significant that Yoni means the altar itself, and that in the fire-cult the production of fire is represented as resulting from the union of the male and female organs.]
[Footnote 48: Nevertheless the Brahmanic, and even the Hinduistic, law-codes condemn all intoxicating liquors except in religious service. To offer such drink to a man of the lower castes, even to a Ç[=u]dra, is punishable with a fine; but to offer intoxicating liquor to a priest is punishable with death (Vishnu, V. 100).]
[Footnote 49: Formerly performed by the Kar[=a]ris. "The
Ç[=a]ktas hold the killing of a man to be permitted,"
Dabist[=a]n, II. 7. "Among them it is a meritorious act to
sacrifice a man," ib.]
[Footnote 50: Hence the name of K[=a][=n]culiyas
[ka[=n]culi, a woman's garment).]
[Footnote 51: This has no parallel in Vishnuism except among some of the R[=a]dh[=a] devotees. Among the R[=a]dh[=a] Vallabh[=i]s the vulgarities of the Çivaites are quite equalled; and the assumption of women's attire by the Sakh[=i] Bh[=a]vas of Benares and Bengal ushers in rites as coarse if less bloody than those of the Çivaites.]
[Footnote 52: Of course each god of the male trinity has his Çakti, female principle. Thus Brahm[=a]'s Çakt[=i] is S[=a]vitr[=i] (in the epic), or Sarasvat[=i], or V[=a]c; that of Vishnu is Çr[=i], or Lakshm[=i], or R[=a]dh[=a]; that of Çiva is Um[=a], Durg[=a], K[=a]l[=i], etc. Together they make a female trinity (Barth, p. 199); So even the Vedic gods had their (later) wives, who, as in the case of S[=u]ry[=a], were probably only the female side of a god conceived of as androgynous, like Praj[=a]pat[=i] in the Brahmanic period.]
[Footnote 53: Historically, Thags, like Panj[=a]b, Santh[=a]ls, etc, is the more correct form, but phonetically the forms Thugs, Punj[=a]b, Sunth[=a]ls or Sonth[=a]ls, are correct, and [=a], the indeterminate vowel (like o in London), is generally transcribed by u or o (in Punj[=a]b, Nep[=a]l, the [=a] is pronounced very like au, and is sometimes written so, Punjaub, etc).]
[Footnote 54: The Jemidar, captain, gives the order to the Buttoat, strangler, who takes the rumal (yard of cotton) with a knot tied in the left end, and, holding his right hand a few inches further up, passes it from behind over the victim's head. As the latter falls the strangler's hands are crossed, and if done properly the Thugs say that "the eyes stand out of the head and life becomes extinct, before the body falls to the ground" (Notes on the 'Thags, Thugs, or Thegs,' by Lieutenant Reynolds; of whom Lieutenant-Colonel Smythe says that he knew more than any other European about the Thugs, 1836). The Buttoat received eight annas extra for his share. Each actor in the scene had a title; the victim was called Rosy. For their argot see the R[=a]maseeana.]
[Footnote 55: Thugs (defined as 'knaves' by Sherwood, more probably 'throttlers') must be distinguished from Decoits. The latter (Elphinstone, i. 384) are irreligious gangs, secretly bound together to sack villages. Peaceable citizens by day, the Decoits rise at night, attack a village, slay, torture, rob, and disappear before morning, 'melting into the population' and resuming honest toil. When the police are weak enough they may remain banded together; otherwise they are ephemerally honest and nocturnally assassins. The Thugs or Ph[=a]ns[=i]gars (ph[=a]ns[=i], noose) killed no women, invoked K[=a]li (as Jay[=i]), and attacked individuals only, whom the decoys, called Tillais, lured very cleverly to destruction. They never robbed without strangling first, and always buried the victim. They used to send a good deal of what they got to K[=a]li's temple, in a village near Mirz[=a]pur, where the establishment of priests was entirely supported by them. K[=a]li (or Bhav[=a]n[=i]) herself directed that victims should be strangled, not bled (so the Thug legend). Their symbol was a pick, emblem of the goddess, unto whom a religious ceremony was performed before and after the murder was committed. Local small bankers often acted as fence for them.]
[Footnote 56: This is called either
P[=u]rva-m[=i]m[=a]ms[=a] (Karma-m[=i]m[=a]ms[=a]) or simply
M[=i]m[=a]ms[=a].]
[Footnote 57: Or Ç[=a]r[=i]raka-m[=i]m[=a]msa, or
Brahma-m[=i]m[=a]ms[=a] (m[=i]m[=a][=m.]sa, reflexion,
philosophy).]
[Footnote 58: Kapila's system, usually known as the
S[=a]nkhya.]
[Footnote 59: And attributed to Pata[=n.]jali. Compare
Deussen, System des Ved[=a]nta, p. 20.]
[Footnote 60: Born In 788. But some scholars refer him to
the seventh century. See IA. xiii. 95; xvi. 41. His name, a
title of Çiva, indicates his nominal sect.]
[Footnote 61: For the meaning of Ved[=a]nta (whether 'end of
Veda,' or 'goal of Veda') compare Deussen, loc. cit. p. 3,
note (above, p. 253, note).]
[Footnote 62: The Supreme Spirit or All-Spirit is either purely non-dualistic or qualifiedly non-dualistic; in the latter event he is, says the sectary, identical with Vishnu, who may be represented either by Krishna or R[=a]ma (sub-sects). Pure non-duality (unconditioned [=a]tm[=a]) was taught by Çankara.]
[Footnote 63: Gough, Philosophy of the Upanishads.. Compare Williams, loc. cit. In our own view the unsystematic Upanishads teach both doctrines (above, p. 228, note).]
[Footnote 64: Before K[=a]m[=a]nuja it was taught by Ç[=a]ndilya that brahma (and the individual spirit) was conditioned, a doctrine supposed to be that of the old Bh[=a]gavatas or P[=a][.n]car[=a]tras; but this is quite uncertain. The Ç[=a]ndilyan chapter of the Ch[=a]ndogya Upanishad (above, p. 221) may be thus interpreted, vis, that the (conditioned) individual spirit is identical with brahma.]
[Footnote 65: Thibaut, Introduction to the Ved[=a]nta
S[=u]tras, SBE. XXXIV. p. XXXI; Deussen, System des
Ved[=a]nta, p.469.]
[Footnote 66: Philosophical illusion, m[=a]n[=a], appears
first in late Upanishads.]
[Footnote 67: The author of the Dabist[=a]n (seventeenth century) tells a Berkeleyan story in regard to Çankara's doctrine of illusion. His enemies wished to test his belief in his own philosophy; so they drove an elephant at him, on which the philosopher ran away. "Ho!" they jeered, "Did you not maintain that all was a mere illusion? Then an elephant is illusion. Yet you take to flight before it." "Yes," replied the philosopher, "all is illusion; there was no elephant, and there was no flight" (II. 4).]
[Footnote 68: The Sm[=a]rta (orthodox) Brahman believes, on the other hand, that Vishnu, Çiva, and Brahm[=a] are all mere forms of the Supreme [=A]lm[=a].]
[Footnote 69: If Mohammed were regarded as one with Allah
there would be an Occidental parallel to the Krishna and
R[=a]ma sects.]
[Footnote 70: Whether the Hindu trinitarianism derives from the Occident or not (the former view being historically probable, but not possible to prove) the importance of the dogma and its place in Hindu theology is very different to the condition of things in the Christian church. In India trinitarianism is merely a convenience in adjusting the claims of two heterodox sects and orthodoxy, each believer being willing to admit that the god of the other is his own god, only with the understanding that the last is a superior manifestation. In late Çivaism both Vishnu and Brahm[=a] are indeed called the 'sons of God' (Çiva). but in the sense that they are distinctly subordinate creatures of Çiva (JAOS. iv. 147).]
[Footnote 71: But some Hindus worship both Vishnu and Çiva without insisting that one is higher than the other. Moreover, there is a Mahratta sect of Vishnuites who complacently worship Buddha (Vishnu's ninth avatar) as Vi[t.]h[t.]hala or P[=a]ndura[.n]ga. These are simply eclectic, and their god is without or with quality. Buddha is here not a deceiver, but an instructor (JRAS. 1842, p. 66; IA. XI. 56, 149).]
[Footnote 72: The Çivaites, too, are divided on the questions both of predestination and of free grace. The greater body of them hold to the 'monkey doctrine'; the Paçupatas, to the 'cat.']
[Footnote 73: Sanskrit kal[=a], school (marka[t.]a-ny[=a]ya and m rj[=a]ra-ny[=a]ya). The Southern school has its own Veda written in Tamil. Williams, JRAS. xiv. 301. According to the same writer the Ten-galais hold that Vishnu's wife is finite, created, and a mediator; the Vada-galais, that she is infinite, and uncreated.]
[Footnote 74: All Vishnuites have the vertical sign;
Çivaites have a horizontal sign (on the forehead).]
[Footnote 75: Proceed. AOS. 1894, p. iii. The Vada-school
may be affected by Çivaism.]
[Footnote 76: A divine monkey appears in the Rig Veda, but
not as an object of devotion.]
[Footnote 77: The teachers of the Ramaites are generally Brahmans, but no disciples are excluded because of their caste. R[=a]m[=a]nuja adopted the monastic system, which Çankara is said to have taken from the Buddhists and to have introduced into Brahmanic priestly life. Both family priests and cenobites are admitted into his order.]
[Footnote 78: What the Linga is to Çivaite the Ç[=a]lagr[=a]ma is to the Vishnuite (who also reveres the tulas[=i] wood). The Ç[=a]lagr[=a]ma is a black pebble; the L[=i]nga is a white pebble or glass (Williams). The Çivaites have appropriated the d[=u]rv[=a] grass as sacred to Ganeça. Sesamum seeds and d[=u]rv[=a] are, however, Brahmanically holy. Compare Çat. Br. iv. 5-10, where d[=u]rv[=a] grass is even holier than kuça-grass. The rosaries used by the sects have been the subject of a paper by Leumann, and are described by Williams. Thirty-two or sixty-four berries of eleocapus ganitrus (rudr[=a]ksha) make the Çivaite rosary. That of the Vishnuite is made of lotus-seeds or of tuls[=a] wood in one hundred and eight pieces.]
[Footnote 79: For an account and list of the works of Tulas[=i]d[=a]s[=a] (Tuls[=i]d[=a]s), compare IA. xxii. 89, 122, 227. Jayadeva (twelfth century), the author of the G[=i]ta Govinda (translated by Jones, Lassen, and Ruckert), is sometimes reckoned falsely to the adherents of R[=a]m[=a]nand, but he is really a Krishnaite.]
[Footnote 80: The bhakti doctrine is that of the extant Ç[=a]ndilya S[=u]tras, which make faith and not works or knowledge a condition of salvation. They are modern, as Cowell, in his preface to the work, has shown. Cowell here identifies K[=a]çyapa with Ka[n.][=a]da, the V[=a]içeshika philosopher, his school holding that the individual spirits are infinite in number, distinct from the Supreme Spirit.]
[Footnote 81: The infant-cult is of course older than these sects. For an account of the ritual, as well as its intrusion into the earlier cult of the Pur[=a]nas, with the accompanying resemblances to Madonna-cult, and the new features (the massacre of the innocents, the birth in the stable, the three wise men, etc.) that show borrowing from Christianity, compare Weber's exhaustive treatise referred to above, the K[=r.][=s.][n.]ajanm[=a][=s.][=t.]am[=i], Krishna's Geburtsfest.]
[Footnote 82: Williams, loc. cit.]
[Footnote 83: 'Gosain' means shepherd, like Gop[=a]la. Some of the sects, like the Kart[=a]bh[=a]js, recognize only the Teacher as God. Williams states that in Bengal a fourth member has been added to this sect-trinity. On Dancing-girls see IA. XIII-165.]
[Footnote 84: The philosophical tenet of this sect 'pure adv[=a]ita' (non-duality) distinguishes it from the qualified duality taught by R[=a]m[=a]nuja. This is a reversion to Çankara. The C[=a]itanya sect teaches not absorption but individual existence in a heaven of sensuous (sensual) pleasure.]
[Footnote 85: "In the temples where the Mah[=a]r[=a]jas (priests) do homage to the idols men and women do homage to the Mah[=a]r[=a]jas…. The best mode of propitiating the god Krishna is by ministering to the sensual appetites of his vicars upon earth. Body and soul are literally made over to them, and women are taught to deliver up their persons to Krishna's representatives," Williams, loc. cit. p. 309.]
[Footnote 86: On these sects see Wilson, Hunter (Statistical Account), Williams, JRAS. xiv. 289. The festival verses in honor of the Madonna are: "Honor to thee, Devak[=i], who hast borne Krishna; may the goddess who destroys sin be satisfied, revered by me. Mother of God art thou, Adit[=i], destroying sin. I will honor thee as the gods honor thee," etc. (Weber, Janm[=a][s.][t.]am[=i], p. 286). The birth-day celebration is not confined to Krishnaites; but in the R[=a]ma sect, though they celebrate the birth, they do not represent the man-god as a suckling. In other respects this feast is imitated from that of Krishna (Weber, p. 310, note). The R[=a]macandra celebration takes place in the spring. The birth-day of Ganeça is also celebrated by the Çivaites (in August-September).]
[Footnote 87: He himself claimed to be an incarnate god. He adopted the qualified non-duality of R[=a]m[=a]nuja. See Williams' account of him and of the two great temples of the sect, loc. cit.]
[Footnote 88: From Williams, loc. cit. p. 291 ff. The three qualities (sometimes interpreted as activity, purity, and indifference) are met with for the first time in the Atharva Veda, where are found the Vedantic 'name' and 'form' also; Muir, v. p. 309. The three qualities that condition the idealist Vedantist's personal Lord in his causal body are identical with those that constitute the 'nature,' prak[=r.]ti, of the S[=a]nkhya dualist.]
[Footnote 89: Among the Vallabhas (above, p. 505). The
Teacher is the chief god of most of the Vallabhas (Barth, p.
235}. For the Vi[t.]h[t.]hal view of caste see 1A. XI.152.]
[Footnote 90: It is true of other sectaries also, Ramaites and Çivaites, that the mere repetition of their god's name is a means of salvation.]
[Footnote 91: Now chiefly in the South. The Dabist[=a]n gives several divisions of sun-worshippers. For more details see Barth, p. 258. Apollonius of Tyana saw a sun-temple at Taxila, JRAS. 1859, p. 77.]
[Footnote 92: More direct than in the form of Vishnu, who at first is merely the sun. Of the relation with Iranian sun-worship we have spoken above.]
[Footnote 93: They brand themselves with the Vishnu-mark, are generally high-caste, live in monasteries, and profess celibacy. They are at most unknown in the North. They are generally known by their founder's name, but are also called Brahma-Samprad[=a]yins, 'Brahma-adherents.']
[Footnote 94: So the P[=a]çupata doctrine is that the individual spirit is different to the supreme lord and also to matter (p[=a]ça, the fetter that binds the individual spirit, paçu, and keeps it from its Lord, paçupat[=i]). The fact is that every sectary is more a monotheist than a pantheist. Especially is this true of the Çivaite. The supreme is to him Çiva.]
[Footnote 95: Wilson gives a full account of this sect in the As[=i]atick Researches, xvi, p. 100.]
[Footnote 96: Of the Kab[=i]r Panth[=i]s Wilson says: "It is no part of their faith to worship any Hindu deity." A glance at the Dabist[=a]n will preclude the possibility of claiming much originality for the modern deism of India. This work was written in 1645, and its Persian author describes, as a matter of every-day occurrence, religious debates between 'Jews, Nazarines, Mussulmen, and Hindus,' who meet more to criticise than to examine, but yet to hear explained in full the doctrines of their opponents, in just such tourneys of argument as we showed to be popular among the priests of the Upanishads and epic. Speaking of the Vedas, the author says that every one derives from them arguments in favor of his own creed, whether it be philosophical, mystical, unitarian, atheistic, Judaic, or Christian. Dabist[=a]n, vol. II, p. 45.]
[Footnote 97: Before election the Guru must be examined. If the faithful are not satisfied, they may reject him. but, having elected him, they are bound to obey him implicitly. He can excommunicate, but he may not punish corporally. This deification of the Guru was retained by the Sikhs, and the office was made hereditary among them (by Arjun), till Govind, the tenth pontiff, who left no successor, declared that after his death the Granth (bible) should be the sole authority of the church.]
[Footnote 98: The 'half' contributor was a woman, and hence was not reckoned as a complete unit.]
[Footnote 99: The word Sikh means 'disciple' (of N[=a]nak). The name the Sikhs assumed as a nation was Singhs (si[.m]has), 'Lions of the Punj[=a]b.']
[Footnote 100: The 'true name,' sat n[=a]m, is the
appellation of God.]
[Footnote 101: JRAS. 1846, p. 43, Prinsep's compilation
(Wilson). Compare Trumpp, ib. V. 197 (1871); and
[=A]digranth, 1877.]
[Footnote 102: This sect was founded by a descendant of
N[=a]nak.]
[Footnote 103: It was not till Mohammedan persecution influenced them that the religious Sikhs of N[=a]nak became the political haters and fighters of Govind.]
[Footnote 104: It is said that Govind sacrificed to Durg[=a] the life of one of his own disciples to prepare himself for his ministry. Trumpp, [=A]digranth; Barth, p. 204. The lives of the later Gurus will be found in Elphinstone's history and Prinsep's sketch (a résumé by Barth, p. 248 ff.).]
[Footnote 105: With some small verbal alterations.]
[Footnote 106: The conclusion of this extract shows the narrower polemic spirit: "Pundits and Q[=a]z[=i]s are fools. What avails it to collect a heap of books? Let your minds freely meditate on the spirit of God. Wear not away your lives by studying the Vedas.">[
[Footnote 107: For the data of the following paragraphs on the deistic reformers of to-day we are indebted to an article of Professor Williams, which first appeared in the thirteenth volume of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, and has since been published in the same author's Brahmanism and Hinduism.]
[Footnote 108: Born in 1818.]
[Footnote 109: ekam[=a]tr[=a]dvit[=i]ya (masculine); with this form contrast below, in the Br[=a]hma Dharma (religion) of Debendran[=a]th, the neuter ekam ev[=a]dvit[=i]yam. The only God of the first Sam[=a]j; is a person; that of the reform is exoterically Nature.]
[Footnote 110: But, as will be noticed in the four articles (which are in part a compilation of phrases from the Upanishads) the personality of Brahm[=a] is not insisted on for the outer church. For this reason, although the inner church doubtless understands It as He, yet this neuter should be preserved in the translation. The articles are so drawn up as to enable any deist to subscribe (without Vedantic belief as a condition of acceptance) to the essential creed of the Congregation. One or two sentences in the original will reveal at a glance the origin of the phraseology: brahma (being) v[=a] ekam idam-agra [=a]s[=i]t; tad ida[.m] sarvam as[r.]jal; tad eva nityam, ekam ev[=a]dvit[=i]yam; tasmia pr[=i]tis … tadup[=a]sanam. Compare Ch[=a]ndogya Upanishad: sad (being) idam agra [=a]s[=i]d ekam ev[=a]dvit[=i]yam; and the V[=a]jasaney[=i]-Br[=a]hmana Upanishad: brahma v[=a] idam-agra [=a]s[=i]t, etc.]
[Footnote 111: It is interesting to see this fervor, or ecstatic delirium, surviving from the time of the Rig Veda, where already (albeit only in the latest hymns, which are quite Brahmanic) flourishes the mad muni: and fervid ascetism ('heat,'tapas) begins to appear as a means of salvation. RV. x. 109, 136.]
[Footnote 112: "I regard myself as Christ and C[=a]itanya," reported by Sen's own missionary as the words of the former. Sen's disciples deny some of these assertions, but they seem to be substantiated, and Sen's own language shows that he claimed miraculous powers. Compare the discussions on this point, JRAS. xiii. 281 ff.]
[Footnote 113: This was afterwards excused on the ground that the marriage would not have been legal without these rites. But Sen presumably was aware of this in advance. From the performance of the rites he had the decency to absent himself. It should be said, however, in Sen's behalf, that the marriage itself had nothing revolting about it, and though in consenting to it Sen violated his faith, as is evident from the protest of the Sam[=a]j, yet was the marriage not an extreme case of child-marriage, for both the 'children' were sixteen. Sen's own excuse (he thought excuse necessary) was that he was inspired when he consented to the nuptials.]
[Footnote 114: The theistic tendency in the Hindu mind is so exaggerated that even now it is with the greatest difficulty that the vulgar can be restrained from new idolatry. Not only priests, but even poets are regarded as gods. Jñ[=a]ndev and Tuk[=a]r[=a]m, the hymn-makers of the Mahratta Vi[t.]h[t.]hals, are demi-gods to-day (IA. xi. 56. 149). A few striking examples are almost requisite to make an Occidental reader understand against what odds the deism of India has to contend. In 1830 an impudent boy, who could train snakes, announced that he could also work miracles. The boy was soon accepted as Vishnu's last avatar; hymns, abhangs, were sung to him, and he was worshipped as a god even after his early demise (from a snake-bite). A weaver came soon after to the temple, where stood the boy's now vacant shrine, and fell asleep there at night. In the morning he was perplexed to find himself a god. The people had accepted him as their snake-conquering god in a new form. The poor weaver denied his divinity, but that made no difference. In 1834 the dead boy-god was still receiving flowers and prayers. Another case: In the eighties some Englishmen on entering a temple were amazed to see revered as an avatar of Vishnu the brass castings of the arms of the old India Co. This god was washed and anointed daily. Even a statue of Buddha (with the inscription still upon it) was revered as Vishnu. In 1880 a meteorite fell in Beh[=a]r. In 1882 its cult was fully established, and it was worshipped as the 'miraculous god.' A Mohammedan inscription has also been found deified and regularly worshipped as a god, JRAS. 1842, p. 109; 1884, pt. III, pp. I, LIX.]
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